The casting method consists of forming a wax pattern, surrounding it with investment

material, and later heating the investment mold to remove the wax before casting the
molten metal into the mold.
Defects in Wax Pattern
1. Distortion
2. Surface roughness and irregularities
3. Air bubbles
4. Water film
Defects in Burn out Procedure
1. Rapid Heating Rates
2. Under heating
3. Prolonged heating
Rough surface on casting
Due to prolonged overheating of gypsum bonded investment.
Prevention- use correct heating cycle for burnout procedure. Do not heat above 1290F
(700C)
Problems DURING CASTING PROCEDURE
1. Incomplete castings
Alloy not hot enough
Have casting temperature above indicated fusion temperature of alloy
Mold too cold
Oven too cold- check pyrometer; mould should heat soak 1 hour at burnout
temperature.
Insufficient casting force
Force alloy into the mold rapidly;use centrifugal machine with good springs
Winds.
Insufficient gold
2. Rough Surface on casting
Due to -Too much casting pressure causing investment breakdown from force of
alloy.
Elimination A gauge pressure of .10 to.14MPa in an air pressure casting machine
Three to four turns of the spring in an average type of centrifugal casting machines is
sufficient for small castings
Classification of casting defects (ANUSAVICE)
Defects in castings can be classified under four headings:
(1) Distortion;
(2) Surface roughness and irregularities;
(3) Porosity;
(4) Incomplete or missing detail

Distortion
Any marked distortion of the casting is probably related to a distortion of the wax
pattern.This type of distortion can be minimized or prevented by proper manipulation of
the wax and handling of the pattern.Some distortion of the wax pattern occurs as the
investment hardens around it.The setting and hygroscopic expansions of the investment
may produce a nonuniform expansion of the walls of the pattern.
This type of distortion occurs in part from the nonuniform outward movement of the
proximal walls, the gingival margins are forced apart by the mold expansion, whereas the
solid occlusal bar of wax resists expansion during the early stages of setting
The configuration of the pattern, the type of wax, and the thickness influence the
distortion that occurs.
Distortion increases as the thickness of the pattern decreases.
The less the setting expansion of the investment, the less the distortion.
Surface Roughness, Irregularities, and Discoloration
The surface of a dental casting should be an accurate reproduction of the wax pattern
from which it is made.
Excessive roughness or irregularities on outer surface of the casting necessitate additional
finishing and polishing, whereas irregularities on the cavity surface prevent a proper
seating of an otherwise accurate casting.
Surface roughness is defined as relatively finely spaced surface imperfections whose
height, width, and direction establish the predominant surface pattern. Surface
irregularities are isolated imperfections, such as nodules, that are not characteristic of the
entire surface area. The surface roughness of the dental casting is invariably somewhat
greater than that of the wax pattern from which it is made. The difference is probably
related to the particle size of the investment and its ability to reproduce the wax pattern in
microscopic detail.
Surface irregularities on an experimental casting caused by air bubbles (A),water film
(B), and inclusion of foreign bodies(C).

Air
Bubbles
Small
nodules on
a casting
are caused
by air
bubbles
that
become
attached to
the pattern
during or
subsequent
to the
investing
procedure.
The best
method to avoid air bubbles is to use the vacuum investing technique. If a manual method
is used, various precautions can be observed from the investment mix before the
investing. The use of a mechanical mixer with vibration both before and after mixing
should be practiced routinely.
Wetting agent;
A wetting agent may be helpful in preventing the collection of air bubbles on the
surface of the pattern.
The wetting agent be applied in a thin layer.
Air-dry the wetting agent, because any excess liquid dilutes the investment, possibly
producing surface irregularities on the casting.
Water Films
Wax is repellent to water, and if the investment becomes separated from the wax pattern in some manner, a water film may form irregularly over the surface.
Occasionally, this type of surface irregularity appears as minute ridges or veins on the
surface .
If the pattern is slightly moved, jarred, or vibrated after investing, or if the painting
procedure does not result in an intimate contact of the investment with the pattern, such a
condition may result
A wetting agent is of aid in the prevention of such irregularities. Too high a L/P ratio
may also produce these surface irregularities.
Rapid Heating

May result in fins or spines on the casting.

