List of Cognitive Biases - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

1/18/2016
ListofcognitivebiasesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Listofcognitivebiases
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Cognitivebiasesaretendenciestothinkincertainwaysthatcanleadtosystematicdeviationsfroma
standardofrationalityorgoodjudgment,andareoftenstudiedinpsychologyandbehavioraleconomics.
Althoughtherealityofthesebiasesisconfirmedbyreplicableresearch,thereareoftencontroversiesabout
howtoclassifythesebiasesorhowtoexplainthem.[1]Someareeffectsofinformationprocessingrules
(i.e.,mentalshortcuts),calledheuristics,thatthebrainusestoproducedecisionsorjudgments.Sucheffects
arecalledcognitivebiases.[2][3]Biaseshaveavarietyofformsandappearascognitive("cold")bias,suchas
mentalnoise,[4]ormotivational("hot")bias,suchaswhenbeliefsaredistortedbywishfulthinking.Both
effectscanbepresentatthesametime.[5][6]
Therearealsocontroversiesastowhethersomeofthesebiasescountasuseless,irrationalorwhetherthey
resultinusefulattitudesorbehavior.Forexample,whengettingtoknowothers,peopletendtoaskleading
questionswhichseembiasedtowardsconfirmingtheirassumptionsabouttheperson.Thiskindof
confirmationbiashasbeenarguedtobeanexampleofsocialskill:awaytoestablishaconnectionwiththe
otherperson.[7]
Theresearchonthesebiasesoverwhelminglyinvolveshumansubjects.However,someofthefindingshave
appearedinnonhumananimalsaswell.Forexample,hyperbolicdiscountinghasbeenobservedinrats,
pigeons,andmonkeys.[8]
Contents
1 Decisionmaking,belief,andbehavioralbiases
2 Socialbiases
3 Memoryerrorsandbiases
4 Commontheoreticalcausesofsomecognitivebiases
5 Individualdifferencesindecisionmakingbiases
6 Debiasing
7 Seealso
8 Notes
9 References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
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Decisionmaking,belief,andbehavioralbiases
Manyofthesebiasesaffectbeliefformation,businessandeconomicdecisions,andhumanbehaviorin
general.Theyariseasareplicableresulttoaspecificcondition:whenconfrontedwithaspecificsituation,
thedeviationfromwhatisnormallyexpectedcanbecharacterizedby:
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Name
Description
Ambiguityeffect
Thetendencytoavoidoptionsforwhichmissinginformationmakesthe
probabilityseem"unknown".[9]
Anchoringorfocalism
Thetendencytorelytooheavily,or"anchor",ononetraitorpieceof
informationwhenmakingdecisions(usuallythefirstpieceofinformationthat
weacquireonthatsubject)[10][11]
Anthropomorphism
Thetendencytocharacterizeanimals,objects,andabstractconceptsas
possessinghumanliketraits,emotions,andintentions.[12]
Attentionalbias
Thetendencyofourperceptiontobeaffectedbyourrecurringthoughts.[13]
Automationbias
Thetendencytoexcessivelydependonautomatedsystemswhichcanleadto
erroneousautomatedinformationoverridingcorrectdecisions.[14]
Availabilityheuristic
Thetendencytooverestimatethelikelihoodofeventswithgreater
"availability"inmemory,whichcanbeinfluencedbyhowrecentthememories
areorhowunusualoremotionallychargedtheymaybe.[15]
Availabilitycascade
Aselfreinforcingprocessinwhichacollectivebeliefgainsmoreandmore
plausibilitythroughitsincreasingrepetitioninpublicdiscourse(or"repeat
somethinglongenoughanditwillbecometrue").[16]
Backfireeffect
Whenpeoplereacttodisconfirmingevidencebystrengtheningtheirbeliefs.[17]
Bandwagoneffect
Thetendencytodo(orbelieve)thingsbecausemanyotherpeopledo(or
believe)thesame.Relatedtogroupthinkandherdbehavior.[18]
Baseratefallacyor
Baserateneglect
Thetendencytoignorebaserateinformation(generic,generalinformation)and
focusonspecificinformation(informationonlypertainingtoacertaincase).[19]
Beliefbias
Aneffectwheresomeone'sevaluationofthelogicalstrengthofanargumentis
biasedbythebelievabilityoftheconclusion.[20]
Biasblindspot
