PERSPECTIVES

UTILIZATION
F.W.

FOR SUSTAINABLE
AND

RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT OF NIPA

VEGETATION

FONG

Fang, F. W. (Field Studies Centre. % Department of Zoology, University of Malaya, 59100

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). PEIR~PECTIVESFOR SUSTAINABLERESOURCEUTILIZATIONAND MANAGEMENTOF NIPA VEGETATION.Economic Botany 46(1):45-54. 1992. Nypa fruticans Wurmb.
dominated wetlands are commonly found where brackish waters overflow with the tides. This
swamp palm is harvested for a variety of purposes, including roofing, construction materials and
peels for rolling cigarettes from its leaves, and sugar syrup, an intoxicating juice, vinegar and
alcohol from its floral and fruit stalk exudate. Extraction techniques are traditional, and current
resource development strategies are non-existent in areas where nipa palms are being harvested.
Maintenance of adequate supplies of the resource requires knowledge of demand on the resource
and its renewability under natural and harvest regimes. To sustain production, indigenous populations follow conservation-oriented practices in husbanding the natural resource.
Key Words:

Malaysia; nipa palm; Nypafruticans; Southeast Asia; sustainable resources.

The nipa palm and the true mangrove are an

integrated part of the tidally influenced wetlands
in Southeast Asia. Mangrove colonizes the upper
part o f t h e intertidal zone o f shorelines and fiver
mouths. Near the entrance of larger rivers with
high discharge of freshwater, mangrove is often
replaced by nipa palm vegetation, which performs the same ecological function as mangrove
in trapping suspended sediments. O n accreting
shores where mangrove spreads forward and deposition attains high tide level, nipa palm moves
in from the rear. In many places, nipa forms the
transition belt between mangrove and freshwater
swamps (Fig. 1).
These plant communities are increasingly targets of conflicting interests. Conservatists stress
their importance as traditional providers of subsistence materials such as sugar, wood, thatch
and tannins for the local people, as detritus
sources for productive fisheries and as natural
barriers to wave scouring along coasts. Proponents of development, however, exert pressures
to develop or reclaim these areas as a means to
increase food production or resettle people (Burbridge and Stanturf 1985). In Southeast Asia,
nipa vegetation is among the most ecologically

Received 8 Februrary 1990; accepted 22 July 1991.

and economically important wetland ecosystems

currently subject to such pressures. It also represents an important forest resource in current
subsistence economies throughout the Indo-Pacific region including Malaysia (Fang 1984).
Yet local people--the de facto resource users
and managers of nipa--are often ignorant of the
destruction they are causing to this resource.
Subsistence uses of nipa may prove unsustainable in some circumstances if no management is
practiced. The primary materials of nipa in dem a n d are the leaves and the sap that issues from
wounded floral or fruit stalks. This paper describes observations carried out in Kuala Selangor (320'N 10114'E), Peninsular Malaysia, on
the availability of these resource materials under
natural conditions, the demands for them by local populations and their production in experimental plantations. The traditional husbanding
methods for the wild palms are also discussed
with a view towards identifying promising approaches that might warrant further analysis and
dissemination.
METHODS
Field work was undertaken in protected and
relatively well preserved stands of nipa in the
Kuala Selangor area on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Tides in this region of Selangor

Economic Botany 46(1) pp. 45-54. 1992

1992, by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458 U.S.A.

