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This is an introduction to some of the physical principles that underly sensors in instrument
systems. It is not intended to be definitive, or very detailed, but to give the reader an idea of
what is readily achievable with the various systems. I'd welcome corrections and suggestions
for improvements.
This HTML document supported module PHY3128.
Resistance
Electrical resistance is the easiest electrical property to measure precisely over a wide range
at moderate cost. A simple digital multimeter costing a few tens of dollars can measure
resistances in the range 10 ohm to 10 megohm with a precision of about 1% using a two-wire
technique (circuit 1).
Circuit 1. Two-wire resistance measurement, RX = (V/I) RL1 RL2.
The precision of the two-wire method is limited by uncertainties in the values of the lead
resistances RL1 and RL2.
Circuits 2 & 3. Three-wire resistance measurement methods.
Providing the leads are well-matched, three-wire techniques can be used. Circuit 2 employs
two matched current sources, I1 and I2, to eliminate the effects of lead resistance providing
RL1 = RL2. Circuit 3 is an AC-bridge that is in-balance when RX = RY providing
RL1 = RL3. If a lock-in amplifier is used as a null-detector, determination of RX with an
extremely low excitation current is possible.
Circuit 4. Four-wire 'Kelvin' resistance measurement, RX = V/I.
The 4-Wire 'Kelvin' method (circuit 4) is used in difficult cases when lead resistances vary,
RX is very small, or when very high accuracy is required. The method is immune to the
influence of lead resistance and is limited by the quality of the constant current source and
voltage measurement. Thermoelectric voltages can be eliminated by averaging two
measurements with the polarity of the excitation current reversed.
See also:
AC Resistance Bridge.
Strain Gauges
At constant temperature, the resistance R of a metal or semiconductor element of
area A, length l, resistivity , is