Thetendencytoseeoneselfaslessbiasedthanotherpeople,ortobeableto
identifymorecognitivebiasesinothersthaninoneself.[21]
Cheerleadereffect
Thetendencyforpeopletoappearmoreattractiveinagroupthanin
isolation.[22]
Choicesupportivebias
Thetendencytorememberone'schoicesasbetterthantheyactuallywere.[23]
Clusteringillusion
Thetendencytooverestimatetheimportanceofsmallruns,streaks,orclusters
inlargesamplesofrandomdata(thatis,seeingphantompatterns).[11]
Confirmationbias
Thetendencytosearchfor,interpret,focusonandrememberinformationina
waythatconfirmsone'spreconceptions.[24]
Congruencebias
Thetendencytotesthypothesesexclusivelythroughdirecttesting,insteadof
testingpossiblealternativehypotheses.[11]
Conjunctionfallacy
Thetendencytoassumethatspecificconditionsaremoreprobablethangeneral
ones.[25]
Regressivebias
Acertainstateofmindwhereinhighvaluesandhighlikelihoodsare
overestimatedwhilelowvaluesandlowlikelihoodsare
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underestimated.[4][26][27]
Conservatism
(Bayesian)
Thetendencytoreviseone'sbeliefinsufficientlywhenpresentedwithnew
evidence.[4][28][29]
Contrasteffect
Theenhancementorreductionofacertainperception'sstimuliwhencompared
witharecentlyobserved,contrastingobject.[30]
Curseofknowledge
Whenbetterinformedpeoplefinditextremelydifficulttothinkaboutproblems
fromtheperspectiveoflesserinformedpeople.[31]
Decoyeffect
PreferencesforeitheroptionAorBchangesinfavorofoptionBwhenoption
Cispresented,whichissimilartooptionBbutinnowaybetter.
Denominationeffect
Thetendencytospendmoremoneywhenitisdenominatedinsmallamounts
(e.g.,coins)ratherthanlargeamounts(e.g.,bills).[32]
Dispositioneffect
Thetendencytosellanassetthathasaccumulatedinvalueandresistsellingan
assetthathasdeclinedinvalue.
Distinctionbias
Thetendencytoviewtwooptionsasmoredissimilarwhenevaluatingthem
simultaneouslythanwhenevaluatingthemseparately.[33]
DunningKrugereffect
Thetendencyforunskilledindividualstooverestimatetheirownabilityandthe
tendencyforexpertstounderestimatetheirownability.[34]
Durationneglect
Theneglectofthedurationofanepisodeindeterminingitsvalue
Empathygap
Thetendencytounderestimatetheinfluenceorstrengthoffeelings,ineither
oneselforothers.
Endowmenteffect
Thetendencyforpeopletodemandmuchmoretogiveupanobjectthanthey
wouldbewillingtopaytoacquireit.[35]
Essentialism
Categorizingpeopleandthingsaccordingtotheiressentialnature,inspiteof
variations.[36]
Exaggerated
expectation
Basedontheestimates,realworldevidenceturnsouttobelessextremethan
ourexpectations(conditionallyinverseoftheconservatismbias).[4][37]
Experimenter'sor
expectationbias
Thetendencyforexperimenterstobelieve,certify,andpublishdatathatagree
withtheirexpectationsfortheoutcomeofanexperiment,andtodisbelieve,
discard,ordowngradethecorrespondingweightingsfordatathatappearto
conflictwiththoseexpectations.[38]
Focusingeffect
Thetendencytoplacetoomuchimportanceononeaspectofanevent.[39]
Theobservationthatindividualswillgivehighaccuracyratingstodescriptions
oftheirpersonalitythatsupposedlyaretailoredspecificallyforthem,butarein
ForereffectorBarnum factvagueandgeneralenoughtoapplytoawiderangeofpeople.Thiseffect
effect
canprovideapartialexplanationforthewidespreadacceptanceofsomebeliefs
andpractices,suchasastrology,fortunetelling,graphology,andsometypesof
personalitytests.
Framingeffect
Drawingdifferentconclusionsfromthesameinformation,dependingonhow
thatinformationispresented
Theillusioninwhichaword,aname,orotherthingthathasrecentlycometo
one'sattentionsuddenlyseemstoappearwithimprobablefrequencyshortly
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Frequencyillusion
afterwards(nottobeconfusedwiththerecencyillusionorselectionbias).[40]
Colloquially,thisillusionisknownastheBaaderMeinhofPhenomenon.[41]
Functionalfixedness
Limitsapersontousinganobjectonlyinthewayitistraditionallyused.