46

ECONOMIC BOTANY

State are predominantly semi-diurnal with diurnal tides occurring twice a month. The altitude
in Port Kelang close to Kuala Selangor is 2.9 m
above the m i n i m u m sea level. The tidal range is
4.1 m at spring tide and 1.3 m at neap tide, while
maximal tidal stream velocities during spring
tides range from 1.5 to 2.2 knots and during neap
tides from 0.1 to 0.7 knots. Tidal flows in the
open shores are considerably less, unless oceanic
currents are operating during the m o n s o o n seasons. Temporal variation in salinity level correlates with rainfall, i.e., there are two depressions in the rainiest period o f the y e a r - - O c t o b e r N o v e m b e r and A p r i l - M a y - - c o i n c i d i n g with the
onset o f the monsoons.
Experimental plots (100 x 100 m) were established at Teluk P e n y a m u n (Site I), Teluk Piai
(Site II) and Teluk Permata (Site Ill) on the Selangor R i v er system. Within the experimental
areas, 20 x 20 m subplots were demarcated and
phenological observations carried out over three
years.
Observations were made every two to three
months (from late 1978 to early 1981) on palm
clumps within the subplots to record the number
o f immature, mature and dead leaves. Each new
or sword leaf emerges from a vertical groove or
cleft in the swollen leaf base o f the preceding leaf.
In this study, sword leaves, as well as young leaves
in which the leaflets have not fully expanded, are
categorized as i m m a t u r e while living leaves with
fully expanded leaflets are labeled mature. Leaf
counts are obtained easily by tagging the already
fully expanded ones and recording the emergence
o f new leaves as they appear. Concurrent with
m o n i t o r i n g v e g e t a t i v e g r o w th , r e p r o d u c t i v e
palms were observed to determine whether inflorescences had just emerged, inflorescences were
maturing, flowers were in bloom, fruits had just
formed, fruits were maturing or fruits were being
shed. These brief m o n t h l y counts gave an overall
picture o f the flowering and fruiting pattern o f
the population at large.
T o ascertain the a m o u n t s ofregrowth after different resource uses, selected palm individuals
were subjected to two sets o f cutting regimes:
clear cutting, in which all the leaves were rem o v e d from the c lu m p at the beginning o f the
experiment; and continuous cutting in which only
leaves o f the specified stage o f maturity were cut
at the beginning o f the experiment and on all
subsequent visits. Continuous cutting was divided into two subtreatments, i.e., variation a in which

[VOL. 46

only mature leaves were r e m o v e d (both i m m a ture and sword leaves being left behind on the
clump) and variation b in which both mature and
i m m a t u r e leaves were r e m o v e d (only sword
leaves left untouched on the clump). Inspection
visits were made at two- to t h r ee- m o n t h intervals
to record the rate o f regrowth o f treated palms.
RESULTS
MATERIALS OBTAINED FROM THE
NIPA PALMS
The important parts o f the palm are the leaf,
the fruit and the sap drained from cut floral or
fruit stalks (Fig. 2-5). The leaflets are woven into
thatch, sun-hats, sleeping mats, bags and baskets;
the midribs stripped from the leaflets are utilized
as brooms when bundled together and as tying
materials; the leaf petiole (leaf base) serves as
floats for fish nets and the rachis (main axis) as
fishing poles; the young leaflets are used as cigarette wrappers and also for wrapping cooked
rice; the sap is taken for sugar, alcohol or vinegar
manufacture; the endosperm o f young seeds is
eaten raw or preserved in syrup, and is often
added to iced desserts. To a lesser extent, ash
salt is also obtained from leaching the ashes o f
burnt palm leaf bases.
The practice o f harvesting leaves and sap was
observed in Kuala Selangor to ascertain the kind
o f damage inflicted to the wild palms. For thatch
and cigarette wrappers (Fig. 2, 3), leaves are harvested continuously throughout the year and the
a m o u n t harvested is governed only by the demand o f the market. Nipa leaflets are gathered
from mature leaves o f at least twelve months o f
age for thatch. The leaves are cut about 0.6-1.0
m from the ground level and below the lowest
leaflet but above the cleft in the leaf base. A b o u t
a meter-long section is cut away from each end
o f the leaf, leaving only the middle section with
the longest leaflet for use as weaving material.
Leaflets that are dry or brittle at the tips are not
utilized.
For the purpose o f making cigarette wrappers,
sword leaves o f 4.5-5.5 m length are usually cut,
as they provide the largest n u m b e r o f suitable
leaflets for peeling. These normally have attained
at least four months o f growth since emergence.
Th e sword leaves are pried open and the leaflets
severed from the midrib o f the leaf a short distance from their point o f attachment. Leaflets at
the upper tip section o f the leaves are then dis-

