Basic Computer Hardware Information

A computer can be defined as a machine for processing and storing information

electronically. To be useful, it must have a way for us to get information into the
machine, and some way to get it out afterwards so we can see it. Therefore, a computer
has four basic functions:
1. Input
2. Processing
3. Storage
4. Output
Every part of a computer system, and everything it does, is connected to one or more of
these basic functions. Computers can seem complex because there are many ways of
doing each of these functions, and because everything has a new name, often made up of
what appear to be nonsense initials like RAM or CPU.
To keep it simple, first look up any word or technical term you don't understand. There is
a glossary at the back of this course pack with definitions for all the technical terms we
use here or that you are likely to hear in talking to technicians. Second, when you
encounter any part of a computer for the first time, find out which of these four functions
it is used for.
Input
The most obvious device for getting information (also called data) into a computer
system is the keyboard. Another common input device is the mouse. Almost any time we
use a computer we use one or both of these to get text data or instructions into the system.
To get large amounts of information into the computer we would probably use a CD
(compact disc), a floppy diskette, a modem connected to a phone line, or a network card
connected to a network.
With the right sound equipment, a microphone or musical instrument can be used to bring
in sound, and a digital camera can download visual information, so these are all being
used as input.

Processing
If we just put information into the computer and took it out again later, computers could
be much simpler. Most of the time though, we want to do something with it or change it
in some way. Doing something with it is called processing, or data processing. Most of
this takes place in a part called the processor, or Central Processing Unit. This is usually
abbreviated to CPU.
The CPU is such an important part of the
computer that we often refer to a system by the
type of CPU it contains. My office computer is a
Pentium III but at home I have an Athlon
system. Sometimes you will hear the entire
computer cabinet called a CPU.
To help the CPU there is another part that takes
over a lot of the arithmetic. It is called the co-processor and also the Numerical
Processing Unit or NPU.
The smallest piece of data that a computer can process is called a bit, and each bit will be
either a one or a zero. For the sake of efficiency, the computer normally deals with a
minimum of 8 bits at a time, and 8 bits together is called a byte. This is an important
word to remember, because in working with computers you will hear about bytes
frequently, and also megabytes which is one million bytes. Megabyte is usually
abbreviated MB.
Storage
Information is stored in a computer in several different ways, but the main two are RAM
and hard drive, also called a hard disk.

The hard drive can store huge amounts of information, and it can keep this information
when the computer is turned off. The only problem with hard drives is that it takes too
long to get the data from them, because the system must wait as the disk spins until the
right part of the disk surface comes under the read heads, and then the drive transfers a
block of data in sequence.
For information being used at the moment, the system needs to be able to get to any part
of that information very quickly. The storage for this information is RAM, which stands
for Random Access Memory. Random access means the system can ask for any piece of
stored data at random and get it immediately, without waiting for to come up in sequence.
Random access is faster than sequential access. The main reason that computers don't just
store everything in RAM is that information in RAM is lost whenever the power is turned
off. So, the computer needs both RAM and disk storage. Everything stored long-term is
on the disk, and whatever is needed at the moment is copied into RAM. If changes are
made to the data in RAM, the changes must be copied back to the disk before that
computer is turned off so those changes are not lost.
When people talk about the memory of a computer, they almost always mean RAM, and
not the hard drive or other forms of storage that we haven't covered yet. Sometimes they
will say 'main memory' just to be perfectly clear about it.
Output
There are a number of ways to get data back out of the computer. One of them is right
there in front of your face, and that's the monitor. It has a screen that shows you
information from the computer, so it is an output device. The monitor and the parts of
the computer that run it are known as video. Another common output device is a printer,
which of course puts the computer's output on paper for you.
Some devices are both input and output, like the floppy diskette mentioned earlier. If you
have a modem or network connection, information can go both ways over the line so it's
both input and output. In many cases it is practical to consider input and output together,
in which case they are called Input/Output and abbreviated as I/O.