Gambler'sfallacy
Thetendencytothinkthatfutureprobabilitiesarealteredbypastevents,when
inrealitytheyareunchanged.Thefallacyarisesfromanerroneous
conceptualizationofthelawoflargenumbers.Forexample,"I'veflippedheads
withthiscoinfivetimesconsecutively,sothechanceoftailscomingoutonthe
sixthflipismuchgreaterthanheads."
Hardeasyeffect
Basedonaspecificleveloftaskdifficulty,theconfidenceinjudgmentsistoo
conservativeandnotextremeenough[4][42][43][44]
Hindsightbias
Sometimescalledthe"Iknewitallalong"effect,thetendencytoseepast
eventsasbeingpredictable[45]atthetimethoseeventshappened.
Hothandfallacy
The"hothandfallacy"(alsoknownasthe"hothandphenomenon"or"hot
hand")isthefallaciousbeliefthatapersonwhohasexperiencedsuccesshasa
greaterchanceoffurthersuccessinadditionalattempts.
Discountingisthetendencyforpeopletohaveastrongerpreferenceformore
immediatepayoffsrelativetolaterpayoffs.Hyperbolicdiscountingleadsto
choicesthatareinconsistentovertimepeoplemakechoicestodaythattheir
Hyperbolicdiscounting
futureselveswouldprefernottohavemade,despiteusingthesame
reasoning.[46]Alsoknownascurrentmomentbias,presentbias,andrelatedto
Dynamicinconsistency.
Identifiablevictim
effect
Thetendencytorespondmorestronglytoasingleidentifiedpersonatriskthan
toalargegroupofpeopleatrisk.[47]
IKEAeffect
Thetendencyforpeopletoplaceadisproportionatelyhighvalueonobjectsthat
theypartiallyassembledthemselves,suchasfurniturefromIKEA,regardless
ofthequalityoftheendresult.
Illusionofcontrol
Thetendencytooverestimateone'sdegreeofinfluenceoverotherexternal
events.[48]
Illusionofvalidity
Beliefthatfurtherlyacquiredinformationgeneratesadditionalrelevantdatafor
predictions,evenwhenitevidentlydoesnot.[49]
Illusorycorrelation
Inaccuratelyperceivingarelationshipbetweentwounrelatedevents.[50][51]
Impactbias
Thetendencytooverestimatethelengthortheintensityoftheimpactoffuture
feelingstates.[52]
Informationbias
Thetendencytoseekinformationevenwhenitcannotaffectaction.[53]
Insensitivitytosample
size
Thetendencytounderexpectvariationinsmallsamples
Irrationalescalation
Thephenomenonwherepeoplejustifyincreasedinvestmentinadecision,
basedonthecumulativepriorinvestment,despitenewevidencesuggestingthat
thedecisionwasprobablywrong.Alsoknownasthesunkcostfallacy.
Lessisbettereffect
Thetendencytopreferasmallersettoalargersetjudgedseparately,butnot
jointly
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Lossaversion
"thedisutilityofgivingupanobjectisgreaterthantheutilityassociatedwith
acquiringit".[54](seealsoSunkcosteffectsandendowmenteffect).
Mereexposureeffect
Thetendencytoexpressunduelikingforthingsmerelybecauseoffamiliarity
withthem.[55]
Moneyillusion
Thetendencytoconcentrateonthenominalvalue(facevalue)ofmoneyrather
thanitsvalueintermsofpurchasingpower.[56]
Moralcredentialeffect
Thetendencyofatrackrecordofnonprejudicetoincreasesubsequent
prejudice.
Negativityeffect
Thetendencyofpeople,whenevaluatingthecausesofthebehaviorsofa
persontheydislike,toattributetheirpositivebehaviorstotheenvironmentand
theirnegativebehaviorstotheperson'sinherentnature.
Negativitybias
Psychologicalphenomenonbywhichhumanshaveagreaterrecallof
unpleasantmemoriescomparedwithpositivememories.[57]
Neglectofprobability
Thetendencytocompletelydisregardprobabilitywhenmakingadecision
underuncertainty.[58]
Normalcybias
Therefusaltoplanfor,orreactto,adisasterwhichhasneverhappenedbefore.
Notinventedhere
Aversiontocontactwithoruseofproducts,research,standards,orknowledge
developedoutsideagroup.RelatedtoIKEAeffect.
Observerexpectancy
effect
Whenaresearcherexpectsagivenresultandthereforeunconsciously
manipulatesanexperimentormisinterpretsdatainordertofindit(seealso
subjectexpectancyeffect).