1992]

FONG: NIPA PALM

47

Fig. 1. The nipa palm growing in clumps at the water's edge. Note the erect, stemless habit with leaves and
inflorescences arising from a subterranean, dichotomously branching rhizome.
Fig. 2. The cleared area within the swamp where nipa collectors converge to sort and grade the leaves for
thatch or cigarette wrapper making.
Fig. 3a, b. Subsistence use--thatch weaving: a. Thatch is made by folding about I/3 the length o f the leaflets
over a slender bamboo split; these are stitched into place with a fiber o f vine or palm leaf midrib, b. Completed
thatch is left to dry in the sun for 4-5 d; colour changes from bright green to light brown.

48

ECONOMIC BOTANY

[VOL. 46

Fig. 4a, b. Subsistence use--making cigarette wrapper: a. A villager stripping the epidermis from individual
leaflets to prepare cigarette wrappers. Beginning from the basal outer edge, the epidermis is separated sufficiently
to allow the introduction of a finger which is quickly forced against the point of attachment and moved through
the whole length of the blade, b. The blade peels, now curled and dried to a straw colour, are cut into suitable
lengths and packed in bundles of one hundred each for sale.
Fig. 5a, b. Subsistence use--tapping the sap: a. The young nipa infructescence at the right stage for lapping.
b. After the floral or fruiting head has been removed, the sap that drips from the cut end is collected in bamboo
joints.

c a r d e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s m a l l size a n d t e n d e r n e s s .
A b o u t 8 0 - 1 0 0 leaflets m a y b e o b t a i n e d p e r c u t
s w o r d l e a f a n d f r o m t h e s e t h e l e a f b l a d e peels
are s t r i p p e d . B l a d e peels a r e d r i e d i n t h e s u n a n d
t h e final p r o d u c t is cut i n t o s h o r t (cigarette)
lengths.
T h e n i p a p a l m yields a b u n d a n t s a p f r o m t h e
c u t stalks o f fully d e v e l o p e d i n f l o r e s c e n c e s o r
y o u n g infructescences a f t e r t h e f o r a l or fruit h e a d s
h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d . T h e e x u d a t e flows freely.
Because a t h i n slice is p a r e d off t h e stalk e n d
twice a d a y to facilitate e x u d a t i o n , t h e p e r i o d o f
sap c o l l e c t i o n lasts u p to f o u r m o n t h s , u n t i l t h e
stalk l e n g t h r e d u c e s to a s h o r t stub. In all local-

ities v i s i t e d a p r e l i m i n a r y t r e a t m e n t t h a t inv o l v e s regular b e n d i n g a n d t w i s t i n g o f t h e stalk

p r i o r to c u t t i n g is r e q u i r e d . N o t all i n f l o r e s c e n c e s
o r infructescences c a n b e t a p p e d a t the s a m e time.
S u i t a b l e i n f l o r e s c e n c e s are t h o s e in w h i c h t h e
f e m a l e h e a d s are a b o u t 15 c m in d i a m e t e r w i t h
several s u b t e n d i n g m a l e b r a n c h e s . O n fruit stalks,
t h e p r o c e s s is s t a r t e d w h e n t h e h e a d is a b o u t 8 12 c m in d i a m e t e r b u t b e f o r e a n y d a r k e n i n g in
c o l o u r o f t h e h e a d h a s c o m m e n c e d . T h e sap is
slightly a l k a l i n e in r e a c t i o n w h e n first collected
a n d h a s a s u c r o s e c o n t e n t . S u g a r is m a d e b y boiling a n d e v a p o r a t i n g t h e " n i r a , " as t h e s a p is o f t e n
called locally, in large p a n s as s o o n as it is col-

1992]