Also, a characteristic surface roughness may be evident because of flaking of the
investment when the water or steam pours into the mold. Furthermore, such a surge of
steam or water may carry some of the salts used as modifiers into the mold, and these
salts are left as deposits on the walls after the water evaporates.
The mold should be heated gradually; at least 60 min should elapse during the heating
of the investment-filled ring from room temperature to 700 C.
The greater the bulk of the investment, the more slowly it should be heated.
Underheating
Incomplete elimination of wax residues may occur if the heating time is too short or
if insufficient air is available in the furnace. These factors are particularly important with
the low-temperature investment techniques.
Voids or porosity may occur in the casting from the gases formed when the hot alloy
comes in contact with carbon residues. Occasionally, the casting may be covered with a
tenacious carbon, coating that is virtually impossible to remove by pickling.
Liquid/Powder Ratio
The amount of water and investment should be measured accurately.
The higher the L/P ratio, the rougher the casting. However, if too little water is used,
the investment may be unmanageably thick and cannot be properly applied to the pattern.
In vacuum investing, the air may not be sufficiently removed. In either instance, a
rough surface on the casting may result.
Prolonged Heating
When the high-heat casting technique is used, a prolonged heating of the mold at the
casting temperature is likely to cause a disintegration of the gypsum-bonded investment,
and the walls of the mold are roughened as a result. Furthermore, products of
decomposition are sulfur compounds that may contaminate the alloy to the extent that the
surface texture is affected
Such contamination may be the reason that the surface of the casting sometimes does
not respond to pickling.
When the thermal expansion technique is employed, the mold should be heated to the
casting temperaturenever higherand the casting should be made immediately.
Temperature of the Alloy
If an alloy is heated to too high a temperature before casting, the surface investment is
likely to be attacked, and a surface roughness may result. In all probability, the alloy will
not be overheated with a gas-air torch when used with the gas supplied in most localities.
If oil is used, special care should be observed that the color emitted by the molten alloy,
for example, is no lighter than a light orange.
Casting Pressure
Too high a pressure during casting can produce a rough surface on the casting.
A gauge pressure of 0.10 to 0.14 MPa in an air pressure casting machine or three to
four turns of the spring in an average type of centrifugal casting machine is sufficient for
Composition of the Investment
The ratio of the binder to the quartz influences the surface texture of the casting.
A coarse silica causes a surface roughness.

If the investment meets ANSI/ ADA Specification No. 2, the composition is not a
factor in surface roughness small castings.
Foreign Bodies
When foreign substances get into the mold, a surface roughness may be produced.
For example, a rough crucible former with investment clinging to it may roughen the
investment on its removal so that bits of investment are carried into the mold with the
molten alloy. Carelessness in the removal of the sprue former may also be a cause.
Usually, contamination results not only in surface roughness but also in incomplete
areas or surface voids. Any casting that shows sharp, well-defined deficiencies indicates
the presence of some foreign particles in the mold, such as pieces of investment and bits
of carbon from a flux. Bright-appearing concavities may be the result of flux being
carried into the mold with the metal.
Surface discoloration and roughness can result from sulfur contamination, either from
investment breakdown at elevated temperatures or from a high sulfur content of the torch
flame. The interaction of the molten alloy with sulfur produces a black or grey layer on
the surface of gold alloys that is brittle and does not clean readily during pickling.
Impact of Molten Alloy
The direction of the sprue former should be such that the molten gold alloy does not
strike a weak portion of the mold surface.
Occasionally, the molten alloy may fracture or abrade the mold surface on impact,
regardless of its bulk.
It is unfortunate that sometimes the abraded area is smooth so that it cannot be
detected on the surface of the casting
Such a depression in the mold is reflected as a raised area on the casting, often too
slight to be noticed yet sufficiently large to prevent complete seating of the casting. This
type of surface roughness or irregularity can be avoided by proper spruing so as to
prevent the direct impact of the molten metal at an angle of 90 degrees to the investment
surface.
Pattern Position
If several patterns are invested in the same ring, they should not be placed too close
together. Likewise, positioning too many patterns in the same plane in the mold should be
avoided. The expansion of wax is much greater than that of the investment, causing
breakdown or cracking of the investment if the spacing between patterns is less than 3
mm.
Carbon Inclusions
Carbon, as from a crucible, an improperly adjusted torch, or a carbon-containing
investment, can be absorbed by the alloy during casting. These particles may lead to the
formation of carbides or even create visible carbon inclusions.
Other Causes
Certain surface discolorations and roughness may not be evident when the casting is
completed but may appear during service. For example, various gold alloys, such as
solders, bits of wire, and mixtures of different casting alloys should never be melted
together and reused. Discoloration and corrosion may also occur.
A source of discoloration often overlooked is the surface contamination of a gold alloy
restoration by mercury. Mercury penetrates rapidly into the alloy and causes a marked
loss in ductility and a greater susceptibility to corrosion.