Omissionbias
Thetendencytojudgeharmfulactionsasworse,orlessmoral,thanequally
harmfulomissions(inactions).[59]
Optimismbias
Thetendencytobeoveroptimistic,overestimatingfavorableandpleasing
outcomes(seealsowishfulthinking,valenceeffect,positiveoutcome
bias).[60][61]
Ostricheffect
Ignoringanobvious(negative)situation.
Outcomebias
Thetendencytojudgeadecisionbyitseventualoutcomeinsteadofbasedon
thequalityofthedecisionatthetimeitwasmade.
Overconfidenceeffect
Excessiveconfidenceinone'sownanswerstoquestions.Forexample,for
certaintypesofquestions,answersthatpeoplerateas"99%certain"turnoutto
bewrong40%ofthetime.[4][62][63][64]
Pareidolia
Avagueandrandomstimulus(oftenanimageorsound)isperceivedas
significant,e.g.,seeingimagesofanimalsorfacesinclouds,themaninthe
moon,andhearingnonexistenthiddenmessagesonrecordsplayedinreverse.
Parkinson'sLawof
Triviality
Thetendencytogivedisproportionateweighttotrivialissues.Alsoknownas
bikeshedding,thisbiasexplainswhyanorganizationmayavoidspecializedor
complexsubjects,suchasthedesignofanuclearreactor,andinsteadfocuson
somethingeasytograsporrewardingtotheaverageparticipant,suchasthe
designofanadjacentbikeshed.[65]
Pessimismbias
Thetendencyforsomepeople,especiallythosesufferingfromdepression,to
overestimatethelikelihoodofnegativethingshappeningtothem.
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Planningfallacy
Thetendencytounderestimatetaskcompletiontimes.[52]
Postpurchase
rationalization
Thetendencytopersuadeoneselfthroughrationalargumentthatapurchase
wasagoodvalue.
Proinnovationbias
Thetendencytohaveanexcessiveoptimismtowardsaninventionor
innovation'susefulnessthroughoutsociety,whileoftenfailingtoidentifyits
limitationsandweaknesses.
Pseudocertaintyeffect
Thetendencytomakeriskaversechoicesiftheexpectedoutcomeispositive,
butmakeriskseekingchoicestoavoidnegativeoutcomes.[66]
Reactance
Theurgetodotheoppositeofwhatsomeonewantsyoutodooutofaneedto
resistaperceivedattempttoconstrainyourfreedomofchoice(seealsoReverse
psychology).
Reactivedevaluation
Devaluingproposalsonlybecausetheypurportedlyoriginatedwithan
adversary.
Recencyillusion
Theillusionthatawordorlanguageusageisarecentinnovationwhenitisin
factlongestablished(seealsofrequencyillusion).
Restraintbias
Thetendencytooverestimateone'sabilitytoshowrestraintinthefaceof
temptation.
Rhymingstatementsareperceivedasmoretruthful.Afamousexamplebeing
Rhymeasreasoneffect usedintheO.JSimpsontrialwiththedefense'suseofthephrase"Ifthegloves
don'tfit,thenyoumustacquit."
Riskcompensation/
Peltzmaneffect
Thetendencytotakegreaterriskswhenperceivedsafetyincreases.
Selectiveperception
Thetendencyforexpectationstoaffectperception.
Semmelweisreflex
Thetendencytorejectnewevidencethatcontradictsaparadigm.[29]
Socialcomparisonbias
Thetendency,whenmakinghiringdecisions,tofavourpotentialcandidates
whodon'tcompetewithone'sownparticularstrengths.[67]
Socialdesirabilitybias
Thetendencytooverreportsociallydesirablecharacteristicsorbehavioursin
oneselfandunderreportsociallyundesirablecharacteristicsorbehaviours.[68]
Statusquobias
Thetendencytolikethingstostayrelativelythesame(seealsolossaversion,
endowmenteffect,andsystemjustification).[69][70]
Stereotyping
Expectingamemberofagrouptohavecertaincharacteristicswithouthaving
actualinformationaboutthatindividual.
Subadditivityeffect
Thetendencytojudgeprobabilityofthewholetobelessthantheprobabilities
oftheparts.[71]
Subjectivevalidation
Perceptionthatsomethingistrueifasubject'sbeliefdemandsittobetrue.Also
assignsperceivedconnectionsbetweencoincidences.
Survivorshipbias
Concentratingonthepeopleorthingsthat"survived"someprocessand
inadvertentlyoverlookingthosethatdidn'tbecauseoftheirlackofvisibility.