FONG: NIPA PALM

49

o f observation. One should bear in mind, however, that a clump may exhibit several phenophases at a particular time, as for example, simultaneous death and emergence o f leaves or
flowering and fruiting.
Leaf flush among the palms was heavily recorded in the period following month(s) o f low
rainfall (Fig. 6). Peak months for the production
YIELDS FROM THE PALMS IN THE
o f new leaves were February and D e c e m b e r reWILD STATE
spectively for 1979 and 1980. Although new
leaves sprouted throughout the year, 86.6% o f
One o f the primary objectives o f this study
was to carry out observations on the vegetative the annual total production occurred between the
months o f September and January The n u m b e r
and reproductive growth o f the palm under nato f sword leaves produced per year ranged from
ural swamp conditions, since its growth would
two to five with a mean value o f 3.04 __+0.8 leaves
govern the supply o f resource materials so needper clump. More leaves were produced in 1979
ed by the local people.
than in 1980. The period ofleast active leaf emerDuring the observation period, mean monthly
gence in the two years was from May to Augustair temperatures showed little seasonal variation.
The ranges o f monthly means obtained were September, roughly coinciding with the period
o f heavy inflorescence production. Palm clumps
small: early morning temperatures ranged from
consistently produced from two to four leaves in
23.0C to 25.2C, while mid-day temperatures
the year irrespective of their size, which varied
ranged from 30.0C to 32.7C. Mean monthly
from seven to sixteen living leaves per clump.
relative humidity readings (taken at 1.30 pm)
The clumps examined contained an average o f
were variable, from 55% to 70% over the period
of observation. In 1978, the mean was 63.75 +__ 11.7 ___2.08 living leaves. F r o m the point in time
3.00%; in 1979, it was 62.36 ___ 3.31%; and in when they first appeared as spikes in the clefts
o f the leaf bases, sword leaves took about four
1980 it was 64.0 + 3.70%. Relative humidity
months to attain the length o f mature leaves,
followed closely the rainfall patterns. Monthly
another two to three months for the leaflets to
rainfall ranged from 32.2 m m in the dry season
attain length of mature leaves and another two
to as much as 307.7 m m in the peak rainy months.
to three months for the leaflets to fully expand.
Total annual rainfall averaged around 2000 m m
By dividing the average n u m b e r o f mature leaves
for the three consecutive years. T w o distinct dry
present by the average n u m b e r o f leaves properiods alternated with the two wet ones, alduced per year, the turnover rates were found to
though they did not necessarily occur in the same
be 2.5 years for 1979 and 3.1 years for 1980.
months from year to year. The first dry spell,
Natural death o f the tagged sword leaves was not
which occurred between January and March durrecorded during the period o f observation but it
ing the study period, was spread over not more
than 10 days during which less than 160 m m o f is estimated that the palm leaves remain green
for at least 33 months. A loss rate o f 2.7 senescent
rain was recorded. The second dry period normally spanned a number o f months, generally leaves per clump per year was obtained from
fitting a regression to the records o f mature leaves
from M a y - J u n e to September-October. Liketurning senescent during the observation period.
wise, the wet periods can shift one or more months
Extrapolating the data on individual loss (in terms
according to the year with peaks generally in April
o f senescent and dead leaves) and gain (in terms
and from October to December.
of sword leaves initiated) for a one-hectare popThe observed growth states o f the palms that
ulation, the results suggest a slight net gain o f
are clearly circumscribed in time are referred to
leaves per year in the Kuala Selangor swamps
here as phenophases. G i v e n the relatively long
(Table 1).
period o f time involved in the onset, duration
The major reproductive phenophases, i.e., apand cessation o f a particular phenophase, the
pearance o f new inflorescences, flowering and
temporal spreads are represented here in histoshedding o f fruits, are shown in Fig. 7. Infloresgram format. Computations are based on the
cences appeared sporadically throughout the year,
proportion o f individuals in the population exbut peak production occurred from M a y - J u n e to
hibiting a certain phenophase during the period

lected. However, without adequate means o f

preservation, the nira rapidly ferments. The production o f sap depends on the flowering frequency, which varies with swamp localities and
is normally restricted to those months o f the year
when the flowers have matured and the fruits are
developing.

50

ECONOMIC BOTANY
TABLE

1.