Software
The physical parts of as computer are called hardware. These are things you can see and
touch, and yes, they are hard.
These same pieces of hardware are used whether you want to write a letter, balance your
checkbook or play a game of computer solitaire, so how does this hardware know what to
do, and when to do it? Actually, the hardware parts don't have a clue. They need
instructions to tell them what to do, so some of that information we're storing and
processing must be the instructions telling the computer what to do.
These instructions are called software, and they are organized into sets of instructions
called programs. If you want to play a game on the computer, the computer must have a
program with the instructions for that particular game. If you want to send e-mail, there
must be an e-mail program.
One program called the operating system contains the instructions for actually running
the computer. Certain things need to be done no matter what you are using the computer
for. These are things like getting data on and off the disk, getting information to the
monitor screen, and so forth. A program called Windows is the most common operating
systems for PCs, and the one used in this office. It comes from a little company called
Microsoft. Perhaps you have heard of it.
Anyway, the operating system takes care of the basic details of running the computer, and
allows other programs to concentrate on their particular tasks. These other programs are
called applications, because their job is to apply the computer to a specific task. When
we say software that can mean the applications, the operating system, or both.
There are other little chunks of software that attach to the operating system and tell it how
to run particular hardware components or applications. These little chunks are called
drivers, and anytime you add a piece of hardware to a system or upgrade to a new
version of a device, you will need to have the right driver for that new piece of hardware.
Circuits
The word 'circuit' means a path something follows that goes back to where it started. In
an electrical or electronic circuit, the thing following the path is of course electricity.
Whatever work it does and whatever components it must go through on the way, the
'circuit' just means there is a complete path back to the starting point. The word 'circuitry'
means the components, and the connections between them, that make up the path. It's as
simple as that.
In a computer, this word 'circuit' shows up in a couple of places. Most of the components
will be found soldered to a 'circuit board', also called a printed circuit board. This is a
thin board of fiberglass, with the connections between components (called traces) printed
right on the board in copper.

The components themselves are often something called an Integrated Circuit,

abbreviated IC. To integrate means to combine things together, so an integrated circuit is
one that combines many circuits into the same part. These are formed on a thin wafer or
'chip' of silicon, and you will sometimes hear an IC being called a 'chip'. This is also
where we get the name 'Silicon Valley', for the area in Central California where many of
them are made.
This chip of silicon is put into a case with metal legs, and tiny wires between the wafer
and the legs connect those circuits with the outside world. There are now ICs containing
millions of transistors and other components, all in a package that will fit in your palm
with lots of room to spare.
The Motherboard
The biggest and most important circuit board in a
computer is the motherboard. It's called the
motherboard because every other part of the
computer is connected to it. The CPU plugs into
the motherboard, and so does the memory. And all
the components that plug into the back of the case,
like the keyboard and monitor, are connected from
there to the motherboard. It is also called the
system board.
There is a set of slots near the back edge of the
board for plugging in other circuit boards, called
adapter cards. These plug-in slots are for things like modems, sound cards, network
cards and just about any other add-on feature you can think of. There is a set of traces
connecting these slots to each other. A trace goes from Pin 1 of the first slot to Pin 1 of
each of the other slots, and other traces connect each of the Pin 2s, each of the Pin 3s, etc.
These traces then go on to connect to the memory, CPU, disk drives and other parts of the
computer.
The Bus
These traces are called a bus, and they provide a way for each part of the system to
exchange information with every other part. There are different types of bus that have
been developed over the years, and your computer may have more than one. The most
common one, found in every PC sold today, is called the PCI bus. An older version, still
seen in some new computers, is the ISA bus. These are fairly easy to tell apart, because
the connector that fits in the PCI slot has smaller pins and more of them.
One of the differences between PCI and ISA is that PCI supports a feature called Plugand-Play, which allows you to add new hardware and have the system detect and
configure it automatically. As anyone knows who has used the old method, plug-and-play
is a great convenience.