Timesavingbias
Underestimationsofthetimethatcouldbesaved(orlost)whenincreasing(or
decreasing)fromarelativelylowspeedandoverestimationsofthetimethat
couldbesaved(orlost)whenincreasing(ordecreasing)fromarelativelyhigh
speed.
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Unitbias
Thetendencytowanttofinishagivenunitofataskoranitem.Strongeffects
ontheconsumptionoffoodinparticular.[72]
WeberFechnerlaw
Difficultyincomparingsmalldifferencesinlargequantities.
Welltravelledroad
effect
Underestimationofthedurationtakentotraverseofttraveledroutesand
overestimationofthedurationtakentotraverselessfamiliarroutes.
Zeroriskbias
Preferenceforreducingasmallrisktozerooveragreaterreductioninalarger
risk.
Zerosumheuristic
Intuitivelyjudgingasituationtobezerosum(i.e.,thatgainsandlossesare
correlated).Derivesfromthezerosumgameingametheory,wherewinsand
lossessumtozero.[73][74]Thefrequencywithwhichthisbiasoccursmaybe
relatedtothesocialdominanceorientationpersonalityfactor.
Socialbiases
Mostofthesebiasesarelabeledasattributionalbiases.
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Name
Description
Actorobserverbias
Thetendencyforexplanationsofotherindividuals'behaviorstooveremphasize
theinfluenceoftheirpersonalityandunderemphasizetheinfluenceoftheir
situation(seealsoFundamentalattributionerror),andforexplanationsofone's
ownbehaviorstodotheopposite(thatis,tooveremphasizetheinfluenceofour
situationandunderemphasizetheinfluenceofourownpersonality).
Defensiveattribution
hypothesis
Attributingmoreblametoaharmdoerastheoutcomebecomesmoresevereor
aspersonalorsituationalsimilaritytothevictimincreases.
Egocentricbias
Occurswhenpeopleclaimmoreresponsibilityforthemselvesfortheresultsof
ajointactionthananoutsideobserverwouldcreditthemwith.
Anexceptiontothefundamentalattributionerror,whenpeopleviewothersas
Extrinsicincentivesbias having(situational)extrinsicmotivationsand(dispositional)intrinsic
motivationsforoneself
Falseconsensuseffect
Thetendencyforpeopletooverestimatethedegreetowhichothersagreewith
them.[75]
Forereffect(aka
Barnumeffect)
Thetendencytogivehighaccuracyratingstodescriptionsoftheirpersonality
thatsupposedlyaretailoredspecificallyforthem,butareinfactvagueand
generalenoughtoapplytoawiderangeofpeople.Forexample,horoscopes.
Fundamental
attributionerror
Thetendencyforpeopletooveremphasizepersonalitybasedexplanationsfor
behaviorsobservedinotherswhileunderemphasizingtheroleandpowerof
situationalinfluencesonthesamebehavior(seealsoactorobserverbias,group
attributionerror,positivityeffect,andnegativityeffect).[76]
Thebiasedbeliefthatthecharacteristicsofanindividualgroupmemberare
reflectiveofthegroupasawholeorthetendencytoassumethatgroupdecision
Groupattributionerror
outcomesreflectthepreferencesofgroupmembers,evenwheninformationis
availablethatclearlysuggestsotherwise.
Haloeffect
Thetendencyforaperson'spositiveornegativetraitsto"spillover"fromone
personalityareatoanotherinothers'perceptionsofthem(seealsophysical
attractivenessstereotype).[77]
Illusionofasymmetric
insight
Peopleperceivetheirknowledgeoftheirpeerstosurpasstheirpeers'
knowledgeofthem.[78]
Illusionofexternal
agency
Whenpeopleviewselfgeneratedpreferencesasinsteadbeingcausedby
insightful,effectiveandbenevolentagents
Illusionoftransparency
Peopleoverestimateothers'abilitytoknowthem,andtheyalsooverestimate
theirabilitytoknowothers.
Illusorysuperiority
Overestimatingone'sdesirablequalities,andunderestimatingundesirable
qualities,relativetootherpeople.(Alsoknownas"LakeWobegoneffect",
"betterthanaverageeffect",or"superioritybias".)[79]
Ingroupbias
Thetendencyforpeopletogivepreferentialtreatmenttootherstheyperceiveto
bemembersoftheirowngroups.
Justworldhypothesis
Thetendencyforpeopletowanttobelievethattheworldisfundamentallyjust,
causingthemtorationalizeanotherwiseinexplicableinjusticeasdeservedby
thevictim(s).
