Documente Academic
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EXAMINATION /
EVALUATION
R.SUBBARATNAM
RETD., HEAD, QA&NDT SECTION
QUALITY ASSURANCE DIVISION
ENGINEERING SERVICES GROUP
INDIRA GANDHI CENTRE FOR ATOMIC RESEARCH
KALPPAKAM
Subbu_10@yahoo.com
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION /
EVALUATION
NDE METHODS
VISUAL
LEAK
TESTING
LPE
BASIC
NDE
UE
VOLUMETRIC
NDE
MPE
RE
SURFACE
NDE
EC
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
NRT
VA
ADV
NDE
UE
TOFD, SAFT
AE
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
VISUAL EXAMINATION
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
Visual Examination
Easy
Quick
Low Cost
EYE
Variation in eye
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
VIEWING
SENSITIVITY OF EYE
Human eye will provide satisfactory vision over wide range of conditions
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LIGHTING
10
OPTICAL AIDS
Optical aids
Mirror
Lens
Microscope
Periscope
Telescope
Fiberscope
Boroscope
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MIRROR
Simplest way of looking inaccessible area
Advantage of a portion of mirror is used and cone of
rays is limited by the pupil of eye
Other instrument / equipment can also be added with
mirror
Mirror surface shall be extremely flat
Mirror must be kept free from dust
Reflecting power of mirror reduces after some period
of use
Reflecting power of two three mirrors are much less
However the reflecting power can be increased by
special coating
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BOROSCOPE
13
FIBERSCOPE
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SURFACE NDE
SIX METHODS
FIVE STAGES
Temp. 15 to 50 C
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LPE METHODS
VISIBLE
OR
FLOURSCENT
WATER
WASHABLE
POST
EMULSIFICATION
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SOLVENT
REMOVABLE
23
LPE - STEPS
Pre-Cleaning
Penetrant Appln.
Dwell Time (10 min to >1 Hr.)
Penetrant Cleaning
Water Washable
Post Emulsification
Solvent Removable
24
LPE STEPS
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LPE INDICATIONS
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LPE INDICATIONS
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SURFACE NDE
SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6mm)
FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS - LIMITATION
PRINCIPLE MAGNETIC FLUX LEAKAGE DUE TO
DISCONTINUITY
SPECIMEN MAGNETISATION
DETECTION
29
Types of Magnetisation
Continuous
Residual
Circular
Longitudinal
Longitudinal magnetization
Circular Magnetisation
30
Type of Current
AC, DC, HWDC, FWDC (Single & three phase)
Method
Dry or Wet Method
Types of particle
Dry Particles
Wet Particles and Carrier (Water, Kerosene etc)
Fluorescent and Non Fluorescent
Type of Magnetisation
Circular, Longitudinal, Residual
Type of Equipment
Portable, Stationary or special purpose equipment
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Equipments
Type
Permanent
Electro Magnet - Yokes
Small , medium, Stationary and Portable Equipments
Prods (Circular Mag.)
Coils (Longitudinal Mag.)
Head Shot (Circular Mag.)
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MPE Principle
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MAGNETISATION METHODS
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MAGNETISATION METHODS
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MPE INDICATIONS
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SURFACE NDE
SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6 mm)
CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL LIMITATION
PRINCIPLE INDUCTION OF CURRENT (CIRCULAR
EDDY) IN THE SPECIMEN AND ANALYSING
INTERACTION (Induction, Permeability)
PROBE CONFIGURATION
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ECT - EQUIPMET
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ECT - INSTRUMENTATION
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COIL APPLICATION
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Probe
Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.
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RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
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PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHY
46
RADIOGRAPHY SET UP
Source
Specimen
Variation in
Radiographic
Density
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X RAY EQUIPMENT
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GAMMA RAY
The commonly used gamma sources are Cobalt-60, Iridium192, Cesium 137 and Thulium 170.
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IRIDIUM
192
CESIUM
137
THULIUM
170
ENERGY
(MeV)
1.1.7 &
1.33
0.052,
0.084
HALF
LIFE
5.3 Yrs
74 Days
33.1 Yrs
127 Days
OUTPUT
RHM/Ci
1.3
0.55
0.38
0.25
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Protective Layer
5
Emulsion 10
Base 50
54
Characteristic Curve
A log scale is used or the values are reported in log units on a linear scale to
compress the X-axis.
