Vedanta

For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation).

2 Three basic texts

Vedanta (/vdnt/; Hindustani pronunciation: [ed ant] ,

Vednta) or Uttara Mms is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. The term veda means
knowledge and anta means end, and originally referred to the classical Upanishads, a collection of foundational texts in Hinduism.[1][2][note 1] Vedanta also refers to
various philosophical traditions based on the three basic
texts of Hindu philosophy, namely the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.[1][3][4]

All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy

by interpreting the Prasthanatrayi, literally, three sources,
the three canonical texts of Hindu philosophy, especially
of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:[11]
1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthana (injunctive texts), and the ruti prasthna (the starting
point of revelation)

2. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyaya prasthana or

Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism
Yukti prasthana (logical text)
such as Yoga and Nyaya,[5][6] over time became the most
3. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sadhana prasthana
prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, inuenc(practical text), and the Smriti prasthna (the starting the diverse traditions within it.[7][8] The term Vedanta
ing point of remembered tradition)
may also be used to refer to Indian philosophy more
generally. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,[9]
of which Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, Achintya- The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts,
Bheda-Abheda and Dvaita are the best known.[10]
with total 108 texts. The Bhagavad Gt is part of the
Mahabhrata. The Brahma Stras (also known as the
Vednta Stras), systematise the doctrines taught in the
Upanishads and the Gt.
All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, Rmnuja,
and Mdhvchrya, have composed often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras,
1 Etymology
but also on the Gita. While it is not typically thought of as
a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of Samkhya,
Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, the Bhagavad Gita has
The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta
played a strong role in Vedantic thought.[12]
= Veda-end = the appendix to the Vedic hymns. It is
also said that Vednta means the purpose or goal [end]
of the Vedas.[note 2] Vedanta can also be used as a noun
to describe one who has mastered all four of the original 3 History
Vedas.
but found
In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vednta' simply referred to Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara,[13]
Of the
its
most
inuential
expounder
in
Shankara.
the Upanishads, the most important and philosophical of
Vedanta-school
before
the
composition
of
the
Brahma
the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hin[14]
[14]
duism, the word Vednta came to mean the school of phi- Sutras (400450 BC ) almost nothing is known.
Very little also is known of the period between the
losophy that interpreted the Upanishads.
Brahmansutras and Shankara (rst half of the 8th cenVednta is also called Uttara Mms, or the 'lat- tury BC).[14] Only two writings of this period have surter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with vived: the Vkyapadya, written by Bharthari (second
Purva Mms, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary en- half 5th century[15] ), and the Mndkya-krik written
quiry'. Prva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, by Gaudapada (7th century BC).[14]
deals with explanations of the re-sacrices of the Vedic
mantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) and
Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teach- 3.1 Earliest Vedanta
ings of the rayakas (the forest scriptures), and the
Upanishads, composed from the 9th century BCE until See also: Vedas, Upanishads and Darsanas
modern times.
1

According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophy

is as old as the Vedas, since the basic ideas of the Vedanta
systems are derived from the Vedas.[16] During the Vedic
period (1500600 BC[16] ) the Rishis formulated their
religio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are further explored in the Upanishads,[17] the jnna-knda of
the Vedas.[18] The Upanishads don't contain a rigorous
philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments.[19] This philosophical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the various
philosophical schools.[20]

HISTORY

3.3 Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara

According to Nakamura, there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period,
but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost
and have not come down to us today.[14] In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 dierent predecessors
of his Sampradaya.[29] In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes
the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.[web 1] PreShankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works
Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context of the later schools, which does give insight into the detexts are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its velopment of early Vedanta philosophy.[14]
purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers
on.[21] The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which
have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamuncrya (c.
Vedanta gives an interpretation.[22]
1050), the Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c. 1050
1157), and the Yatndramatadpik by rnivsa-dsa.[14]
[14]
3.2 Bhedabheda
and
Bdaryanas Combined together, at least fourteen thinkers are
known to have existed between the composition of the
Brahma Sutras
Brahman Sutras and Shankaras lifetime.[14][note 6]
Main article: Brahma Sutras
The Brahma Sutras of Bdaryana, also called the
Vedanta Sutra,[18][note 3] are traditionally ascribed to
Bdaryana,[note 4] and 200 CE.[24] but are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years.[25] They were
most likely compiled in its present form around 400450
CE,[26][25] but the great part of the Sutra must have been
in existence much earlier than that.[26]