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Moralluck
Thetendencyforpeopletoascribegreaterorlessermoralstandingbasedonthe
outcomeofanevent
Navecynicism
Expectingmoreegocentricbiasinothersthaninoneself
Naverealism
Thebeliefthatweseerealityasitreallyisobjectivelyandwithoutbiasthat
thefactsareplainforalltoseethatrationalpeoplewillagreewithusandthat
thosewhodon'tareeitheruninformed,lazy,irrational,orbiased.
Outgrouphomogeneity Individualsseemembersoftheirowngroupasbeingrelativelymorevaried
bias
thanmembersofothergroups.[80]
Projectionbias
Thetendencytounconsciouslyassumethatothers(orone'sfutureselves)share
one'scurrentemotionalstates,thoughtsandvalues.[81]
Selfservingbias
Thetendencytoclaimmoreresponsibilityforsuccessesthanfailures.Itmay
alsomanifestitselfasatendencyforpeopletoevaluateambiguousinformation
inawaybeneficialtotheirinterests(seealsogroupservingbias).[82]
Sharedinformation
bias
Knownasthetendencyforgroupmemberstospendmoretimeandenergy
discussinginformationthatallmembersarealreadyfamiliarwith(i.e.,shared
information),andlesstimeandenergydiscussinginformationthatonlysome
membersareawareof(i.e.,unsharedinformation).[83]
Systemjustification
Thetendencytodefendandbolsterthestatusquo.Existingsocial,economic,
andpoliticalarrangementstendtobepreferred,andalternativesdisparaged,
sometimesevenattheexpenseofindividualandcollectiveselfinterest.(See
alsostatusquobias.)
Traitascriptionbias
Thetendencyforpeopletoviewthemselvesasrelativelyvariableintermsof
personality,behavior,andmoodwhileviewingothersasmuchmore
predictable.
Ultimateattribution
error
Similartothefundamentalattributionerror,inthiserrorapersonislikelyto
makeaninternalattributiontoanentiregroupinsteadoftheindividualswithin
thegroup.
Worsethanaverage
effect
Atendencytobelieveourselvestobeworsethanothersattaskswhichare
difficult[84]
Memoryerrorsandbiases
Inpsychologyandcognitivescience,amemorybiasisacognitivebiasthateitherenhancesorimpairsthe
recallofamemory(eitherthechancesthatthememorywillberecalledatall,ortheamountoftimeittakes
forittoberecalled,orboth),orthataltersthecontentofareportedmemory.Therearemanytypesof
memorybias,including:
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Name
Description
Bizarrenesseffect
Bizarrematerialisbetterrememberedthancommonmaterial.
Choicesupportivebias
Inaselfjustifyingmannerretroactivelyascribingone'schoicestobemore
informedthantheywerewhentheyweremade.
Changebias
Afteraninvestmentofeffortinproducingchange,rememberingone'spast
performanceasmoredifficultthanitactuallywas[85]
Childhoodamnesia
Theretentionoffewmemoriesfrombeforetheageoffour.
Conservatismor
Regressivebias
Tendencytorememberhighvaluesandhigh
likelihoods/probabilities/frequenciesaslowerthantheyactuallywereandlow
onesashigherthantheyactuallywere.Basedontheevidence,memoriesare
notextremeenough[26][27]
Consistencybias
Incorrectlyrememberingone'spastattitudesandbehaviourasresembling
presentattitudesandbehaviour.[86]
Contexteffect
Thatcognitionandmemoryaredependentoncontext,suchthatoutofcontext
memoriesaremoredifficulttoretrievethanincontextmemories(e.g.,recall
timeandaccuracyforaworkrelatedmemorywillbelowerathome,andvice
versa)
Crossraceeffect
Thetendencyforpeopleofoneracetohavedifficultyidentifyingmembersofa
raceotherthantheirown.
Cryptomnesia
Aformofmisattributionwhereamemoryismistakenforimagination,because
thereisnosubjectiveexperienceofitbeingamemory.[85]
Egocentricbias
Recallingthepastinaselfservingmanner,e.g.,rememberingone'sexam
gradesasbeingbetterthantheywere,orrememberingacaughtfishasbigger
thanitreallywas.
Fadingaffectbias
Abiasinwhichtheemotionassociatedwithunpleasantmemoriesfadesmore
quicklythantheemotionassociatedwithpositiveevents.[87]
Falsememory
Aformofmisattributionwhereimaginationismistakenforamemory.
Thatselfgeneratedinformationisrememberedbest.Forinstance,peopleare
Generationeffect(Self
betterabletorecallmemoriesofstatementsthattheyhavegeneratedthan
generationeffect)
similarstatementsgeneratedbyothers.
