BUILDING UTILITIES 3 : LIGHTING AND ACOUSTICS

1 Standards for Audio Visual Room Design

laurence villa
LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINE
UNIVERSITY CAVITE CAMPUS

BUILDING UTILITIES 3 : LIGHTING AND ACOUSTICS

2 Standards for Audio Visual Room Design

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 : Audio Visual Standards........................................................................5
Executive Summary................................................................................................. 5
More information............................................................................................... 5
Review................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Room design for learning and teaching spaces....................................................5
1.1.1 Sight lines and screen-viewing distances....................................................6
1.1.2 Vertical and horizontal projector placement...............................................6
1.1.3 Minimum projector brightness...................................................................7
1.1.4 Minimum projector contrast ratio...............................................................7
1.1.5 Projector, display and screen aspect ratio...................................................7
1.1.6 Dual displays............................................................................................ 7
1.1.7 Flat panel technology................................................................................8
1.2 Acoustical design.............................................................................................. 8
Acoustics................................................................................................................ 8
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Noise.........................................................8
Noise Criteria (NC) and Room Criteria (RC)..........................................................9
Sound Isolation..................................................................................................... 13
Room Acoustics..................................................................................................... 17
1.2.1 Acoustic performance..............................................................................23
1.2.2 Ambient sound levels..............................................................................23
1.2.3 Reverberation times................................................................................24
1.3 Lighting design................................................................................................ 25
Lighting Theory..................................................................................................... 25
Lighting Systems.................................................................................................... 5
Lighting Controls................................................................................................... 21
Lighting Equipment............................................................................................... 28
Light Sources........................................................................................................ 28
1.3.1 Relevant lighting standards.....................................................................39
1.3.2 Lighting control and lighting zones..........................................................39
1.3.3 Ambient light spill on projector screen.....................................................39
1.3.4 Target light level.....................................................................................40
1.3.4 Occupancy sensing..................................................................................40
1.3.5 Lighting control system and AV control system integration.......................41
1.4 Audio system design in learning and teaching spaces.......................................41
1.4.1 Audio replay and voice reinforcement......................................................41
1.4.2 Speaker system selection and placement.................................................42
1.4.3 Audio mixing........................................................................................... 42
1.4.4 Power amplifiers.....................................................................................43
1.4.5 Equipment installation.............................................................................43
1.4.6 Hearing augmentation and induction loops...............................................43
1.4.7 Grounding............................................................................................... 43
1.4.8 Integration into EWIS..............................................................................44
1.5 Lecture recording systems...............................................................................44
1.5.1 Audio recording.......................................................................................44

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1.5.2 Screen capture........................................................................................44
1.5.3 Camera provision....................................................................................45
1.5.4 Dual screen recording..............................................................................45
1.6 Whiteboards and writing surfaces....................................................................45
1.6.1 Standard specifications and board height.................................................46
1.6.2 Multiple sliding boards............................................................................46
1.6.3 Board lighting.........................................................................................46
1.7 Centralisation and structured cabling systems..................................................46
1.7.1 Audiovisual centralisation approach.........................................................47
1.7.2 Centralisation exceptions........................................................................47
1.7.3 Signal delivery and cabling......................................................................48
1.7.4 UTP converters........................................................................................48
1.7.5 Power management, climate control and risk mitigation...........................48
1.8 Specific room types.........................................................................................49
1.8.1 Lecture theatres (tiered teaching spaces) scope.......................................49
1.8.2 Class rooms (flat floor spaces) scope........................................................51
1.8.3 Meeting rooms (videoconference rooms if required) scope........................52
1.8.4 Flexible teaching spaces scope................................................................52
1.9 Audiovisual equipment specifications...............................................................53
1.9.1 Projection screens...................................................................................54
1.9.2 Data projectors General minimum specification......................................54
1.9.3 Data projectors Large venues (Auditoriums)...........................................54
1.9.4 Data projectors Lecture theatres...........................................................55
1.9.5 Data projectors - Classrooms...................................................................55
1.9.6 Flat panel displays..................................................................................55
1.9.7 Projector and flat panel mounts...............................................................56
1.9.8 Central controller....................................................................................56
1.9.9 AV Control system interface (Touchpanel).................................................56
1.9.10 Audio and video router..........................................................................57
1.9.11 Scalar...................................................................................................57
1.9.12 Audio signal processing.........................................................................57
1.9.13 Speaker systems...................................................................................58
1.9.14 Amplifiers............................................................................................. 58
1.9.15 Lectern microphones.............................................................................58
1.9.16 Radio microphones................................................................................58
1.9.17 Document cameras................................................................................58
1.9.18 DVD/Blu-Ray players..............................................................................59
1.9.19 Desktop Computer.................................................................................59
1.9.20 Cabling and management.......................................................................59
1.9.21 Cable labelling.......................................................................................59
1.9.22 Connector types....................................................................................59
1.9.23 Equipment rack.....................................................................................60
1.10 Service Desk phone in learning and teaching spaces.......................................60
1.10.1 In-house phone......................................................................................60
1.10.2 Outside of venue (at door) phone...........................................................60
1.11 Documentation..............................................................................................60
1.11.1 Construction drawings...........................................................................61
1.11.2 Post contract documentation.................................................................61
1.12 Testing, commissioning and handover.............................................................62
Space Planning for Presentation............................................................................64