3.4 Gaudapada and Shankara

Main article: Advaita Vedanta

Gaudapada wrote or compiled[30] the Mukya Krik,

also known as the Gauapda Krik and as the gama
stra.[note 7] Gaudapda took over the Buddhist docThe earliest stratum of sutras in the Brahmasutras is
trines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijapticoncerned with interpretation of the Upanishads, esmtra)[9] Gaudapada wove [both doctrines] into a phipecially the dierences between the Chandogya Uplosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further
anishad, the Brhadanyaka Upanisgad, and the Taitdeveloped by Shankara.[31]
[25]
tiriya Upanishad.
Later additions were concerned
with the refutation of rival philosophical schools, espe- Adi Shankara (788820), elaborated on Gaudapadas
cially Samkhya.[25] According to Nakamura and Das- work, and is considered to be the founder of Advaita
gupta, the Brahmasutras reect a Bhedabheda point of Vedanta.[9] It was Shankara who succeeded in readview,[25] the most inuential school of Vedanta before ing Gaudapadas mayavada[32][note 8] into Badarayanas
Brahma Sutras, and give it a locus classicus",[32] against
Shankara.[25][note 5]
the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.[32][note 9][note 10]
Bdaryana was not the rst person to systematise the
His interpretation, including works ascribed to him,
teachings of the Upanishads.[27] He refers to seven
has become the normative interpretation of Advaita
[27]
Vedantic teachers before him:
Vedanta.[34][32]
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder
of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early
Vedantins and Shankaras thought shows that most of the
characteristics of Shankaras thought were advocated by
someone before ankara.[35] Shankara was the person
who synthesized the Advaita-vda which had previously
existed before him.[35] In this synthesis, he was the reThe cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to juvenator and defender of ancient learning.[36] He was
a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of an unequalled commentator,[36] due to whose eorts and
numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant
its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.[28] position within Indian philosophy.[36]
From the way in which Bdaryana cites
the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him
and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been
the last attempt, most probably the best.[27]

4.2

3.5

Common features

Bhakti

Sankara said: Man is identical with Brahman

or the Eternal Soul, and established his Kevala
Advaita philosophy.[45]

Main articles: Bhakti and Bhakti movement

Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role
in the rise of bhakti, such as Suddhadvaita, founded by
Vallabha[37] (14791531 CE), Achintya Bheda Abheda,
founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[38] and
Vishishtadvaita founded by Shri Ramanuja (10171137
CE).

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of

Satkryavda,[web 6] which means that the eect is preexistent in the cause. But there are two dierent views
on the status of the eect, that is, the world. Most
schools of Vedanta,[33][web 6] as well as Samkhya,[web 6]
support Parinamavada, the idea that the world is a real
transformation (parinama) of Brahman.[33] According to
Nicholson, the Brahma Sutras also espouse the realist
3.6 Integration of various schools
Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the
view most common among early Vedantins.[33] In conAccording to Nicholson, already between the 12th and trast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedanthe 16th century,
tists hold a dierent view, Vivartavada, which says that
the eect, the world, is merely an unreal (vivarta) trans... certain thinkers began to treat as a
formation of its cause, Brahman:
single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and
[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a
the schools known retrospectively as the six
transformation, in fact no real change takes
systems (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu
place. The myriad of beings are essentially unphilosophy.[39][note 11]
real, as the only real being is Brahman, that
ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging,
Both the Indian and the European thinkers who develand entirely without parts.[33]
oped the term Hinduism in the 19th century were inuenced by these philosophers[39] especially Vijnanabhiksu,
a Bhedabheda Vedantin.[44] Neo-Vedanta too was in4.2
spired by these thinkers.[44]

Vedanta philosophy

4.1

Basic questions

The schools of Vednta seek to answer questions about

the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation
between Brahman and the world.[1]
The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they
see between atman and Brahman:[9]
According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no
dierence.[9]
According to Dvaita the jvtman is totally dierent
from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.
According to Vishishtadvaita, the jvtman is a part
of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
Sivananda gives the following explanation:
Madhva said: Man is the servant of God,
and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: Man is a ray or spark of God,
and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy.