Resources
Since just about everything in the computer uses the bus to exchange data, there must be
a way to decide whose turn it is. This is done with something called an Interrupt
Request, abbreviated IRQ. Each component or device that will need access to the bus is
assigned an IRQ level, from IRQ 0 to IRQ 15, and there are lines on the bus that
correspond to these levels. When a device needs to transfer data on the bus, it tugs on the
appropriate Interrupt Request line and waits until the CPU grants an interrupt for that
level. It's all very nice and orderly. IRQs are an example of a system resource, which is a
feature available in limited quantity that must be assigned to specific components.
There are other resources too. Each device must have a unique memory location where
their data is stored as it is transferred to and from the bus. These locations are called I/O
Ports. For the BIOS and any other devices that use ROM, there must be a range of
memory set aside, so that ROM and RAM are not trying to use the same addresses. These
ROM addresses are a resource just like the IRQs and I/O Ports. Some devices need to
transfer large amounts of data directly to and from memory without using an interrupt for
each little piece of data. These devices, such as disk drives, are assigned a resource called
DMA, for Direct Memory Access. Like IRQs, there are 16 DMA levels.
Ports
In addition to the I/O ports mentioned in the last
section which are really addresses, there are
physical connections on the back of the computer
that are also called ports, and various devices
connect to the computer through cables attached
to these ports. One of these connections is called
the Serial Port because data goes over a single
signal line as a series of bits, one right after the
other. Serial port connectors have either 9 or 25
pins, with the male connector on the back of the
computer and a female connector on the cable.
The 9-pin version is more common, and is often
used to connect a mouse if there is not a separate
mouse connection.
Another connection is called the Parallel Port
because its cable has 8 parallel signal lines to
transmit 8 bits at a time. The computer has a 25pin female connector on the back, so it wont be
confused with the 25-pin male serial connector.
The parallel port is most often used to connect a printer. Computers sold in the last few
years will probably also have a connection called USB, for Universal Serial Bus. It is a
bus because several devices can be connected on the same cable, but its also a port

because data goes into and out of the computer cabinet through its connector. There is
USB1 and USB2. USB2 is newer and much faster.
The BIOS
As we mentioned earlier, the computer knows what to do by taking instructions from
programs stored in RAM. The main instructions come from a program called the
operating system, and those instructions direct traffic for other programs called
applications.
When the computer is turned off, all the instructions copied into the RAM are gone.
When the system is turned on again, it needs to go out to the disk, get the operating
system and load it into RAM, but there are no instructions in the RAM to tell it how to do
this. The solution to this problem is a set of instructions that stay in memory and dont get
lost when the computer is turned off.
This set of instructions is called the BIOS, for Basic Input Output System. Since the
instructions dont need to change, they can be stored in a different kind of chip than we
use for RAM. Its called ROM, for Read Only Memory. We say that the instructions in
the BIOS are hard-wired, and instead of software they are called firmware.
The computer goes through a process called booting up when it is first turned on. This
involves executing the BIOS instructions, loading the operating system from disk into
RAM, and then turning control of the computer over to the operating system after
everything checks out OK. The term refers to somebody pulling themselves up by their
own bootstraps (without outside help, in other words). Any computer term that includes
boot will have something to do with this start-up process.
CMOS and RTC
There is other start-up information that normally stays the same but that we might want to
change once in a while. This includes info about the various pieces of hardware
connected to the system, which disk drive to check first for the operating system and that
sort of thing. This data cant be stored on the hard drive because we need it to boot up. It
cant be stored in RAM because it will be lost at power-off, and it cant be stored in the
BIOS because we might need to change it.
The problem is solved by a type of RAM chip that uses very low power, and it is
connected to a battery. This type of low-power memory chip is called CMOS. It stands
for the type of technology used in the chip, which is Complementary Metal Oxide
Substrate. This is probably more than you need to know, but Im a fanatic about defining
things. By the way, since batteries dont last forever, if you leave your computer
unplugged for about 5 years youll find it needs a bit of trickery to get it to boot again,
because the CMOS information will be gone.