Also, relative exposure values (unitless) are often
used. Relative exposure is the ratio of two exposures. The image directly right
shows three film characteristic curves with the relative exposure plotted on a log
scale, while the image below right shows the log relative exposure plotted on a
linear scale.
Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a
radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that will produce a second
radiograph of higher or lower film density. The curves can also be used to relate
the exposure produced with one type of film to exposure needed to produce a
radiograph of the same density with a second type of film.
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Characteristic Curve
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Intensifying Screens
Screens used to reduce the exposure times and improve the image quality
of the radiographs.
Two types of radiography screens - metallic and fluorescent screens
Both of these differ in Speed, contrast and elimination of scattered
radiation.
Metal screens - Lead is most widely used
Being a metal with high Z, Lead acts to absorb the scattered radiation
of lower wavelength. This improves the radiographic contrast. Due to
photoelectric interactions of X-rays with lead, photoelectrons are
emitted which serve to reduce the exposure time by more than 50%.
This is called as intensification action.
Intensification action expressed in terms of intensifying Factors (IF)
Intensification factor depends on element, thickness, energy of radiation.
Apart from lead, copper screens have also used.
Exposure time required producing a film with particular density without screen
IF= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Exposure time required producing the same density with screen
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Filters are metallic sheets of high atomic number used to absorb the
soft component of the radiation emanating from the tube port. Filters
thus harden the radiation beam.
The purpose of using filter
increase the contrast around the specimen edge
reduce the undercut due to scatter at the edge of thinner sections
and
record a wide range of thickness in a given film.
Increasing the voltage or time of exposure compensates the loss of
intensity caused by filter.
Generally filters are made of copper, steel or aluminum.
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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
Exposure Time
Exposure Technique Component / Specimen Shape
Radiographic Density
Image Quality
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X Ray
Exposure Charts
Constant Parameters Like Matl., Film, SFD
Gamma Ray
Calculation
Exposure Time (Min) = (FF x (SFD) 2 x 2 (thickness/HVL) x 60)
/
(S x RHM x (100)2 )
Any Variation
Material
Film
Source to Film Distance (SFD)
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Screen
60
100 kV
120 kV
200 kV
Const.:
Material Steel
Film Agfa D7
SFD 700 mm
Screen Lead
Intensifying
Developing Std.
mA min
Matl Thk.
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Material
SFD
Variation in SFD Varies the beam intensity - I1 / I2= D22/ D12 [Inverse
Square Law]
Film
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63
Three Techniques
SWSI Both side access
DWDI - Single side Access - For Pipes Dia < 89 mm
DWSI Single side Access - For pipes Dia > 89 mm
SWSI
DWDI
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DWSI
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Depth of Discontinuity
SFD - d
d
b
d = b x SFD/a+b
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Film Processing
Developing
Stop bath
Fixing
Clearing in running water
Drying
66
67
IQI
10 Fe 16
10
Wire
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Definition
Subject contrast
Film contrast
Geometry
Film graininess
Thickness difference
in the specimen
Density difference in
the specimen
In-homogeneity of
the object material
Incident radiation
energy
Filters
Radiation associated
scattered energy
Type of film
Film processing
Variation in film
density
Intensifying screens
Type of film
Chemical processing
Scattering of
radiation by film
grains due to type of
screen
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METAL
CO60
0.18
0.35
0.35
0.14
0.18
0.35
0.35
0.54
0.54
100kV
150kV
220kV
Magnesium
0.05
0.05
0.08
Aluminum
0.08
0.12
Aluminum
Alloy
0.10
Titanium
250kV
400kV
1MeV
2MeV
4-25
MeV
0.71
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
Iron/all Steels
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Copper
1.5
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.1
1.1
Zinc
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
Brass
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.1
1.0
Inconel X
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.0
14.0
1.0
1.2
1.0
5.0
2.5
2.7
4.0
2.3
3.9
12.6
3.4
Monel
1.7
1.2
Zirconium
2.4
2.3
2.0
Lead
14.0
14.0
12.0
1.7
Hafnium
14.0
12.0
9.0
3.0
Uranium
20.0
16.0
12.0
4.0
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Effects of Radiation
75
76
Evaluation of Radiographs
Some typical Weld Discontinuities
Lack of Penetration
Porosity
Slag inclusion
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ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION
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Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
CHARACTERISTICS:
ULTRASONIC WAVE Sound waves are vibration of particles of solid,
liquid or gas, of Greater Than Audible Freq. - 20 KHz FREQ.