Thus it is not a good practice to place a new amalgam restoration adjacent to a high
noble alloy restoration. In addition, these dissimilar metals form a galvanic cell that can
lead to breakdown of the anode (amalgam) relative to the cathode (noble alloy).
Porosities in noble metal alloy castings may be classified as follows:
I. Solidification defects
A. Localized shrinkage porosity
B. Microporosity
II. Trapped gases
A. Pinhole porosity
H. Gas inclusions
C. Subsurface porosity
III. Residual air
Localized shrinkage generally caused by premature termination of the flow of molten
metal during solidification.he linear contraction of noble metal alloys in changing from
a liquid to a solid is at least 1.25%. Therefore continual feeding of molten metal through
the sprue must occur to make up for the shrinkage of metal volume during
solidification.If the sprue freezes in its cross-section before this feeding is completed to
the casting proper, a localized shrinkage void will occur in the last portion of the casting
that solidifies.
The porosity in the pontic area caused by the ability of the pontic to retain heat
because of its bulk.It was located in the heat center of the ring. This problem can be
solved by attaching one or more small-gauge sprues These small chill set sprues ensure
that solidification begins within the sprues, and they act as cooling pins to carry heat
away from the pontic.Suck-back porosity often occurs at an occlusoaxial line angle or
incisoaxial line angle that is not well rounded. The entering metal impinges onto the mold
surface at this point and creates a higher localized mold temperature in this region, known
as a hot spot .A hot spot may retain a localized pool of molten metal after other areas of
the casting have solidified. This in turn creates a shrinkage void or suck-back porosity.
Elimination by flaring the point of sprue attachment and reducing the mold-melt
temperature differential, that is ,lowering the casting temperature by about 30 C.
Microporosity
Ooccurs from solidification shrinkage but is generally present in fine-grain alloy
castings when the solidification is too rapid for the microvoids to segregate to the liquid
pool. Such phenomena can occur from rapid solidification if the mold or casting temperature is too low. This type of defect is not detectable unless the casting is
sectioned.Pinhole and the gas inclusion porosities are related to the entrapment of gas
during solidification both are characterized by a spherical contour, but they are decidedly
different in size.
The gas inclusion porosities are usually much larger than the pinhole porosity.Many
metals dissolve or occlude gases while they are molten. For example, both copper and
silver dissolve oxygen in large amounts in the liquid state.platinum and palladium have a
strong affinity for hydrogen as well as oxygen. On solidification, the absorbed gases are
expelled and pinhole porosity results The larger voids may also result from the same
cause, but it is more logical to assume that such voids are caused by gas that is

mechanically trapped by the molten metal in the mold or by gas that is incorporated
during the casting procedure.All castings probably contain a certain amount of porosity.
However, the porosity should be kept to a minimum because it may adversely affect the
physical properties of the casting.
Castings that are severely contaminated with gases are usually black when they are
removed from the investment and do not clean easily on pickling.The porosity that
extends to the surface is usually in the form of small pinpoint holes. When the surface is
polished, other pinholes appear.
Larger spherical porosities can be caused by gas occluded from a poorly adjusted
torch flame, or by use of the mixing or oxidizing zones of the flame rather than the
reducing zone. These types of porosity can be minimized by pre-melting the gold alloy on
a graphite crucible or a graphite block, by correctly adjusting and positioning the torch
flame during melting.Subsurface porosity may be caused by the simultaneous nucleation
of solid grains and gas bubbles at the first moment that the alloy freezes at the mold
walls. can be diminished by controlling the rate at which the molten metal enters the
mold.
Entrapped-air porosity or Back pressure porosity occurs on the inner surface of the
casting, produce large concave depressions.This is caused by the inability of the air in the
mold to escape through the pores in the investment or by the pressure gradient that
displaces the air pocket toward the end of the investment via the molten sprue and button.
The entrapment is frequently found in a "pocket" at the cavity surface of a crown or
mesio-occlusal-distal casting.
Occasionally, it is found even on the outside surface of the casting when the casting
temperature or mold temperature is so low that solidification occurs before the entrapped
air can escape.
The incidence of entrapped air can be increased by use of the dense modern
investments, by an increase in mold density produced by vacuum investing, and by the
tendency for the mold to clog with residual carbon when the low-heat technique is used.
Each of these factors tends to slow the venting of gases from the mold during casting.
Proper burnout, an adequate mold and casting temperature, a sufficiently high casting
pressure, and proper L/P ratio can help to eliminate entrapped-air porosity. It is good
practice to make sure that the thickness of investment between the tip of the pattern and
the end of the ring not be greater than 6 mm.
CASTING DEFECTS BY RUDD AND MORROW
Incomplete casting
-Inadequate spruing
-Alloy not hot enough
-Mold too cold
-Ingate obstructed
-Insufficient casting force