There is another feature in the computer that has the same requirements as CMOS, and
that is the date and time function. This obviously needs to change very minute, but we
dont want to lose track when the computer is turned off. The circuitry for this is called
the RTC or Real Time Clock, and for convenience it is usually included in the same chip
with the CMOS. A little trickle of juice from the CMOS battery keeps the clock running,
and when you turn the computer on again it knows exactly what time and day it is.
Convenient, isnt it?
More about Video
The monitor is a passive device that just displays the video output from the system.
However, so much data is needed for the constantly changing screen display that special
provisions are made for it.
The video card (or video circuitry on the motherboard) has its own RAM memory just to
hold the display information, and its own ROM BIOS to control the output. Some
motherboards even have a special high-speed connection between the CPU and the video.
Its called the AGP, or Accelerated Graphics Port.
The important numbers in evaluating a video display are how many distinct colors can be
displayed and also the resolution, which is how many pixels the image contains across
and from top to bottom. Each dot of color making up the image is one pixel. As video
technology evolved there have been a number of standards, and each one has its own set
of initials like EGA, CGA or VGA. A common one is SVGA, which stands for Super
Video Graphics Array and has a resolution of 800x600 (thats 800 pixels across and 600
down). Some high-performance monitors use SXGA (1280x1024) or even UXGA with a
resolution of 1600x1200.
More about Disk Drives
Floppies Although floppy drives are being phased out in some new computers, there
are still millions of them out there and you should know something about them. The
floppy drive has a little slot on the face of the computer cabinet, and into this slot you can
slide a floppy diskette like the one shown here. One of the reasons floppy drives are still
around is that it is very easy to take a floppy diskette from one system to another.
Inside the floppy diskette is a round flat disk coated with iron oxide on each side so that
data can be stored on it magnetically. This disk is called a platter, and it spins underneath

an electro-magnet called the write head that puts data onto the platter surface. There is
another head called the read head that copies data from the platter.
Once the disk has made one complete revolution, data is written all the way around. That
is called a track. The head then moves a bit and writes another circle of data to create a
second track. Altogether, there are 80 tracks on each side, for a total of 160. Altogether,
the floppy can hold 1.44 MB (megabytes) of data.

If we are looking for just a few bytes out of 1.44 million, its not enough to know which
track it is in. To help narrow the search, the track is divided into 18 pieces, called sectors,
which look much like a slice of pie. Each sector holds 512 bytes of data, so if we know
the track and sector number of the data we want it wont be hard to find.

Hard Drives On a hard drive, data is also organized into tracks and sectors. While each
sector still holds 512 bytes, there can be many more tracks and sectors on a platter. There
are also multiple platters, one on top of the other like a stack of pancakes. Hard drives
can hold much more data than floppies, sometimes into the billions of bytes, called
gigabytes (GB).

Multiple platters require multiple read and write heads, all attached to the same arm so
they move together. Its called an actuator arm. When we are reading track number 10 on
the top platter, the other heads are also positioned over track 10 of the other platters, and
together all of these track 10s make up a cylinder. To specify the location of data on a
hard drive it is necessary to say what cylinder, then the track and sector. Moving the
heads from one cylinder to another is called a seek, and the amount of time this takes is
the average seek time.
Although hard drives can hold much more data than floppies, the platters are sealed into a
metal case that is fastened inside the computer cabinet, so its not an easy matter to move
from one system to another like you can with floppies. A hard drive is sometimes called a
fixed disk for this reason.
Operating systems use a couple of different methods to keep track of what data is stored
where on a drive. One common method uses a table called a File Allocation Table or
FAT, which is a section of the disk with pointers to data locations. There are two
versions, called FAT16 and FAT32. Windows NT, XP and 2000 use a similar method
called NTFS.
There are two different interfaces commonly by hard drives to talk to the rest of the
system. These are called IDE for Integrated Drive Electronics, and SCSI for Small
Computer System Interconnect. The technical differences are not important at this point,
but you should know about the two types because they are not interchangeable.
Figuring out where the heads should go next and then moving them there is the job of
some electronic circuitry called the disk controller. Every disk drive has its own
controller, which may be on the motherboard or inside the drive itself, depending on the
type of drive.
There are a few more things you should know about disk drives before we leave the
subject. The first sector of Cylinder 0, Track 0 is called the boot sector, and it contains a
Master Boot Record (MBR) that shows whether the disk contains an operating system
and the location of the code. If there is more than one operating system, the drive must be
divided into multiple partitions. If not, then the whole drive will be a single partition. All
of the disk space assigned to a partition is called a volume.
Another term you will encounter is a disk format. There is a high-level format, which
creates a new file allocation table and is done with a FORMAT command. There is also a
low-level format that creates a new pattern of sectors. A low-level format must be
followed by an FDISK command to create a new Master Boot Record and partitions.
Last, we have the word media. This refers to the actual surface holding the data, which is
the platter in the case of a disk drive. Because the floppy platter can be taken out of the
drive, it is called removable media, while a hard drive is called fixed media.