Particle Displacement
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Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
One cycle
Amplitude
Displacement
Time /
Distance
Time
period - T
Acoustic Impedance (Z) : The resistance offered to the propagation of
ultrasonic wave by the material Z = V
Acoustic Pressure (P) : Denotes the amplitude of alternating stresses
on material by propagating ultrasonic wave P = Z a
Acoustic intensity (I) : Acoustic Energy passing through unit area
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V l = E/
V s = 0.9 V t
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ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES
Material
Density
Kg/m3
Vel Long
m/s
Vel Shear
m/s
Z
103 Pa s/m
Aluminum
2700
6300
3130
17 064
Copper
8900
4700
2260
41 830
Steel
7850
5950
3250
46 629
Titanium
4540
6230
3180
28 284
Perspex
1180
2730
1430
3 221
Oil
870
1740
--
1 514
Water
1000
1480
--
1 480
Air
0.093
330
--
31
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WAVE PROPAGATION
Transmission, Reflection & Refraction
Reflec
Refra
L
L
S
85
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Wave Propagation
Beam Divergence, Near Field, Far Field
Near
Field
Far Field
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Coupling
Surface roughness
Absorption
Scattering
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Effect Of Frequency
Beam Characteristics
Effect of Frequency( )
Decreases
(1.2 / D = 1.2 V / f D)
Sensitivity
Increases
( s = / 2 = V/ 2 f)
Near Zone
Increases
(NZ = D2 / 4 = D2 f / 4 V )
Attenuation
(Absorption / Noise)
Increases
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Generation of Ultrasound
These are made by heating them to their curie point and cooling them
under the influence of voltage.
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Advantage
Limitation
Lithium
Sulphate
Polarised
Ceramics
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Construction of Transducers
Long. Probe
L
S
Shear Probe
Delay
Block
Long. TR Probe Focused Probe
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Couplant
Air is having low acoustic impedance compared to the probe and the
specimen. Hence the beam is reflected at the probe specimen
interface.
A medium with the acoustic impedance between the specimen and
probe has to be used
Commonly used Couplant
Water, Oils, Glycerin, Petroleum Grease, Silicon Grease
Selection of Couplant based on
Surface finish, Specimen Temperature, Chemical reaction with the
specimen, Post Cleaning
Transfer correction (External condn. Of specn.)
Loss due to surface roughness, Couplant thickness
Amt. of gain difference between the specimen and reference, in dB to be
added during scanning
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EQUIPMENT
Pulse Generator
Pulse Receiver
Signal Processing & Control Circuitry
Display System (CRT)
CRT
a
b
Amplifier
Time Base
Generator
Pulse
Generator
Clock or
Timer
a
c
Specimen
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Presentation
B
D
C
CRT Presentation
Width
Thk.
Length
A SCAN
B SCAN
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C SCAN
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TESTING TECHNIQUES
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Contact
1.
2.
3.
Immersion
Easy Scanning
Suitable for site condition
Defect position identification easy
1.
2.
3.
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Time Base
Probe Index
Probe Angle
Time base Linearity
Vertical Linearity
Amplitude Linearity
Resolution Ability of the system to detect close defects Lat. & Depth.
Sensitivity Ability of the system to detect the smaller defects depends on
probe frequency
Dead Zone The zone occupied by the initial pip - depends on probe
frequency, equipment
Maximum Penetrating power Perspex
Distance Amplitude
Area - Amplitude
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Planar
Volumetric
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Reference Blocks
Distance Amplitude
Correction Curve (DAC)
100
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Flaw Sizing
Flaw Location
Flaw Length
S
t
Probe Travel
= P cos
Depth (d)
Amplitude
Length
d
t
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ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF
PRODUCTS
Plates
Casting
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Ultrasonic Examination
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PLATE
Acceptance
Long.
Shear
Sizing
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Calibration Reference
ID Notches
106
FORGING
DISC Forging
CLYLINDRICAL Forging
Calibration Reference
HOLLOW Forging
107
CASTING
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WELDS
Parent metal
Welding Process
Weld Discontinuities
Reference
Scanning sequence
Signal
109
Carbon Steel
Alloy steel
Stainless Steel
Combination of CS, SS & Alloy steel
Aluminum
Titanium, Copper etc.