Common features

Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features,
that can be called the vedantic core:[46]
Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in
the PrasthanatrayiThe Upanishads, the Brahma
Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion.
Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for
knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved,
selsh actions and their rewards must be renounced.
Bondage is subjection to Sasra, the cycle of death
and rebirth.
Liberation is deliverance from this cycle.
Traditional Vednta considers scriptural evidence, or
shabda pramna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but
valid).[47][48]
Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which
makes Vedanta irreconcileable with Mimamsa.[49]

5 SCHOOLS OF VEDANTA

Schools of Vedanta

relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view

and advaita from another. In this school, God is visual[57]
The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in ized as Krishna.
enigmatic language, which has left them open to various
interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of
Vedanta, with dierent interpretations of the Upanishads 5.1.2 Shuddhdvaita
and the Brahma Sutras arose. There are three,[10] four,[53]
ve[37] or six[54][note 12] which are prominent:
Bhedabheda, as early as the 7th century CE,[55] or
even the 4th century[25]
Svabhavikabhedabheda or Dvaitdvaita,
founded by Nimbarka[37] in the 13th century
Suddhadvaita, founded by Vallabha[37] (1479
1531 CE)
Achintya Bheda Abheda, founded
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[38]

by

Advaita Vedanta, founded by Gaudapada and Shri

Adi Shankara around 700 CE
Vishishtadvaita, also a subschool of bhedabheda,
founded by Shri Ramanuja (10171137 CE)
Dvaita, founded by Shri Madhvacharya (11991278
CE)
Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write
and develop their ideas as well, although their works are
not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers
in India.

5.1

Bhedabheda

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means dierence and non-dierence,[55] existed as early as the
7th century CE,[55] but Bdaryaas Brahma Stra
(c. 4th century CE) may also have been written
from a Bhedbheda Vedntic viewpoint.[55] According to the Bhedbheda Vednta schools the individual self (jvtman) is both dierent and not dierent from Brahman.[55] Bhakti found a place in later
proponents of this school.[55] Major names of this
school are Bhskara (8th-9th century),[55] Rmnujas
teacher Ydavapraka,[55] Nimbrka (13th century) who
founded the Dvaitadvaita school,[55] Vallabha (1479
1531)[55] who founded Shuddhadvaita,[37] Caitanya
(14861534) who founded the Achintya Bheda Abheda
school,[55][56] and Vijnabhiku (16th century).[55]
5.1.1

Dvaitdvaita

Dvaitdvaita was propounded by Nimbrka (13th century), based upon Bhedbheda, which was taught by
Bhskara. According to this school, the jvtman is at
once the same and yet dierent from Brahman. The jiva

Vallabhacharya

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabha (14791531

CE). This system also identies Bhakti as the only means
of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows;
the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'). The world
is said to be the sport (ll) of Krishna, who is Sat-ChitAnanda or, eternal bliss mind.[57]

5.1.3 Achintya-Bheda-Abheda
Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu[56] (14861534).
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and dierence,[58] in relation to
the power creation and creator, (Krishna), svayam bhagavan.[59] and also between God and his energies[60]
within the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. In
Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable',[58] bheda translates as 'dierence', and abheda translates as 'one-ness.
It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist (Dvaita) view of Madhvacharya and qualied monism
Vishishtadvaita of Ramanujacharya while rejecting absolute monism Advaita of Adi Sankara.

5.4

5.2

Dvaita

Advaita Vednta

5
is asserted to have attributes (Saguna brahman), including
the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. My is seen as the creative power of God.[57][note 13]