Rounded margins
Incomplete burnout of wax pattern

Insufficient heating of alloy before casting

Margins melted while attaching pattern to sprue or former
Improper length/diam of sprue restricts flow of alloy into mold metal freezes before
margins are complete

Porosity
Improper sprue former,size,length or placement

Rough surface on casting

Excess moisture on pattern
Water powder ratio too high in mixing investment
Too much casting pressure causing investment breakdown from force of alloy

Prolonged overheating of gypsum bonded investment

Pits in casting
Debris in mould
Dirty wax
Loose debris in crucible
Mold temperature too hot

Fins on casting
Overvibration during investment or disturbing ring during set
Heating ring too rapidly causes moisture in mold to form steam and rupture out
mold

Bubbles or nodules on casting

Investment not mixed under enough vacuum to remove entrapped air bubbles

Air leak between crucibles,sprue former,and casting allowed bubble to form and
become trapped under pattern

Incomplete Casting
Occasionally, only a partially complete casting, or perhaps no casting at all, is
found. The obvious cause is that the molten alloy has been prevented, in some manner,
from completely filling the mold. At least two factors that may inhibit the ingress of the
liquefied alloy are insufficient venting of the mold high viscosity of the fused metal.
The first consideration, insufficient venting, is directly related to the back pressure
exerted by the air in the mold.
If the air cannot be vented quickly, the molten alloy does not fill the mold before it
solidifies. In such a case, the magnitude of the casting pressure should be suspected
If insufficient casting pressure is used, the back pressure cannot be overcome.
Furthermore, the pressure should be applied for at least 4 sec.
The mold is filled and the alloy is solidified in 1 sec or less; yet it is quite soft
during the early stages. Therefore the pressure should be maintained for a few seconds
beyond this point. These failures are usually exemplified in rounded, incomplete margins.
Rounded,incomplete margins are evidence of insufficient casting pressure

A second common cause for an incomplete casting is incomplete elimination of wax

residues from the mold. If too many products of combustion remain in the mold, the
pores in the investment may become filled so that the air cannot be vented completely
If moisture or particles of wax remain, the contact of the molten alloy with these
foreign substances produces an explosion that may produce sufficient back pressure to
prevent the mold from being filled. This shiny condition of the metal is caused by the
strong reducing atmosphere created by carbon monoxide left by the residual wax.
Incomplete casting results from incomplete wax removal

Different alloys exibit varying viscosities in molten state depending on composition

and temperature.
However, both the surface tension and the viscosity of a molten alloy are decreased
with an increase in temperature.
An incomplete casting resulting from too great a viscosity can be attributed to
insufficient heating. The temperature of the alloy should be raised higher than its liquidus
temperature so that its viscosity and surface tension are lowered and so that it does not
solidify prematurely as it enters the mold. Such premature solidification may account for
the greater susceptibility of the white gold alloys to porosity because their liquidus
temperature are higher. Thus they are more difficult to melt with a gas- air torch flame.

