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BIOMECHANICS
Biomechanics - the application of mechanical laws to living structures,
specifically to the locomotor system of the human body.
I. Uses of Biomechanical Analyses
Improvement of sports skill techniques
Design of sports equipment
Prevention of injuries
Clinical analysis of movement pathologies
Design of prostheses
Design of rehabilitation devices
Qualitative analysis - a non-numerical description of a movement based on
direct observation. Conducted primarily by teachers and coaches.
Quantitative analysis - a movement is analyzed numerically based on
measurements from data collected during the performance of the movement.
Conducted by researchers.
II. Levers of the Human Body
Refer to Unit 13 in Lab Manual.
Mass the quantity of matter contained in an object. Units = kilograms (kg)
Force mass X acceleration. Units = Newtons (N)
1 N = (1 kg) (1 m/s2)
Weight the amount of gravitational force exerted on a body
Weight = mass X acceleration of gravity = mag
Acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Units of weight Newtons

If a person has a mass of 80 kg, his weight = (80 kg) (9.81 m/s2) = 785 N
Torque the product of force and the perpendicular distance from the
forces line of action to the axis of rotation. It may be thought of as rotary
force. Units = Newton-meters (Nm)
Moment arm the perpendicular distance between the forces line of action
and the axis of rotation.
Mechanical advantage of a lever the ratio of force arm length to resistance
arm length
Volume the amount of space that a body occupies
Pressure force distributed over a given area. Units = N/cm2
P = F/A
Compression pressing or squeezing force directly axially through a body
Tension pulling or stretching force directly axially through a body
Shear force directed parallel to a surface
Mechanical stress = F/A Similar to pressure.
Lifting A Heavy Object From the Floor
1. If the object is very heavy, get someone to help you. Don't be a "hero".
Use techniques that minimize the actual weight of the load being
handled.
2. Stand facing the object with your feet flat on the floor, at shoulder width,
and pointing straight ahead. Ensure that you have a stable base of
support so that you dont slip as you are lifting the load.
3. Face the object in the direction which you intend to move with it, so that
you don't have to turn while holding the object. Avoid twisting and the
simultaneous generation of high twisting torques.

4. Keep the object as close to your body as is convenient to minimize the

reaction torque on the low back.
5. Get a good grip on the object so that you dont lose control of it as you
are lifting it.
6. Bend at the knees and hips and keep your back as straight as possible.
Avoid a fully flexed or bent spine.
7. Lift the object using the knee and hip extensor muscles, not by pulling
upwards with the arms and back.
8. Carry the object close to your center of gravity.
The flat back lifting posture has been found to be better overall than a
rounded back in minimizing L5/S1 disc compressive force and ligament
strain.
Avoiding full flexion of the trunk ensures a lower shear load on the
vertebrae and significantly lowers the probability of ligament damage. The
probability of disc herniation is increased by repeated or prolonged full
flexion of the trunk.
One should never move immediately to a heavy lifting task from a stooped
posture or after prolonged sitting. Standing for a brief period, and even
consciously extending the trunk, will prepare the disc and posterior passive
tissues to reduce risk of injury.
Contraction of the abdominal muscles aids in supporting the vertebral
column during lifting. Such support may significantly reduce both the
forces required by the erector spinae muscles to perform a lift and the
associated disc compressive forces.
Avoid lifting or spine bending shortly after rising from bed. Forward
bending stresses on the disc and ligaments are higher after rising from bed,
compared with one to two hours later, causing discs to become injured at
lower levels of load and degree of bending.

III. Center of Gravity

Definition of center of gravity refer to Lab Manual, page 14-1.
For the human body in anatomical position, the CG is approximately 5 cm
anterior to the second sacral vertebra, or 6 cm below the belly button. On
average, it is slightly higher in males than in females 57% versus 55% of
height.
The exact location of the center of gravity varies from person to person
depending on body proportions.
The CG is influenced by changing body position or limb positions.
The addition of external weight, such as a backpack, will relocate the CG.
Segmentally each body area contains its own center of gravity.
A. Why Is It Useful to Determine CG?
1. Used to describe the movement of the body through space
2. Important for stability
3. It is an important factor in calculation of amount of work done.
B. Location of Center of Gravity
1. Reaction board method - used for a static position of the human body.
Assume that the center of gravity is the fulcrum or balance point and then
apply the Principle of Levers.
2. Segmental method - can be used for locating CG of a body in motion.

C. Balance and Stability

For balance to be maintained in any stationary position, the CG must remain
over the base of support. Whenever the CG passes outside the base of
support, the body is off balance in that direction.
If a heavy object is carried close to the body's CG, there will be less
likelihood of a loss of balance.
Stability - firmness of balance - can be increased by:
1. Increasing body mass
2. Increasing the size of the base of support in the direction of the line of
action of an external force
3. Vertically positioning the CG as low as possible
4. Increasing friction between the body and the surface contacted
5. Horizontally positioning the CG near the edge of the base of support
towards the oncoming external force
IV. Newtons Laws of Motion
First Law - Law of Inertia - A body will maintain a state of rest or constant
velocity unless acted on by an external force that changes the state. The
amount of inertia a body possesses is directly proportional to its mass.
Second Law - Law of Acceleration - force equals mass X acceleration
Third Law - Law of Reaction - When one body exerts a force on a second
body, the second body exerts a reaction force that is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction on the first body.
Momentum
A mechanical quantity that is important in situations involving collisions.
Momentum = mass X velocity

V. Work and PowerRelationships

Work = force X distance
Units of work - 1.0 Nm = 1.0 J (joule)
Power = work per unit of time = Fdt
= force X velocity
Units of power = watts - 1.0 W = 1.0 J/sec.
VI. Walking Versus Running
Differences between walking and running:
1. In running there is a period when both feet are off the ground. Consider
running as a series of jumps.
2. In running, there is no period when both feet are in contact with the
ground at the same time
3. In running, the stance phase is a much smaller portion of the total gait
cycle than in walking.
Running speed = stride length X stride rate
Length of stride is dependent primarily upon leg length and the power of the
stride. Leg speed (frequency) is mostly dependent on speed of muscle
contraction and neuromuscular coordination (skill) in running.
Running mechanics vary from person to person and they vary in the same
person running at different speeds.
At slow running speeds, complete foot contact is used. As running speed
increases, the amount of foot contact becomes less.
At slower running speeds, runners tend to run more erectly, whereas at full
speed, the typical sprinter leans forward at about 15 degrees from the
perpendicular.