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Audiovisual (AV) Planning......................................................................................73
Designing Primary and Secondary School Audiovisual (AV) Systems........................81
Designing College/University Audiovisual (AV) Systems..........................................83
Designing Places of Worship Audiovisual (AV) Systems...........................................88
Designing Corporate/Boardroom/Training Room Audiovisual (AV) Systems...............93
Designing Hospital Audiovisual (AV) Systems.........................................................96
Designing Hotels and Conference System Audiovisual (AV) Systems......................100
Designing Stadium Audiovisual (AV) Systems.......................................................103
Designing Airport and Other Public Transportation Audiovisual (AV) Systems.........106
CHAPTER 2 :Audio Visual Room Design Standards............................................110
1 General Instructions....................................................................................111

1.1 Standards Brief................................................................................................. 111

1.2 Policy................................................................................................................ 112
1.3 Standard Document Access..............................................................................112
1.4 Related Documents.......................................................................................... 112
1.5 Conflict of Information or Clarification..............................................................112
1.6 Non-standard configurations............................................................................ 112
2 Installation standards and conditions...........................................................113

2.1 Variation Agreements....................................................................................... 113

2.2 DeS site inspections......................................................................................... 114
2.5 Commissioning procedures..............................................................................114
3 Audio visual configuration packages............................................................114
4 Room standards..........................................................................................117

4.1 Digital display space........................................................................................ 117

4.2 Personal Office................................................................................................. 118
4.4 Teaching spaces............................................................................................... 119
4.5 Lecture theatres (LT)........................................................................................ 119
4.6 Custom (non-standard) rooms..........................................................................120
5 Functional requirements..............................................................................121

5.1 Common requirements, all deployment types..................................................121

5.2 Digital display space (AV01)............................................................................. 123
5.3 Personal office (AV02)...................................................................................... 124
5.4 Meeting room (AV03)........................................................................................ 124
5.5 Meeting room with videoconferencing (AV04)..................................................125
5.6 Teaching space small (AV05).........................................................................125
5.7 Teaching space medium to large (AV06)........................................................126
5.9 Lecture theatre with videoconferencing (AV08)...............................................126
6 Room layouts..............................................................................................126

6.1 Custom spaces................................................................................................. 126

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6.2 Digital display space (AV01)............................................................................. 127
6.5 Meeting room with videoconferencing (AV04)..................................................128
6.6 Teaching space small (AV05).........................................................................129
6.7 Teaching space medium to large (AV06)........................................................129
6.8 Lecture theatre (AV07, AV08)...........................................................................130
7 Appendices................................................................................................. 131

7.1 Appendix A: Glossary of Terms.........................................................................131

Glossary and Definitions......................................................................................133
About this Document...........................................................................................135
Appendix 1 UTAS AV Design Standards Metric Table............................................136
Appendix 2 Mobile Lecture Recording Solutions..................................................153

Option 1: Portable audio only recording.................................................................153

Option 2: Audio + screen recording.......................................................................154

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CHAPTER 1 : Audio
Visual Standards
Executive Summary
The purpose of this document is to set out the definition of Audio-visual (AV) Standards
for the University of Tasmania (UTAS) and the application of those standards across all
supported learning and teaching spaces. It specifies the standardisation and
categorisation of audiovisual equipment, design standards, learning and teaching spaces
and amenities available to all staff, students and associates.
The objective of these standards is to define:

the minimum AV requirements for all learning and teaching spaces

a framework to standardise AV technology and infrastructure
to provide a means of identifying and upgrading, where required, any sub-standard
learning and teaching spaces.
All AV technology and infrastructure is to be of a standardised environment in all
supported learning and teaching spaces. It is the purpose of this document to identify this
standard and to provide a framework that all learning and teaching spaces are to adhere
to.
More information

For further information, contact Frank Andrews:

Email:

frank.andrews@utas.edu.au

Review
In line with the Policy Development and Review Procedure (Section 3.1.14 Stage 14
Review), this document will be reviewed in its entirety every three (3) years.
Consideration for the review of this document will be governed by the mechanisms within
the Policy Development and Review Procedure.
Minor amendments, pertaining to the progression of technology and the redefining of
technical terminology and specifications will occur every six (6) months and are
undertaken as an operational requirement of AV Services, ITR.