5.4 Dvaita
Dvaita was propounded by Madhwchrya (11991278
CE). It is also referred to as tatvavd - The Philosophy
of Reality. It identies God with Brahman completely,
and in turn with Vishnu or his various incarnations like
Krishna, Narasimha, Srinivsa etc. In that sense it is also
known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to dierentiate from
the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It
regards Brahman, all individual souls (jvtmans) and
matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This
school also advocates Bhakti as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness) and indierence towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and
eternal bondage respectively. Liberation is the state of
attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to
individual souls (at the end of their sdhana), based on
the souls inherent and natural disposition towards good
or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable
power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the ecient cause of
Shankaracharya
the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the
material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is
Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit: performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within,
[d ait ed nt]) was propounded by awarding the results to the soul but Himself not aected
Adi Shankara (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru in the least by the results.[57]
Gaudapada, who described Ajativada. It is a[61][62][63]
sub-school of the Vednta (literally, end or the goal of the
Vedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy.[64] In the 5.5 Neo-Vedanta
school of Vednta, Brahman is the only reality, and the
world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole Main articles: Neo-Vedanta, Hindu nationalism and
reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatso- Hindu reform movements
ever. An illusory power of Brahman called My causes
the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with
of all suering in the world and only upon true knowl- a liberal attitude toward the Vedas.[66] It reconciles duedge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a per- alism and non-dualism,[67] and rejects the universal
son tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the illusionism[68] of Shankara, despite its reference for clasinuence of My, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), sical Advaita Vedanta:
separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no dierence between the individual soul
Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aujvtman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation lies in
robindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have
knowing the reality of this non-dierence (i.e. a-dvaita,
been labeled neo-Vedantists, a philosophy
non-duality). Thus, the path to liberation is nally only
that rejects the Advaitins claim that the world
through knowledge (jna).[57]
is illusory. Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine,
declares that he has moved from Sankaras
universal illusionism to his own universal
5.3 Vishishtadvaita
realism (2005: 432), dened as metaphysical
realism in the European philosophical sense of
Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Rmnuja (1017
the term.[68]
1137 CE) and says that the jvtman is a part of Brahman,
and hence is similar, but not identical. The main dier- Mohandas Gandhi endorsed the Jain concept of
ence from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman Anekantavada,[69] the notion that truth and reality are

6
perceived dierently from diverse points of view, and
that no single point of view is the complete truth.[70][71]
This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vednta
which, according to Jainism, recognizes substances but
not process, and Buddhism, which recognizes process
but not substance. Jainism, on the other hand, pays
equal attention to both substance (dravya) and process
(paryaya).[72]
Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interaction with and response to colonialism.[66] With the onset of the British Raj, the colonialisation of India by
the British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the
19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.[73] Western
orientalist searched for the essence of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,[74] and meanwhile
creating the notion of Hinduism as a unied body of
religious praxis[75] and the popular picture of 'mystical
India'.[75][73]
This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu
reformers, together with the ideas of Universalism and
Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common
mystic ground.[76] The Brahmo Samaj, who was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church,[77] played an
essential role in the introduction and spread of this new
understanding of Hinduism.[78] Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta
came to be regarded as then paradigmatic example of
the mystical nature of the Hindu religion.[79]
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta
was Vivekananda,[80] who played a major role in the
revival of Hinduism,[81] and the spread of Advaita
Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission. His
interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called NeoVedanta.[82] The popular understanding of Hinduism
has been dominated by this neo-Vedanta,[75][note 14] in
which mysticism,[75] Aryan origins and the unity of
Hinduism[83] have been emphasised.[84][85][86][75]
These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists,
who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta
as the pinnacle of Indian religions.[87] It provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology
that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial
oppression.[88]

7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES

forth. What is especially worthy of attention
is that the Hindu religious sects, the common
faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta
philosophy for the theoretical foundations for
their theology. The inuence of Vedanta is
prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas, Samhitas,
Agamas and Tantras. Many commentaries
on the fundamental scripture of Vedanta, the
Brahmasutra, were written by the founders
or leading scholars of the various sects of
Hinduism, and they are transmitted to this day
as documents indispensable in the respective
sectarian traditions. The majority of the
traditional and conservative scholars in India
today, called Pandits, are students of Vedanta,
and an overwhelming number belong to the
lineage of Shankara ve-sixths of all Pandits,
according to some authorities.
Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of
Early Vednta Philosophy, Volume 2[7]

Frithjof Schuon summarizes the inuence of Vedanta

on Hinduism as, The Vedanta contained in the Upanishads, then formulated in the Brahma Sutra, and nally
commented and explained by Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the
religious doctrines and for realizing that the Sanatana
Dharma secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional
spirituality.[89][90] Gavin Flood states, the most inuential school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous inuence on all religious traditions and becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in
the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical
paradigm of Hinduism par excellence.[8]