Sprue former selection is based on the following five principles;

1- For a small pattern a small size sprue is selected because a large sprue attached to
a thin delicate pattern could cause distortion. A sprue former diameter if too thin will lead
to a shrinkage porosity (suck- back) porosity. Reservoir sprues are used to overcome this
problem.
2-The sprue former should be attached to the portion of the pattern with the largest
cross sectional area. It is best for the molten alloy to flow from a thick section to a
surrounding thin area (e.g margins) and not the reverse. This design minimizes the risk
for turbulence.
3-The length of the sprue former should be long enough to properly position the
pattern in the casting ring within 6 mm of the trailing end and yet short enough so that
molten alloy does not solidify before it fills the mold.A reservoir should be added to a
spruing network to prevent localized shrinkage porosity.
When the molten metal alloy fills the heated casting ring, the pattern area should
solidify first and the reservoir last. Because of its large mass of alloy and position in the
heat centre of the ring, the reservoir remains molten to furnish liquid alloy into the mold
as it solidifies. The resulting solidification shrinkage occurs in the reservoir bar and not in
the restoration. Flaring facilitates the entry of fluid alloy into the pattern area.
Sprue Former Direction-The sprue former should be directed away from any thin or
delicate parts of the pattern, because the molten metal may abrade or fracture investment
in this area and result in a casting failure. It should not be attached at a right angle to a

broad flat surface as this leads to turbulence within the mold cavity and severe porosity in
the region. The sprue former should always be attached to pattern at 45 degree angle.
Sprue Former Length-The length of the sprue former depends on the length of the
casting ring. The sprue length should be adjusted so that the top of the wax pattern is
within 6 mm of the open end of the ring for gypsum bonded investments. If the sprue is
too short, the wax pattern may be so far removed from the end of the casting ring that
gases cannot be vented to permit the molten alloy to fill the ring completely .
When these gases are not completely eliminated porosity results. With the higher
strength phosphate bonded investments the sprue former should be within 3 to 4 mm of
the top of the investment. The pattern should always be placed as close to the centre of
the ring as possible
The type, size, location, and direction of the sprue are factors that contribute to the
quality of the casting. A hollow sprue pin provides a stronger attachment to the pattern
and is recommended over the solid pin. Where die solid sprue pin is necessary, as in some
types of double sprues having a Y shape, a minute amount of sticky wax should be used
to enhance the union of the pin and the wax.
The diameter of the sprue, in conjunction with the pressure of the casting machine
and density of the molten metal, controls the rate of flow of the molten metal into the
mold cavity. The larger the diameter of the sprue or the higher the pressure of the casting
machine and density of the molten metal, the faster the molten metal should enter the
mold cavity
Surface treatment
Pickling consists of heating the discolored casting in an acid. For gypsum bonded
investments the best pickling solution is 50% hydrochloric acid solution. It aids in the
removal of any residual investment as well as of the oxide coating.
Disadvantage is that acid fumes are likely to corrode laboratory metal furnishings.
Never should the casting be held with steel tongs so that both the casting and the tongs
come in contact with the pickling solution, as this may contaminate the casting.
Gold based and palladium based metal ceramic alloys and base metal alloys are
bench cooled to room temperature before the casting is removed from the investment.
Castings from these alloys are generally not pickled, and when it is recommended for
certain metal ceramic alloys, it is only to selectively remove specific surface oxides.

CONCLUSION
An unsucessfull casting results in considerable trouble and loss of time,in almost all
instances,defects in casting can be avoided by strict observance of procedures governed
by certain fundamental rules and principles. Seldom is a defect in a casting attributable to
factors others than the carelessness or ignorance of the operator. With present
techniques,casting failures should be the exception,not the rule..

REFERENCES
SCIENCE OF DENTAL MATERIALS--- ANUSAVICE11TH EDITION
CONTEMPORARY FIXED PROSTHODONTICS ---STEPHEN F.
ROSENSTIEL---2ND EDITION
DENTAL LABORATORY PROCEDURES--
RHOADS.RUDD.MORROW

SCHILLINBURG . FUNDEMENTALS OF FIXED PROTHODONTICS

UNIVERSITATEA DE MEDICINA SI FARMACIE CRAIOVA

FACULATATEA DE MEDICINA DENTARA

CASTING METAL CROWNS

- ERROR-

Coordinating teacher: rc Tiberiu

Students: Al Baidhani Ammar
Badea Iosif
Blcescu Elena
Buciu Vdstreanu Alexandru
Mru Mihai

MD III, GR. 1 A