1.1 Room design for learning and teaching spaces

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Room design is integral to providing a best practice solution for all learning and teaching
spaces. It is recommended that at the project design stage all considerations of the
following provisions are entered into, to produce the best possible solution for these
spaces. This is the responsibility of the appropriate organisational unit who is accountable
for the room design features in a given learning and teaching space.
1.1.1 Sight lines and screen-viewing distances

Learning and teaching spaces at UTAS require the capability to display information by
means of data projection and other display technology. Consideration and advice to the
responsible organisational unit at the planning stage of allowable sight-lines and screen
viewing distances is fundamental to the success of any learning and teaching space.
Having these standards accepted and incorporated at the design stage forms a critical
aspect to delivering an acceptable level of information display recognition by the viewer.
Consideration must be given to the ability to view and interpret the information displayed
from all areas of the learning and teaching space. These specifications form the nucleus
of any design for learning and teaching spaces.

The following guidelines on appropriate sight-lines and screen-viewing distances are to be

considered when designing, refurbishing and upgrading any learning and teaching space:
The maximum viewing distance can be determined by the height of the screen, which
will, in turn, determine the furthest allowable viewing position at a factor of 5.3. This is
displayed as the following:
Screen Height = the furthest allowable viewing position/5.3

The minimum viewing distance is determined by the closest viewer position (at the front
row, centre). This position shall not be any closer than twice the screen height at that
position.
The maximum allowable horizontal viewing angle will be no more than 45 degrees to the
centre sight-line of the screen.
The maximum allowable vertical viewing angle will be no more than 15 degrees to the
centre of the display measured from the front centre viewing position.
The bottom edge of the screen shall be no less than 1.3 metres above the floor.
The minimum ceiling height will be determined by the maximum viewing distance rule
and the screen height above the floor.
In learning and teaching spaces existing geometry may prevent this specification from
being met. Consideration will need to be given to determining the best outcome for sightlines and screen-viewing distance when refurbishing. Special provisions to meet this
standard may be needed.
1.1.2 Vertical and horizontal projector placement

Careful consideration needs to be given to the placement of the projector. The placement
of the projector is determined by the following guidelines:

The vertical position of the projector must not obstruct the view of the screen for any
viewer in that space.
The vertical and horizontal placement should adhere to the projector manufacturers
recommended vertical position.

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Use of key-stoning must be kept to a minimum.
The placement of the projector must provide ease of access for the performance of
maintenance and repairs.
Consideration to reduce projection glare in lecturers eyes.
UTAS approved security mount must be used.
In existing learning and teaching spaces current geometry may prevent this specification
from being met. Consideration will need to be made to determining the best outcome for
the viewing of information on these displays and special provisions to this standard may
need to be met.
1.1.3 Minimum projector brightness

The recommended projector brightness is determined by screen size, which, in turn, is

proportional to the venue size. The following guidelines are to be taken into consideration
when deciding minimum projector brightness:

The targeted projected Lux for small to medium sized venues, where screen sizes are no
more than
3.5 metres diagonally, must be no less than 500Lux, preferably 600+ Lux.
The target projected Lux for larger venues, where screen sizes are more than 3.5 metres
diagonally, must be no less than 315Lux, preferably 500+ Lux.
These specifications will help to determine the correct projector for the venue and will
help to identify the ANSI Lumens specification for that projector.
In larger venues, reduction in ambient light at and around the screen will need to be
considered to reduce loss of projected Lux on the screen. This is addressed in the
Ambient light spill on projector screen provision of this Standard.
1.1.4 Minimum projector contrast ratio

Contrast ratios will allow for the legibility of information that is projected on the screen
from all viewing angles within the learning and teaching space.
The following guidelines outline the minimum required contrast ratio:

Text and numerals, when displayed on the projector screen, must meet an aspect ratio of
5:1.
Photos, pictures and any graphical representation, when displayed on the projector
screen, must meet a contrast ratio of 10:1.
Videos must display on the projector screen at a contrast ratio of 25:1.
These measurements are defined as the ratio between the measured values of incident
light on the projection screen when outputting full field white and full field black. This
takes into consideration all sources of light, both projected and ambient.
1.1.5 Projector, display and screen aspect ratio

Due to the move away from 4:3 aspect ratios and the subsequent phasing out of the
production and support of these devices, and the adoption of a high definition
environment, the standard aspect ratio for displays in centrally-managed learning and
teaching spaces will be a minimum of 16:9.

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1.1.6 Dual displays

Centrally-managed learning and teaching spaces are to incorporate dual displays where
practical and where this requirement is stipulated in the design process.
The following guidelines detail the requirements for dual displays implementation:
Dual projection with dual displays is a requirement for lecture theatres.
Not all venues are able to meet these requirements and may need only one single
projection, single image configuration. A variation to this provision can be sought from
the project manager.
1.1.7 Flat panel technology

Flat panel technologies can be implemented into small venues. These venues are defined
by the Specific room types section of this standard.
The following guidelines are to be followed for installation of flat panels:

Placement is in accordance with all rules that govern the placement of projector screens,
see Minimum projector brightness, Minimum projector contrast ratio, Vertical and
horizontal projector placement, Sight lines and screen-viewing distances and Projector,
display and screen aspect ratio.
Flat panel technology is the preferred visual display in meeting rooms that perform
videoconferencing functions.