Other Drives Most systems today, especially home systems, have additional storage
drives that use CD or DVD discs. The technology for both is similar but DVDs hold
much more data. These drives do not store data magnetically but use optical markings
that are read with a laser. They are mostly used just to read data and not to write it. The
full name for CD in fact is CD-ROM, which stands for Compact Disc - Read Only
Memory. However, there are versions that can be used to write also, and these are called
CD-RW and DVD-RW. Even so they are mostly used to write just once for permanent
storage, and are not practical for constantly changing data.
Like hard drives, CD-ROM drives can use either an IDE or SCSI interface. The version
of IDE for CD-ROM drives is called ATAPI, and for SCSI the CD-ROM version is
ASPI.
Because the discs can be removed, CD-ROM and DVD are considered removable media.
There are other types of removable media also that are not as common, such as tape
drives and Zip disks, which are similar to floppies but with a storage capacity of 100 or
250 MB. Zip disks and tape drives also use the ATAPI interface.
More About Memory
RAM memory is installed in the system on little circuit boards called modules that plug
into the motherboard. This makes it very convenient to add more memory by plugging in
another module. Older computers used a SIMM, which stands for Single Inline Memory
Module, and later ones use a DIMM or Dual Inline Memory Module. The difference is
that DIMMs have different signals on each side of the module connector, and the
additional signals allow more memory addresses and more data lines going in and out.

The amount of memory is always is some multiple of two bytes. The most common
values are 32, 64, 128, 256 or 512 megabytes.
As it is used by the system, RAM is divided into base memory and extended memory.
Base memory is the first megabyte, and extended memory is everything over that. The
very first PCs had only base memory, and then a scheme was developed called expanded
memory that tricked the computer into allowing more than 1 MB of memory. Once
extended memory was developed though, expanded memory quickly became obsolete
and will only be found in older computers.
Another memory term you will encounter is cache memory. This refers to memory that is
not on DIMMs but is either built into the CPU or connected directly to the motherboard
near the CPU. It provides even faster access than RAM for the data that the CPU expects
to need next. The contents of the cache will change constantly depending on what the
CPU is doing.

Definition: Wi-Fi is the industry name for wireless LAN (WLAN) communication
technology related to the IEEE 802.11 family of wireless networking standards. To some,
the term Wi-Fi is synonymous with 802.11b, as 802.11b was the first standard in that
family to enjoy widespread popularity. Today, however, Wi-Fi can refer to any of the
three established standards 802.11b, 802.11a and 802.11g.
The Wi-Fi Alliance (see sidebar) certifies vendor products to ensure 802.11 products on
the market follow the various 802.11 specifications. Unfortunately, 802.11a is not
compatible with 802.11b/g, so the Wi-Fi market remains somewhat fragmented.
Definition: A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of
computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a
home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other
applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other
WAN.
Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet
cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN
hardware options also exist.
Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a local area network. For
example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide a software package called Internet
Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to LAN resources.
The term LAN party refers to a multiplayer gaming event where participants bring their
own computers and build a temporary LAN.
Definition: WLANs provide wireless network communication over short distances using
radio or infrared signals instead of traditional network cabling.

A WLAN typically extends an existing wired local area network. WLANs are built by
attaching a device called the access point (AP) to the edge of the wired network. Clients
communicate with the AP using a wireless network adapter similar in function to a
traditional Ethernet adapter.
Network security remains an important issue for WLANs. Random wireless clients must
usually be prohibited from joining the WLAN. Technologies like WEP raise the level of
security on wireless networks to rival that of traditional wired networks.