[VOL. 46

L E A F P R O D U C T I O N A N D LOSS IN T H E N A T U R A L P O P U L A T I O N A T K U A L A S E L A N G O R .
Number of leaves per hectare
1979

1980

Mean value for both yeats

Site

Sword leaves
initiated

ScnescenUdead
leaves recorded

Sword leaves
initiated

Senescent/dead
leaves recorded

Sword leaves
initiated

Senescent/dead
leaves recorded

I
II
III

1169
1561
2135

741
1254
1769

883
1221
1927

940
1121
1613

1026
1391
2031

841
1188
1691

Total

4865

3764

4031

3674

4448

3720

TABLE 2.

POPULATION

DATA OF THE PALMS U N D E R OBSERVATION AT K U A L A S E L A N G O R .

Number of palms in vegetative or reproductive state

Stocking density of palms

Sample plots
(20 x 20 m)
Site

Average
per
hectare

I
II
III

13
18
25

15
17
22

13
22
28

342
475
625

1978

1979

1980

Number of inflorescenceg/infructescences present per clump

0

22
37
60

6
13
l0

10
3
5

3
3

-1

19
31
58

11
19
12

8
4
5

3
2
--

-1
--

21
35
62

14
13
II

3
8
4

3
1

---

S e p t e m b e r . T h e s e e m e r g e d as s h o r t s t u b s a n d
d e v e l o p e d to full h e i g h t w i t h i n t h r e e t o four
months. Anthesis, which commenced about a
m o n t h after t h e inflorescences a t t a i n e d full height,
is o n e p h e n o p h a s e t h a t m a y b e s p r e a d t h r o u g h out the swamp over a protracted period from
October-November to January-February dep e n d i n g u p o n the s c h e d u l e o f r a i n y m o n t h s . F r o m
t h e o n s e t o f a n t h e s i s t h e r e is usually a lapse o f
t h r e e m o n t h s b e f o r e t h e first fruit h e a d s are
f o r m e d . S h e d d i n g o f m a t u r e fruits b e g i n s a f t e r
a n o t h e r t h r e e to f o u r m o n t h s , p e a k i n g d u r i n g t h e
d r i e r m o n t h s at m i d - y e a r .
O f t h e t o t a l o f 173 p a l m s t h a t were tagged,
3 1 . 2 1 % were in v a r i o u s stages o f s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n in 1978, 3 7 . 5 7 % in 1979 a n d 3 2 . 9 5 % in
1980. T h e p a l m c l u m p s b o r e f r o m o n e to as m a n y
as f o u r i n f l o r e s c e n c e s a n d / o r i n f r u c t e s c e n c e s p e r
c l u m p in different stages o f d e v e l o p m e n t ( T a b l e
2). A p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f ( 4 9 . 7 1 % ) o f t h e p a l m
population came into the reproductive state during t h e t h r e e - y e a r s t u d y p e r i o d . O f t h e s e 6 0 . 5 5 %

flowered or fruited o n c e in t h r e e years, 3 0 . 2 %

t w i c e a n d 5.85% t h r e e t i m e s , w h i l e less t h a n 1%
b o r e fruits t h a t were i n i t i a t e d p r i o r t o t h e p e r i o d
o f o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e r e were s i g n i f i c a n t differences
in t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f r e p r o d u c t i v e p a l m s p r e s e n t
b e t w e e n years a n d b e t w e e n sites. I n 1979, t h e r e
was a g r e a t e r n u m b e r o f p a l m c l u m p s c o m i n g
i n t o r e p r o d u c t i o n t h a n in t h e p r e c e d i n g o r succ e e d i n g year o n all sites. N i p a s t a n d s a t Site III,
h o w e v e r , c o n s i s t e n t l y p r o d u c e d f e w e r infloresc e n c e s a n d i n f r u c t e s c e n c e s t h a n at t h e o t h e r t w o
sites. P a l m d e n s i t y at t h i s site w a s t h e h i g h e s t ,
a n d o n average, close to 8 0 % o f t h e p a l m s rem a i n e d sterile in t h e t h r e e years o f o b s e r v a t i o n .
A regression of the number ofinflorescences enum e r a t e d p e r y e a r a g a i n s t s t o c k i n g d e n s i t y in t h e
t h r e e sites suggests t h a t d e n s e s t a n d s o f p a l m s
e x h i b i t e d a less f r e q u e n t i n c i d e n c e o f flowering.
EJ-t-ECTS OF CUTTING ON N I P A G R O W T H
L e a f r e m o v a l at different i n t e n s i t y (clear cutting v e r s e s c o n t i n u o u s c u t t i n g ) a n d s e l e c t i v i t y