1.2 Acoustical design

Acoustics

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Noise

Background Noise and Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning

(HVAC)
Noise Reduction
Background noise within a room can affect speech intelligibility, which creates
additional challenges for AV designers. A common source of background noise are
the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems within a building.
HVAC noise can originate from any of the following:

Fans

Ducts

Diffusers

Mechanical room equipment (e.g., pumps and chillers)

Terminal equipment in ceilings (e.g., fan/coil units and other distributed air
handling devices)
Outdoor mechanical equipment (e.g., cooling towers and ventilation fans)

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These devices can create noise that is either airborne or structure-borne. Airborne
noise is generated by equipment or air movement and may be controlled by a
variety of means based on the mechanical system design, architectural means, or
both. Structure-borne noise is typically generated by the equipment attached to
the structure. It is either radiated as airborne noise from walls and ceilings in the
AV space or it can cause AV equipment problems by transmitting vibration to
projectors, loudspeakers, or microphones mounted to walls, ceilings, floors, and
furniture.
Noise from HVAC equipment should not be overlooked by the AV designer. The AV
designer should help to identify the required noise criteria (NC) for each room and
work with the architect and mechanical and acoustical engineers to create rooms
that meet the criteria.
NOTE:
Fordetailed information about HVAC systems, see Chapter 9:
Heating,
Ventilating, and Air Conditioning.

Noise Criteria (NC) and Room Criteria (RC)

To specify or quantify the background noise levels from ventilation equipment or
other sources in an occupied space, the rating system referred to as NC (or noise
reference [NR] in countries other than the United States) is commonly used by the
building industry. The criteria are described in Chapter 7: Sound and Vibration of
HandbookFundamentals, published by the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).
A similar metric called room criteria (RC) also has been adopted by ASHRAE. This
metric is helpful in quantifying the tonal characteristics of ventilation noise, such
as rumble or hiss.
Other acoustical metrics, such as the decibel adjusted for frequency (audio,
weighting curve A [dBA]) are more often used for environmental sounds, such as a
nearby roadway.
The RC method takes all of the components (i.e., walls, ceilings, diffusers, and
others) in a room as a whole to determine the criteria levels for room design. This
method is now the preferred method for rating HVAC system noise in a room.
RC curves are similar to NC curves but with lower frequency bands added. The RC
method is not used to evaluate individual components like the NC method but to
evaluate the overall system and environment. The RC method, therefore, takes
background noise into account, noting its effect on speech intelligibility and sound
quality.
NC and RC criteria are single-number ratings that represent a complete spectrum
of sound pressure levels to meet a particular criterion. For example, to meet NC35, the sound pressure levels in the room cannot exceed the levels in any octave
band on the NC-35 curve. An octave is the interval between two discrete
frequencies having a frequency ratio of two. For example, frequencies of 25 hertz
(Hz) and 50 Hz are said to be separated by one octave.
The RC curves are more restrictive than the NC curves, particularly in the higher
frequencies for the same numerical rating. Figure 11.1 shows the NC curves, while

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Figure 11.2 illustrates the RC curves. The criteria system currently recommended
by ASHRAE is an RC Mark II rating system described in ASHRAEs Handbook.

Figure 2.1
Noise
criteria

Extremely noisy

NC-65
NC-60
NC-55

Very noisy

NC-50
NC-45
NC-40

Moderately noisy to
noisy

NC-35
NC-30
NC-25
NC-20
NC-15

][

Very quiet
to quiet

Octave band center frequencies (Hz)

NOTE:

InFigure2.1,thenoiselevelsareweighted,with the lower frequency

dB = Decibel
Hz = Hertz
NC = Noise criteria

sounds
reaching NC levels at a higher volume, compared with the higher frequency
sounds. For example, at 125 Hz, a 60 decibel (dB) sound will result in a reading of
NC-45, while at 4 kilohertz (kHz), a 45 dB sound will result in an NC-45 reading.
This is due to the perceived loudness levels of sound at various frequency levels.

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Figure
2.2
Room

A = A weighting B = B weighting dB = Decibel HF = High frequency Hz = Hertz LF = Low

frequency MF = Medium frequency RC = Room criteria
criteria

The primary way that these criteria are used is to establish maximum acceptable
room noise levels for a particular space. These levels have implications for both the
HVAC system design and the architectural design of the building.

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Table 2.1 shows ASHRAE-recommended RC levels for various space
types.
Room Type

RC Level

Hotel meeting/banquet rooms

25-35

Conference rooms

25-35

Teleconference rooms

25 (max)

Open-plan offices

30-40

Drama theaters
Concert and recital halls (retaining an
acoustician recommended)
Music teaching studios

25

Music practice rooms

General assembly religious facilities with critical
music programs
Classrooms

30-35

Large lecture rooms

25-30

Libraries

30-40

Courtrooms with unamplified speech

25-35

Courtrooms with amplified speech

Large seating-capacity spaces with speech
amplification

30-40

< 30
25
25-35
25-30

45-55

RC = Room criteria

These RC should be provided to the architect and mechanical engineers early in

the design process as a basis for the design of acoustically sensitive spaces.