7 Comparison to Western philosophies

Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authorities.
Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world,
since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas has
been taking place between the western world and Asia,
which also inuenced western religiosity.[91] In 1785 appeared the rst western translation of a Sanskrit-text.[92]
6 Inuence
It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and
languages.[93] The rst translation of Upanishads apThe Vedanta school has had a historic and central inu- peared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,[93] which inuence on Hinduism, states Nakamura:[7]
enced Arthur Schopenhauer, who called them the consolation of my life.[94][note 15] Schopenhauer drew explicit
The prevalence of Vedanta thought is
parallels between his philosophy, as set out in 'The World
found not only in philosophical writings but
as Will and Representation',[95] and that of the Vedanta
also in various forms of (Hindu) literature,
philosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir William
such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so
Jones.[96] Early translations also appeared in other Euro-

7
pean languages.[97]
In 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, western philosophy, and science took a high ight. Brian
David Josephson, Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize laureate says:[98]
The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the key
to the laws of the mind and thought process
which are co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e.
the operation and distribution of particles at
atomic and molecular levels.

7.1

Spinoza

Max Mller, in his lectures, noted the striking similarities

between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying
[T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and dened by Sankara, is clearly the
same as Spinozas 'Substantia'.[99]
Helena Blavatsky, a founder of the Theosophical Society,
also compared Spinozas religious thought to Vedanta,
writing in an unnished essay
As to Spinozas Deitynatura naturans
conceived in his attributes simply and alone;
and the same Deityas natura naturata or as
conceived in the endless series of modications or correlations, the direct outowing results from the properties of these attributes, it
is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.[100]

9 Notes
[1] Considered to be the nal layer of the Vedic canon
[2] Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of
Religions at the Union Theological Seminary, wrote
in Random House's The American College Dictionary
(1966): It [Vednta] is concerned with the end of the
Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically.
[3] The Vednta-stra are known by a variety of names,
including (1) Brahma-stra, (2) rraka, (3) Vysastra, (4) Bdaryaa-stra, (5) Uttara-mms and (6)
Vednta-darana.[23]
[4] Estimates of the date of Bdaryanas lifetime dier between 200 BCE
[5] Nicholson: Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and
Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the
most inuential school of Vedanta before Sankara.[25]
[6] Bharthari (c. 450500), Upavarsa (c. 450500), Bodhyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmnandin) (c. 500550),
Dravida (c. 550), Bhartprapaca (c. 550), abarasvmin
(c. 550), Bhartmitra (c. 550600), rivatsnka (c. 600),
Sundarapndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600700),
Gaudapada (c. 640690), Govinda (c. 670720), Mandanamira (c. 670750).[14]
[7] Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine
between the four chapters.[30]
[8] The term mayavada is still being used, in a critical way,
by the Hare Krshnas. See [web 2] [web 3] [web 4] [web 5]
[9] Nicholson: The Brahmasutras themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been
the view most common among early Vedantins.[33]

The 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstcker was one of the early gures to notice the similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and [10] B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow dicult he himself found the
task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his concepthose of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza,
tion, is proved by the articiality and parenthetical irrelwriting that Spinozas thought was
... so exact a representation of the ideas
of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected
its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus,
did his biography not satisfy us that he was
wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...]
comparing the fundamental ideas of both we
should have no diculty in proving that, had
Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all
probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta
philosophy.[101][102]

See also
Monistic idealism
List of teachers of Vedanta
Self-consciousness (Vedanta)

evance of his comments in many places, where he seeks

to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their
natural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was ghting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of
realistic commentaries.[32]
[11] The tendency of a blurring of philosophical distinctions
has also been noted by Burley.[40] Lorenzen locates the
origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[41] and a process of mutual
self-denition with a contrasting Muslim other,[42] which
started well before 1800.[43]
[12] Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy.[10]
[13] Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita was propounded by Sri
Srinivasa Deekshitulu (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to Vaikhanasa School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras.
It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day.
It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala

10

forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman,

the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school
propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana'
(knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is
Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu
must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.[65]
[14] Also called neo-Hinduism[75]
[15] And called his poodle Atman.[94]

10

References

[1] Raju 1992, p. 176-177.