Googleeffect
Thetendencytoforgetinformationthatcanbefoundreadilyonlinebyusing
Internetsearchengines.
Hindsightbias
Theinclinationtoseepasteventsasbeingmorepredictablethantheyactually
werealsocalledthe"Iknewitallalong"effect.
Humoreffect
Thathumorousitemsaremoreeasilyrememberedthannonhumorousones,
whichmightbeexplainedbythedistinctivenessofhumor,theincreased
cognitiveprocessingtimetounderstandthehumor,ortheemotionalarousal
causedbythehumor.[88]
Illusionoftrutheffect
Thatpeoplearemorelikelytoidentifyastruestatementsthosetheyhave
previouslyheard(eveniftheycannotconsciouslyrememberhavingheard
them),regardlessoftheactualvalidityofthestatement.Inotherwords,a
personismorelikelytobelieveafamiliarstatementthananunfamiliarone.
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Illusorycorrelation
Inaccuratelyrememberingarelationshipbetweentwoevents.[4][51]
Lageffect
Seespacingeffect.
Levelingand
Sharpening
Memorydistortionsintroducedbythelossofdetailsinarecollectionovertime,
oftenconcurrentwithsharpeningorselectiverecollectionofcertaindetailsthat
takeonexaggeratedsignificanceinrelationtothedetailsoraspectsofthe
experiencelostthroughleveling.Bothbiasesmaybereinforcedovertime,and
byrepeatedrecollectionorretellingofamemory.[89]
Levelsofprocessing
effect
Thatdifferentmethodsofencodinginformationintomemoryhavedifferent
levelsofeffectiveness.[90]
Listlengtheffect
Asmallerpercentageofitemsarerememberedinalongerlist,butasthelength
ofthelistincreases,theabsolutenumberofitemsrememberedincreasesas
well.[91]
Misinformationeffect
Memorybecominglessaccuratebecauseofinterferencefrompostevent
information.[92]
Modalityeffect
Thatmemoryrecallishigherforthelastitemsofalistwhenthelistitemswere
receivedviaspeechthanwhentheywerereceivedthroughwriting.
Moodcongruent
memorybias
Theimprovedrecallofinformationcongruentwithone'scurrentmood.
Nextinlineeffect
Thatapersoninagrouphasdiminishedrecallforthewordsofotherswho
spokeimmediatelybeforehimself,iftheytaketurnsspeaking.[93]
Partlistcueingeffect
Thatbeingshownsomeitemsfromalistandlaterretrievingoneitemcausesit
tobecomehardertoretrievetheotheritems[94]
Peakendrule
Thatpeopleseemtoperceivenotthesumofanexperiencebuttheaverageof
howitwasatitspeak(e.g.,pleasantorunpleasant)andhowitended.
Persistence
Theunwantedrecurrenceofmemoriesofatraumaticevent.
Picturesuperiority
effect
Thenotionthatconceptsthatarelearnedbyviewingpicturesaremoreeasily
andfrequentlyrecalledthanareconceptsthatarelearnedbyviewingtheir
writtenwordformcounterparts.[95][96][97][98][99][100]
Positivityeffect
Thatolderadultsfavorpositiveovernegativeinformationintheirmemories.
Primacyeffect,Recency Thatitemsneartheendofasequencearetheeasiesttorecall,followedbythe
effect&Serialposition itemsatthebeginningofasequenceitemsinthemiddlearetheleastlikelyto
effect
beremembered.[101]
Processingdifficulty
effect
Thatinformationthattakeslongertoreadandisthoughtaboutmore(processed
withmoredifficulty)ismoreeasilyremembered.[102]
Reminiscencebump
Therecallingofmorepersonaleventsfromadolescenceandearlyadulthood
thanpersonaleventsfromotherlifetimeperiods[103]
Rosyretrospection
Therememberingofthepastashavingbeenbetterthanitreallywas.
Selfrelevanceeffect
Thatmemoriesrelatingtotheselfarebetterrecalledthansimilarinformation
relatingtoothers.
Sourceconfusion
Confusingepisodicmemorieswithotherinformation,creatingdistorted
memories.[104]
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Spacingeffect
Thatinformationisbetterrecalledifexposuretoitisrepeatedoveralongspan
oftimeratherthanashortone.
Spotlighteffect
Thetendencytooverestimatetheamountthatotherpeoplenoticeyour
appearanceorbehavior.