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Sound Isolation

Sound Isolation

Sound isolation is defined as the capacity of a structure to prevent an unwanted

sound from transmitting from one space to another. AV systems, which can
produce high sound pressure levels, often demand higher levels of sound isolation.
Acoustically sensitive spaces with live microphones (e.g., videoconferencing rooms,
theaters, and media production spaces located near sound-generating mechanical
equipment) also require sound isolating constructions.

Sound Transmission Class (STC) and Noise Isolation Class (NIC)

Sound isolation is quantified by two numerical ratings, noise isolation class (NIC)
and sound transmission class (STC). NIC is the field-measured noise reduction
provided by a construction assembly, while STC is the sound isolation performance
rating measured in a controlled laboratory.
STC is a numerical rating often provided in the product manufacturers literature.
This rating can help the AV designer to evaluate a products suitability for the
intended application.

Sound Isolating Construction Assemblies

The most effective method of decreasing sound transmission from one space to
another is with partitions and doors having high STC ratings. Acoustically sealed
partitions with greater mass or larger insulated airspaces perform better than
single-element lightweight constructions with high air infiltrations.

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Sound-isolation performance is compromised by the presence of flanking paths
(e.g., aboveceiling ducts or mullions) at partition/window intersections. Flanking
paths are additional paths of sound transmission around the construction being
considered (see Figure 11.3).
Figure 2.3 Flanking paths

Common sources of noise leaks between, otherwise well-isolated, spaces are

doors. Various door assemblies help to maintain a required level of sound isolation.
Expensive laboratory- tested doors with STC ratings are available for applications
where sound isolation is critical. Door requirements for recording rooms and other
critical applications generally require a laboratory-certified STC 43 or greater.
A good performance also is achievable at a lower cost from nonrated solid-core
wood doors that are acoustically gasketed. These are well suited for boardrooms or
private offices and other spaces requiring a specific degree of sound isolation.
Avoiding door constructions altogether between extremely sound-sensitive spaces
(e.g., between a courtroom and a jury deliberation room) is often necessary. Sound
lock vestibules are often recommended in such situations.

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For spaces requiring high levels of sound isolation performance (e.g., recording
studios), double-stud walls, floating floors, and resiliently hung ceilings may be
required. This sound isolation method is often collectively referred to as a roomwithin-a-room.
The floating floors (see Figure 11.4) and resiliently hung ceilings not only prevent
sound from transferring from space above and below, but also minimize the
flanking of sound through the structural floor from the adjacent rooms.

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Figure 2.4 Floating floorEnvironmental Noise Reduction
Three layers drywall
25 mm (1 in) separation 19 mm (.75
in) thick perimeter
Acoustical sealant
Kip pads
Concrete
Fire treated
plywood

Before a project is constructed at a given site, it is advisable to determine

environmental noise levels that may affect interior noise levels and isolation
in = Inch mm =
Millimeter

requirements for audiovisual usage. A long-term environmental noise study can

test for average and single-event noise levels. The potential impact of roadways,
highways, trains, busy urban areas and helicopter and airplane flight paths can be
evaluated based upon the environmental noise study. Often these are required as a
part of an environmental impact report.

Speech Privacy
The sound isolation performance of construction assemblies (e.g., partitions and
doors) is only one of the several factors that determine the degree of speech
privacy afforded between two spaces. The background noise level in the receiving
space can play an equal or greater role in the resulting speech privacy.
Confidential speech privacy is achieved when speech, while detectible in an
adjoining space, cannot be understood as distinguishable words or phrases.
Confidential speech privacy occurs when the STC rating of a construction and the
noise criteria of an adjoining space added together is greater than 80. For example,
if the space adjoining the noise source has a background noise level of NC 30, the
intervening partition should have an STC rating of 50.
Normal speech privacy levels are typically achieved when the sum of the two
ratings is equal to 70 or more.

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Masking Systems
The purpose of masking systems is to provide a constant and predictable level of
background noise that will make nearby conversations less intelligible and
unwanted intermittent noise less noticeable. In open plan offices with low
background noise levels, speech privacy can be unsatisfactory. To remedy this
situation, a masking system can be employed, using evenly spaced loudspeakers
located above a suspended lay-in tile ceiling. A spectrally tuned amplified pink
noise source fed to the loudspeakers can be programmed to raise and lower to
match the activity level within the office over the course of the work week.
A sound masking system should provide a diffuse sound field that is spatially
uniform and blends with the ventilation noise within the open office area.
Loudspeakers are often aimed up towards the structural slab or horizontally to
scatter and diffuse sound off the building structure.