[2] Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins,
Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin Books, ISBN 9780143099864, page 159, Quote: The Vedic or Classical
Upanishads are sometimes called Vedanta or end (anta)
of the Veda. The term occurs rst after the end of the
Vedic period, in the Mundaka Upanishad (4th to 3rd centuries BCE?); (...)".
[3] NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State
University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7,
page 35 with footnote 30
[4] Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex
University Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxiiixxiv
[5] Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 2021
[6] Francis X Clooney (2000), Ultimate Realities: A Volume
in the Comparative Religious Ideas Project, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791447758, pages
96-107
[7] Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vednta
Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120819634, page 3
[8] Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page
238
[9] Raju 1992, p. 177.
[10] Sivananda 1993, p. 217.
[11] Vepa, Kosla. The Dhaarmik Traditions. Indic Studies
Foundation.

REFERENCES

[14] Nakamura 2004, p. 3.

[15] Nakamura 2004, p. 426.
[16] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxix.
[17] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxixxxx.
[18] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxii.
[19] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxx.
[20] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxxxxi.
[21] deutsch 2004, p. 95.
[22] Deutsch 2004, p. 95-96.
[23] Goswmi, S.D. (1976), Readings in Vedic Literature: The
Tradition Speaks for Itself, , pp. 240 pages, ISBN 0912776-88-9 External link in |publisher= (help)
[24] Pandey 2000, p. 4.
[25] Nicholson 2010, p. 26.
[26] Nakamura 1990, p. 436.
[27] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxiii.
[28] Nicholson 2010, p. 26-27.
[29] Roodurmum 2002.
[30] Nakamura 2004, p. 308.
[31] Raju 1992, p. 177-178.
[32] Sharma 2000, p. 64.
[33] Nicholson 2010, p. 27.
[34] Nakamura 2004.
[35] Nakamura 2004, p. 678.
[36] Nakamura 2004, p. 679.
[37] Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of
Diverse Schools
[38] Sivananda 1993, p. 248.
[39] Nicholson 2010, p. 2.
[40] Burley 2007, p. 34.
[41] Lorenzen 2006, p. 24-33.
[42] Lorenzen 2006, p. 27.
[43] Lorenzen 2006, p. 26-27.

[12] Pasricha, Ashu (2008).

Encyclopaedia of Eminent
Thinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari,
Volume 15. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
p. 95. ISBN 9788180694950.

[44] Nicholson 2010.

[13] The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidh anupapatti. By

John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass
1990

[47] Puligandla 1997.

[45] Sivananda, p. 217.

[46] Sheridan 1985, p. 136.

[48] Raju 1992.

[49] Raju 1992, p. 175-176.

[78] King 2002, p. 123.

[50] Sheridan, Daniel (1986). The Advaitic Theism of the Bhgavata Pura. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 139. Retrieved 2012-12-12.

[79] King 2002, p. 128.

[80] King 2002, p. 135-142.

[51] Sivananda 1993.

[52] Gerald Surya, Review of A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta by K. P. Sinha
[53] Raju 1992, p. 175-200.

[81] Dense 1999, p. 191.

[82] Mukerji 1983.
[83] King 1999, p. 171.

[54] Sivananda 1993, p. 216.

[55] Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy,
Vednta

Bhedbheda

[84] Muesse 2011, p. 3-4.

[85] Doniger 2010, p. 18.

[56] Sivananda 1993, p. 247.

[57] Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia

[86] Jouhki 2006, p. 10-11.

[58] Gupta 2007, p. 47-52.

[87] King 2002, p. 129-130.

[59] Kaviraja year unknown.

[88] King 2002, p. 133.

[60] Prabhupada 1972.