Connect Two Home Computers for File

Sharing
Methods for networking two computers
The simplest kind of home network contains exactly two computers. You can use this
kind of network to share files, a printer or another peripheral device, and even an Internet
connection. To connect two computers for sharing network resources, consider the
options described below:

Connecting Two Computers Directly With Cable

The traditional method to network two computers involves making a cabled connection.
Joining a single cable between the two systems provides a very reliable, dedicated
network link. Several alternatives exist for networking two computers in this manner:

Ethernet crossover cable

Null modem serial cable or parallel peripheral cable
Special-purpose USB cables

Ethernet - Of the above choices, the Ethernet method is preferred.

It supports a reliable, high-speed connection with minimal configuration required.
Additionally, Ethernet technology offers the most general-purpose solution, allowing
networks with more than two computers to be built fairly easily later. If only one
computer possesses an Ethernet adapter but the other has USB, an Ethernet crossover
cable can still be used by first plugging a USB-to-Ethernet converter unit into the USB
port.
More about Ethernet Direct Connection

What are Ethernet crossover cables?

Serial and parallel cabling, called Direct Cable Connection (DCC) when using
Microsoft Windows, offers lower performance but will also work. You may prefer this

option if you have such cables readily available and network speed is not a concern.
Serial and parallel cables are never used to network more than two computers.
Ordinary USB cables must not be used to connect two computers directly to each other.
Attempting to do so can electrically damage the computers. However, special USB cables
designed for direct connection exist; these can be used safely. You may prefer this option
if your computers lack functional Ethernet network adapters.
To make dedicated connections with Ethernet, USB, serial or parallel cables requires
1. each computer has a functioning network interface with an external jack for the
cable, and
2. the network settings on each computer are appropriately configured
One phone line or power cord cannot be used to directly connect two computers to each
other for networking.

Methods for networking two computers

Connecting Two Computers With Cable Through Central Infrastructure
Rather than cable two computers directly, the computers may instead be joined indirectly
through a central network fixture. This method requires two network cables, one
connecting each computer to the fixture. Several types of fixtures exist for home
networking:

Ethernet hubs, switches, and routers

USB hubs
Phoneline and powerline wall outlets

Implementing this method often entails additional up-front cost to purchase more cables
and network infrastructure. However, it's a general-purpose solution accommodating any
reasonable number of devices.
You will likely prefer this approach if you intend to expand your network in the future.
Most cabled networks utilize Ethernet technology. Alternatively, USB hubs can be
employed, and powerline and phoneline home networks each offer their own unique form
of central infrastructure. The traditional Ethernet solutions are generally very reliable and
offer high performance.

Connecting Two Computers Wirelessly

In recent years, wireless solutions have enjoyed increasing popularity in home networks.
As with cabled solutions, several different wireless technologies exist to support basic
two computer networks:

Wi-Fi
Bluetooth
infrared

Wi-Fi connections can reach a greater distance than the wireless alternatives listed above.
Many newer computers, especially laptops, now contain built-in Wi-Fi capability,
making it the preferred choice in most situations. Wi-Fi can be used either with or
without a network fixture. With two computers, Wi-Fi networking minus a fixture (also
called ad-hoc Wi-Fi) is especially simple to set up.
Bluetooth technology supports reasonably high-speed wireless connections between two
computers without the need for a network fixture. Bluetooth is more commonly used
when networking a computer with a consumer handheld device like a cell phone. Most
desktop and older computers do not possess Bluetooth capability. Bluetooth works best if
both devices are in the same room in close proximity to each other. Consider Bluetooth if
you have interest in networking with handheld devices and your computers lack Wi-Fi
capability.
Infrared networking existed on laptops years before either Wi-Fi or Bluetooth
technologies became popular. Infrared connections only work between two computers, do
not require a fixture, and are reasonably fast. Being very simple to set up and use,
consider infrared if your computers support it and you lack the desire to invest effort in
Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
If you find mention of an alternative wireless technology called HomeRF, you can safely
ignore it. HomeRF technology became obsolete several years ago and is not a practical
option for home networking.