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Room Acoustics

Room acoustics is a study of sound reflections in a confined space and its effects
on human perception. Various sound frequencies can be reinforced or attenuated
based on the shape of a room and the types of surfaces in a room.
All surfaces reflect, absorb, or diffuse sound. These properties are frequency and
surface material dependent and determine whether clear and intelligible sound
would reach the listener. Room acoustics relates to the following phenomena:
Direct or near-field sound

Early reflections
Echoes (late arriving reflections)

Reverberation

Direct or Near-Field Sound

Sound that has not been colored by room reflections is referred to as being nearfield or direct sound. Direct sound travels from the source to the listener in a
straight-line path without interference from room reflections. The more direct the
sound reaching the listener, the clearer it typically is.

Early Reflections
Early reflected sound is created by sound waves, which are reflected (bounced) off
one or more surfaces between the source and the listener. These sound waves
arrive at the listeners ears soon after the direct sound. Early reflections are similar
to echoes but are not heard as distinct from the original source. Thus, they can
actually be beneficial, providing a natural reinforcement of the sound. The wall
behind or the ceiling above the performer or presenter may be made of
acoustically reflective materials so that the generated sound is reflected to the
audience. An orchestra shell is an application of this concept.

Echoes
Echoes are distinct, late arriving reflections from a single wall surface. Echoes
should be avoided in an acoustical design. A common echo source in a
performance space is the sound from the stage that reflects off the back opposite
wall. This type of echo is often referred to as slap echo. Because of the long delay,
it is heard as an entity distinct from the original sound. To avoid such echoes, the
back wall should be treated with acoustically absorptive or sound diffusing
materials.

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Reverberation
Reverberation is defined as the effect of sound scattering and steadily decaying in
a room (see Figure 11.5). Reverberant sound bounces off multiple surfaces before
reaching the listener, arriving at the listeners ears after the early-reflected sound.
Reverberant sound, or reverberation, is one factor that creates a rooms sense of
size and space. The amount of reverberant sound in a room determines how far
the listener can be away from the sound source and still discern the sound.
Room size and surface treatments determine the amount of reverberation in a
space. Hard surfaces such as untreated gypsum board and wood paneling
contribute to sound reverberation. Conversely, soft surfaces, such as acoustical tile
and fabric wrapped fiberglass panels, decrease sound reverbe
Figure 2.5
Reverberation

dB = Decibel Hz =
Hertz ms =
Millisecond s =
Second

While reverberation and echoes can adversely affect speech intelligibility, a room
with too much sound absorption can be perceived as acoustically unproductive.

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21 Standards for Audio Visual Room Design

Therefore, an appropriate balance of sound absorption and managed sound
reflection is necessary to achieve an acceptable acoustic environment.

Reverberation Time (RT60)

Reverberation time (RT60) is a metric that quantifies reverberation. Technically,
RT60 is the time in seconds required for the sound within a room to attenuate 60
dB after its source is abruptly halted. The reverberation times of over two seconds
are beneficial in concert halls because they help the blending of music. The
reverberation times of less than one second should be considered in speechoriented venues (e.g., lecture halls) because a reverberant sound field will mask
the subtle details of speech. See Figure 11.6 for a comparison of sound levels
against time.
Examples of typical RT60 values for various venues include the following ranges:

0.3-0.8 secondsfor television (TV) studio

0.7-0.9 secondsauditorium for speech

0.5-1.0 secondsfor recording studio

1.0-3.0 secondsfor house of worship

0.5 seconds for average living room

The required reverberation time is dependant on the room volume. It would be
acceptable, and
possibly even required, for a room of greater volume to have a
Figure 11.6
Sound levels versus time

longer reverberation time.

To optimize room acoustics for the best performance of an AV system, AV designers
must understand the acoustical effects of room surface materials.

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22 Standards for Audio Visual Room Design

When the sound from a source strikes a room surface such as a wall, ceiling, or
floor, the following three phenomena occur in varying degrees, depending on the
shape and type of the material:
Absorption

Reflection
Diffusion

Absorption
Absorption is the ability of a material to soak up the sound energy and not reflect it
back into a room. The metric unit for absorption is known as a sabin. One sabin is
equal to 1 square foot (ft2) of a perfect absorber (no sound reflected).
A room designer can calculate the reverberation time of a room by knowing the
number of sabins provided by the room finish materials. Softer room finish
materials (e.g., fabric wrapped fiberglass panels) have greater absorption
capabilities than hard-surfaced material (e.g., wood paneling). A 50 millimeter (mm
[2 inch (in)]) thick fabric-wrapped fiberglass panel has a greater sound absorption
in the lower frequency ranges than a 25 mm (1 in) thick panel of the same type.

Reflection
Reflection is the phenomenon by which a sound wave is re-radiated or bounced off
a surface. Hard surface materials (e.g., glass, wood, marble, or gypsum board)
tend to reflect most of the sound energy that would strike it. If these surfaces are
flat, the angle of incident is equal to the angle reflection.