[61] Consciousness in Advaita Vednta By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 97881-208-1251-2.
[62] Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism. Class.uidaho.edu.
Retrieved 2011-06-10.
[63] The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra, By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State
University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-02713.
[64] Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, By
Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN
0-88706-662-3
[65] Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta
Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas
Trust, Tirumala 2004

[89] F Schuon (1975), One of the Great Lights of the World, in

Spiritual Perspectives, Essays in Mysticism and Metaphysics
(Editor: TMP Mahadevan), Arnold Heineman, ISBN , page
91
[90] Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120815735, page 11
[91] McMahan 2008.
[92] Renard 2010, p. 176.
[93] Renard 2010, p. 177.
[94] Renard 2010, p. 178.
[95] Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Translated from the German by EFJ Payne. Dover
Publications, vol. 1, chap. 1

[66] King 2001.

[67] Sooklal 1993.
[68] Gier 2013, p. 268-269.

[96] Jones, Sir William. On the Philosophy of the Asiatics. Sir

William Jones. Asiatic Researches, vol. 4, p. 164
[97] Renard 2010, p. 183-184.

[69] Panicker 2006, p. 190-191.

[70] Dundas 2004, p. 123136.
[71] Koller 2004, p. 400407.
[72] Burch 1964, p. 6893.
[73] King 2002.

[98] Synthesis of Science and Spirituality

[99] Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy.
Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123

F. Max

[100] H.P Blavatskys Collected Writings, Volume 13, pages

308-310. Quest Books

[74] King & 2002 118.

[75] King 1999.
[76] King 2002, p. =119-120.
[77] Jones 2006, p. 114.

[101] Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.
[102] The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin,
Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862

10

11
11.1

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Burch, George Bosworth (1964), Seven-Valued
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0019-0365
Burley, Mikel (2007), Classical Samkhya and Yoga:
An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Taylor &
Francis
Dense, Christian D. Von (1999), Philosophers and
Religious Leaders, Greenwood Publishing Group
Deutsch, Eliot; Dalvi, Rohit (2004), The Essential
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Doniger, Wendy (2010), The Hindus: An Alternative
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Dundas, Paul (2004), Tara Sethia, ed., Ahims,
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285. doi:10.1007/s11407-012-9127-x. ISSN 10224556.
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of Sankaracharya, Kshetra Books
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Jouhki, Jukka (2006), Orientalism and India
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Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanta
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King, Richard (1999), Orientalism and Religion:
Post-Colonial Theory, India and The Mystic East,
Routledge

King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion:

Post-Colonial Theory, India and The Mystic East,
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Mukerji, Mdhava Bithika (1983), Neo-Vedanta
and Modernity, Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan
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Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism:
Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press
Pandey, S. L. (2000), Pre-Sankara Advaita. In:
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Sivananda, Swami (1993), All About Hinduism, The
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Sooklal, Anil (1993), The Neo-Vedanta Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda (PDF), Nidan, 5, 1993

11.2

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[1] advaita-deanta.org, Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya

[2] Swami B.V. Giri, Gaudya Touchstone, Mayavada and
Buddhism Are They One and the Same?
[3] harekrishnatemple.com, Mayavada Philosophy
[4] harekrsna.com, The Mayavada School
[5] Gaura Gopala Dasa, The Self-Defeating Philosophy of
Mayavada
[6] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Vednta

12

Bhedbheda

Further reading

Vedanta Treatise:
Parthasarathy

The Eternities by Swami

The System of Vedanta by Paul Deussen. 1912.

Reprint 2007.
Forgotten Truth:
Huston Smith

The Primordial Tradition by

Theology After Vedanta by Francis X. Clooney

A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy by Hajime
Nakamura
Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies and Vedanta
Sutras of Nryana Guru by Karl Potter and Sibajiban Bhattachrya
The Upanishads by Sri Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo
Ashram, Pondicherry, 1972.
Choice Upanishads by Swami Parthasarathy
Vedanta: A Simple Introduction by Pravrajika Vrajaprana
Swami Bhoomnanda Tirtha Narayanashrama
Tapovanam

12

13

13
13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Vedanta Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta?oldid=699082771 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bdesham, Alex756, Kaysov, Hashar,

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Jossi, Karol Langner, Master Of Ninja, Johnwalton, CALR, Chaipau, Agnistus, Dbachmann, Bender235, El C, QuartierLatin1968, Cmdrjameson, Oop, Rahuldewan, Raj2004, Anthony Appleyard, Wiki-uk, Diego Moya, ABCD, Vedantm, Maqs, Angr, Hanumandas, Mel
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