Similar / Dissimilar
Heat Treatment
Machining
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UE OF WELD
GEOMETRIES/CONFIGURATION
Lap
Fillet
Corner
Groove
Butt
Sq. Butt
Single
Double
Discontinuities Lack of penetration & Lack of fusion
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UE OF WELD - WELDING
Discontinuities
Crack
Slag (SMAW, SAW)
Tungsten inclusion (GTAW)
Porosity (GMAW)
Debonding (Explosive)
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UE OF WELD - DISCONTINUITIES
Type
Origin
Joint configuration
Weld configuration ( Passes / layers)
Inductance / Occurrence
Orientation
Location
113
UE OF WELD - EXMINATION
Long. Normal
Shear Angle
Long Angle
FBH
- Normal
- Size, Depth
SDH
- Angle
- Size, position, orientation
Notch
- Angle
- Size, position, orientation
DAC
Recording level, Acceptance
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UE OF WELD - EXAMINATION
Scanning
Manual, Auto
Accessibility
Area, Coverage
Direction
Movement
Overlap
Speed
Scanning sensitivity
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Surface preparation
Weld preparation
Scanning
Evaluation
Cladding / Overlay
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Discontinuity Representation
Planar
Crack, LP, LF
Very Sharp,
High Amplitude
Wide, Medium
Amplitude.
Volumetric
Slag, Incln.
Volumetric
Porosity
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Other Techniques
Tandem Technique
Pitch Catch
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Thickness Measurement
Bond testing
Corrosion mapping
119
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ON-LINE MONITORING OF
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
STUDIES
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-20
-10
10
20
30
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Notch
10.155
10.115
10.165
10.125
10.175
10.135
10.195
10.145
10.205
10.210
10.215
10.2175
10.21788
10.220
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LEAK TESTING
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INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR LEAK TESTING
TO PREVENT
HAZARDS
ENVIORNMENT
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CONTAMINATION
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LEAK TESTING
LEAK TESTING
FORM OF NDE
LEAK
LEAKAGE ?
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Pr.
TIME
REAL
OUT GAS
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VIRTUAL
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COMMENTS
Mass Loss
(Pr. Change)
Time Limited
Ultrasonic
0.05
Chemical
Penetrants
10 -4
Bubble
10 -5
Thermal
Conductivity
10 -6
Halogen
10 -10
Mass
Spectrometer
10 -12
128
TECHNIQUES
PRESSURISED SYSTEM
EVACUATED SYSTEM
FLOW MEASUREMENT METHOD
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
129
GAUGE PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
130
TYPES
P1 / P2 = T1 / T2 or P1 = (T1 / T2) x P2
TEMP. CORRECTION
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LIQUID IS PLACED
PRESSURE SIDE
CLASSIFICATION
IN
CONTACT
FOAM APPLICATION
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AT
LOWER
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TRACER GASES
SENSITIVITY
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PREPARATION OF SPCIMEN /
COMPONENT
SEALING OF OPENINGS
SPECIAL TECH.
134
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R 12 Dichlorodifluromethane
R 22 Monochlorodifluromethane
R 12 & R 22 are non-toxic inert tracers
Common Names: Freon, Genetron, Isotron
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GAS PROPERTIES
Properties
R 12
R 22
Chemical Formula
CCl2F2
CHClF2
Molecular Wt
120.9
86.4
1.5
1.5
-29.8
-40.8
-21.6
-41.4
1486
1413
92.8
88.2
1413
1209
82.6
75.5
483
842
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TYPES OF DETECTORS
HALIDE TORCH
HEATED ANODE HALOGEN DETECTOR
ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR
140
TYPES OF DETECTORS
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PORTABLE
MSLD CONSISTS
MASS SPECTROMETER
ELECTRONIC CONTROLS
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144
APPLIED STRESS
Factor of safety
Even with large factor of safety Failures and accidentsMaterial behave differently in presence of
defects
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146
APPLIED STRESS
APPLIED
STRESS
FLAW
SIZE
FRACTURE
TOUGHNESS
147
NDE
NDE is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some
of the NDE methods used.
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