Diffusion

Diffusion differs from reflection. Diffusion is a phenomenon whereby sound strikes a

surface and scatters in all directions. The ideal diffusing surface sends sound
energy of all frequencies equally in all directions. Irregularly shaped and convex
surfaces, commonly found in classic architecture, will increase a rooms diffusion,
in contrast to flat hard surfaces often seen in modern architecture.
Diffusing surfaces are generally preferred over flat reflecting surfaces, because
diffusion tends to have less detrimental effects on the sound source, while still
offering a sense of space and beneficial acoustic gain.
Diffusing materials are often more suitable for a room than sound absorption. Like
absorption, diffusion can reduce echoes in a room but without the effect of losing
valuable acoustic energy. In critical spaces such as recording studios and theaters,
applying specially manufactured diffusers on wall and ceiling surfaces can achieve
diffusion.
Diffusion reduces the sound energy (amplitude) by:
Increasing the distribution of the direction of the soundInstead of focusing
in one direction, sending the sound off in many directions reduces the overall
amplitude by distributing the amount of energy over a larger area.

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23 Standards for Audio Visual Room Design

Distributing the sound energy in timeThe sound waves from a specific source
arrive at the listener at different times, resulting in a reduction of the sound
amplitude.

For a comparison of all of the three phenomena, see Figure 11.7.

Figure 2.7
Absorption, reflection, and diffusion
Acoustical
treatment

Temporal
response

Spacial
response

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24 Standards for Audio Visual Room Design

Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)

Reverberation and echoes can be minimized with a sound absorbing room finish
material. A single-number rating used by the building industry to quantify the
sound absorption of a material in the speech frequency range is the noise
reduction coefficient (NRC).
The NRC of a material is the arithmetic mean of the sound absorption coefficients
in the 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz octave bands. A room surface material having
an NRC rating of 1.0 is a virtually perfect absorber. Conversely, a finish material
with an NRC rating of 0.1 would reflect back into the room nearly all of the sound.
Using room finish materials with high NRCs helps to absorb the sound waves that
otherwise would be reflected and cause excessive reverberation. For example, a
designer may specify a specific type of wall covering at the rear of a rectangular
room to reduce the overall amount of reverberation.
The choice of building materials and their NRC ratings affect the amount of
reverberation within a room. For example, specifying parallel walls composed of
hard wood (low NRC rating) will result in long reverberation times, while specifying
walls of softer materials placed at angles will reduce the sound reflections that
result in reverberation.
Designers can control reverberation by managing how and where materials are
mounted within a room. For example, mounting sound absorbing materials in
specific locations can be an effective method of reducing reverberation.
The location of sound sources and sound-absorbing materials affects the amount of
reverberation within a room. The designer must analyze the room configuration
and determine the appropriate locations to install NRC materials.
The NRC of a material can be affected by how it is mounted within the room. For
example, if the designer includes an air space between the acoustic treatment
material and the wall, the effectiveness of the acoustic treatment will be increased.
Understanding the effect of acoustic treatments within a room is an important
aspect of the room design. Controlling the amount of reverberation is important,
since the sound reflections can reduce intelligibility of speech and other audio
programs.

Speech Intelligibility
Speech intelligibility refers to the ability to hear and understand the spoken word
clearly. The speech intelligibility within a room is a function of its background noise
level, its reverberation, the strategic use of early reflections, and the sound level of
the speakers voice.
AV designers are often asked to design a speech reinforcement system if the room
has a high ventilation background noise, is overly reverberant, or does not have

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25 Standards for Audio Visual Room Design

sound reflectors placed to provide useful early reflections. The AV designer must
understand the acoustic principles to design a sound system that will improve
speech intelligibility.
To make speech intelligible, it is commonly amplified at least 15 dB above the
background noise level. This relates to a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 15 dB.
Reverberation time of the room should be maintained below 1 second (s). For
greater reverberation times, loudspeakers often need to be strategically placed in
relation to the listener to improve intelligibility.
Several metrics quantify the level of speech intelligibility, including:

Speech transmission index (STI).

Percentage articulation loss of consonants (%ALcons).

STI is based on the premise that speech is an amplitude-modulated (AM) signal.
Using a test system that can accurately measure the reduced amplitude
modulation of the received signal compared to the source, the expected speech
intelligibility of a space can be quantified. STI intelligibility values range from 0
(completely unintelligible) to 1 (perfect intelligibility). Local authorities may require
a particular STI value in the design of fire and life safety systems.

%ALcons is defined as the percentage of articulation

loss of consonants in speech. This number gives an
estimated percent of loss in intelligibility. In most cases,
10 to 15 %ALcons is considered acceptable.

Acoustical design is integral to providing a best practice solution. It is recommended that

at the project design stage that an acoustic consultant be contracted to advise on and
recommend the best possible solution.
1.2.1 Acoustic performance

It is essential to the delivery of best acoustic performance that the acoustical design is
considered when upgrading, refurbishing or designing any new or existing learning and
teaching space.