Stereotypicalbias
Memorydistortedtowardsstereotypes(e.g.,racialorgender),e.g.,"black
sounding"namesbeingmisrememberedasnamesofcriminals.[85]
Suffixeffect
Diminishmentoftherecencyeffectbecauseasounditemisappendedtothelist
thatthesubjectisnotrequiredtorecall.[105][106]
Suggestibility
Aformofmisattributionwhereideassuggestedbyaquestioneraremistaken
formemory.
Telescopingeffect
Thetendencytodisplacerecenteventsbackwardintimeandremoteevents
forwardintime,sothatrecenteventsappearmoreremote,andremoteevents,
morerecent.
Testingeffect
Thefactthatyoumoreeasilyrememberinformationyouhavereadbyrewriting
itinsteadofrereadingit.[107]
Tipofthetongue
phenomenon
Whenasubjectisabletorecallpartsofanitem,orrelatedinformation,butis
frustratinglyunabletorecallthewholeitem.Thisisthoughtaninstanceof
"blocking"wheremultiplesimilarmemoriesarebeingrecalledandinterfere
witheachother.[85]
TravisSyndrome
Overestimatingthesignificanceofthepresent.[108]
Verbatimeffect
Thatthe"gist"ofwhatsomeonehassaidisbetterrememberedthanthe
verbatimwording.[109]Thisisbecausememoriesarerepresentations,notexact
copies.
VonRestorffeffect
Thatanitemthatsticksoutismorelikelytoberememberedthanother
items[110]
Zeigarnikeffect
Thatuncompletedorinterruptedtasksarerememberedbetterthancompleted
ones.
Commontheoreticalcausesofsomecognitivebiases
Boundedrationalitylimitsonoptimizationandrationality
Prospecttheory
Mentalaccounting
Adaptivebiasbasingdecisionsonlimitedinformationandbiasingthembasedonthecosts
ofbeingwrong.
Attributesubstitutionmakingacomplex,difficultjudgmentbyunconsciouslysubstitutingitby
aneasierjudgment[111]
Attributiontheory
Salience
Naverealism
Cognitivedissonance,andrelated:
Impressionmanagement
Selfperceptiontheory
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Heuristicsinjudgmentanddecisionmaking,including:
Availabilityheuristicestimatingwhatismorelikelybywhatismoreavailableinmemory,
whichisbiasedtowardvivid,unusual,oremotionallychargedexamples[50]
Representativenessheuristicjudgingprobabilitiesonthebasisofresemblance[50]
Affectheuristicbasingadecisiononanemotionalreactionratherthanacalculationofrisks
andbenefits[112]
Sometheoriesofemotionsuchas:
Twofactortheoryofemotion
Somaticmarkershypothesis
Introspectionillusion
Misinterpretationsormisuseofstatisticsinnumeracy.
A2012PsychologicalBulletinarticlesuggestedthatatleasteightseeminglyunrelatedbiasescanbe
producedbythesameinformationtheoreticgenerativemechanismthatassumesnoisyinformation
processingduringstorageandretrievalofinformationinhumanmemory.[4]
Individualdifferencesindecisionmakingbiases
Peopledoappeartohavestableindividualdifferencesintheirsusceptibilitytodecisionbiasessuchas
overconfidence,temporaldiscounting,andbiasblindspot.[113]Thatsaid,thesestablelevelsofbiaswithin
individualsarepossibletochange.Participantsinexperimentswhowatchedtrainingvideosandplayed
debiasinggamesshowedmediumtolargereductionsbothimmediatelyanduptothreemonthslaterinthe
extenttowhichtheyexhibitedsusceptibilitytosixcognitivebiases:anchoring,biasblindspot,
confirmationbias,fundamentalattributionerror,projectionbias,andrepresentativeness.[114]
Debiasing
Debiasingisthereductionofbiasesinjudgmentanddecisionmakingthroughincentives,nudges,and
training.
Seealso
Affectiveforecasting
Apophenia
Blackswantheory
Chronostasis
Cognitivebiasmitigation
Cognitivedistortion
Confabulation
Crossraceeffect
Dysrationalia
Feedback
Framerate
Listofcommonmisconceptions
Listoffallacies
Listofmemorybiases
Listsofthinkingrelatedtopics
Listoftopicsrelatedtopublicrelationsandpropaganda
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Logicalfallacy
Mediabias
Mindprojectionfallacy
Pareidolia
Positivefeedback
Prevalenceeffect
Publicationbias
Recallbias
Rasterscan
Saccade
Saccadicmasking
Saccadicsuppressionofimagedisplacement
Selfhandicapping
Systematicbias
Transsaccadicmemory
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