Acoustic performance in learning and teaching spaces must comply with the following
Australian Standards:
AS/NZS 2107:2000 Acoustics Recommended design sound levels and reverberation
times for building interiors
AS/NZS ISO 717.1:2004 Acoustics - Rating of sound insulation in buildings and of building
elements- Airborne sound insulation.

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Acoustical performance must be measured using the Speech Transmission Index (STI). No
learning and teaching space may score less than good with an STI less than 0.6. The
desired score for acoustical performance for any venue is excellent with an STI of 1.0.
The signal to noise ratio is to be kept to a minimum with a benchmark 25dB(A) to ensure
audio intelligibility.
1.2.2 Ambient sound levels

The level of ambient sound must be kept to a minimum. Conversely, a sound-dead room
is to be avoided as well. Ambient noise generators such as air-conditioning units and
mechanical delivery devices located near the learning and teaching space must be
avoided or mitigated at best. Advice from the acoustic consultant must be adhered to in
the design process of any new or existing space to deliver acceptable levels of ambient
sound.
The following guidelines detail the acceptable and best practice standards for ambient
sound. The room types are defined as per the Specific Room Types section in this
Standard:

Room type: Lecture theatre (Tiered Teaching Spaces) must have a minimum ambient
noise level of 45db(A) and a best practice level of 35dB(A)
Room type: Classrooms (Flat Room Spaces) must have a minimum ambient noise level of
35db(A) and a best practice level of 30dB(A)
Room type: Meeting Rooms (Videoconference/Board Rooms) must have a minimum
ambient noise level of 40db(A) and a best practice level of 35dB(A)
Room type: Flexible Teaching Spaces must have a minimum ambient noise level of
35db(A) and a best practice level of 30dB(A)
1.2.3 Reverberation times

Reverberation and all associated audio anomalies such as standing waves, early and late
reflections need to be considered.
The following guidelines, as defined by the Australian Standard AS 2107-2000, are to be
considered to mitigate reverberation issues in these spaces. These are meant as general
guidelines only as the RT60 will vary depending on room size:

Room type: 50 seat classrooms will have a maximum reverberation time of 1.0 second
and a best practice level of 0.7 seconds.
Room type: Lecture theatres will have a maximum reverberation time of 1.0 second and a
best practice level of 0.7 seconds
Room type: Flexible teaching spaces will have a maximum reverberation time of 0.6
seconds and a best practice level of 0.4 seconds
Room type: Conference and meeting rooms will have a maximum reverberation time of
0.7 seconds and a best practice level of 0.6 seconds
The reduction of shiny surfaces, the use of sound traps and the mitigation of box or
rectangular rooms and regular surfaces will reduce the occurrence of standing waves and
alleviate most reverberation issues. Reverberation is unavoidable but measures need to
be in place to minimise its effect, especially where it makes the delivery of audio unintelligible.

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Technology-based solutions are available to address these issues, such as a focussed
sound field solution through the use of array-style speaker systems. These solutions can
be implemented only in the case where no other option is available.

1.3 Lighting design

Lighting Theory
Introduction
The fundamental goal of lighting is to facilitate clear verbal and nonverbal
communication. Whether the lighting objective is to explain a marketing concept in
a boardroom or convey a message to several thousand attendees, suitable lighting
is necessary for enabling the viewer to see the presenter and any accompanying
visual material clearly.
When video cameras are used, lighting must be selected, positioned and managed
to ensure the highest quality recording achievable. A successful presentation space
balances the needs of the participants with those of the camera. Effective
architectural lighting design can simultaneously deliver visual comfort, facilitate
group interaction, and produce high quality video images.

Principles of Illumination
Human and Camera Visual Requirements
The human visual system and video cameras both require light to operate. That is
where the similarities end.
The human visual system is an image interpreter. The camera is merely an image
detector. Video cameras have little tolerance for brightness variation across a
single scene. While the human visual system can handle a brightness range of
1000:1, the camera can only simulate it over a range of 30:1.
On an elemental level, the human visual system consists of the eye and the brain.
Together, they provide the following abilities that cameras cannot reproduce:

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Accommodation (the eyes ability to change the focus from one distance to
another).
Adaptation (the increase in the visual systems sensitivity as the light levels fall).
Constancy (the visual systems ability to interpret the brightness, color, size, and
shape of objects regardless of their lighting, distance, or orientation).
Contrast sensitivity (the objects visibility depends on the combination of size and
contrast).
Cameras are highly susceptible to high and low brightness extremes, quick
movements, and other irregularities normally absorbed by the eye.

Lighting Distractions
An important aspect of lighting in presentation spaces is the comfort of the
participants. Lighting elements that should be avoided are the direct-source glare
from high-angle fixtures and the light reflected off displays and computer screens
(i.e., veiling reflections)

Glare and Veiling Reflections

Glare results when a bright luminous source in the visual field scatters unwanted
light across the retina. Veiling reflections (see Figure 12.1) result when the light
incident upon a gloss surface reflects directly into the eye of the observer, making
the visualization of detail (e.g., written text) difficult or impossible.
Figure 3.1
Veiling
reflection