---4

Fig. 6. (Top) Temporal pattern of leaf emergence and senescence on censused palms (n = 38). (Bottom)
Distribution (according to leaf type) of leaves recorded per palm clump over a two year period.
Fig. 7. Periodicity of floral initiation, bloom and fruit shedding among the palms in their natural habitats
in Kuala Selangor from January 1978 through January 1981.

51

FONG: NIPA PALM

1992]

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ECONOMIC BOTANY

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CONTINUOUS C U T b

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Fig. 8. Cumulative leaf production curves over a

two year period under different cutting regimes. (See
text for details of continuous cut methods.)
(continuous cutting o f either mature or i m m a t u r e
but not sword leaves) simulates the harvesting
o f n i p a palm leaves by the locals. The cumulative
n u m b e r o f leaves produced per clump over a
two-year period, as shown in Fig. 8, shows the
effects o f different cutting treatments. Palm
clumps denuded o f their vegetative parts (clear
cutting) showed a decline in growth performance
as c o m p a r e d to the other treatment and the control. New leaves began to sprout about six months
after the first cut but were limited to only a few
palms. On average there were 2.06 + 0.24 leaves
on these palms at the end o f the two-year period.
On Site III, two o f the 30 experimental clumps
succumbed to the treatment, thus giving a mortality rate o f 6.67% for the clumps under clear
cutting. There was also a marked reduction in
leaf lengths. After two years, leaves were approximately half the length o f those measured
prior to treatment. In both o f the continuous
cutting subtreatments, regrowth patterns were
similar although those palms under continuous
cut variation b produced more new leaves. After
two years, the m e a n n u m b e r of leaves initiated
per clump was 4.37 _+ 0.40 for variation a and
5.9 _+ 0.22 for variation b continuous cutting subtreatments. The average leaf lengths on the
clumps after two years, for both subtreatments,
fell within 10% deviation o f the mean leaf lengths
o f the same clumps measured at the beginning
o f the experiments.
DISCUSSION
In general, over-harvesting is a significant factor in declining resource availability only for those

[VOL. 46

products for which there is commercial demand.

Nipa traditionally has contributed both to the
subsistence as well as the commercial eco n o m y
in this region. Long-term productivity is dependent upon the level of harvesting and natural
regeneration. Whereas numerous sources (e.g.,
Buza 1989; Gonzales 1979) extol the versatility
o f this palm, few dealt with limits to its sustained
use, which are determined by current d e m a n d
for raw material and the regenerative capacity o f
the resource. Cutting o f mature leaves for thatch
and immature leaves for cigarette wrappers is a
c o m m o n practice, reported from areas where nipa
occurs in great abundance in its present geographical distribution (Ahmad 1951; Doscas
1927; Robillos 1978; Smitinand 1961). Excessive collecting can result in declining leaf production.
There is little published information on the
response o f palms to destructive harvest in the
long term. Fox (1977) noted that in the B o r a s s u s
palm, careless pruning by the Rotinese people in
the eastern parts o f Indonesia can destroy the
plant or render it unproductive. In Sarawak (East
Malaysia), the rattan palm, C a l a m u s m a n a n
M i q . - - w h i c h consists o f single-stemmed canes
that do not regenerate after cutting--are becoming especially scarce. Even the m u l t i - s t e m m e d
species will fail to regenerate if the entire clump
is cut, the cuts are made too low or if i m m a t u r e
clumps are cut.
Th e experimental results on simulated harvest
o f the nipa palms showed that cutting intensity
can affect regrowth. The imposition o f the clear
cutting regime, which simulates complete but destructive utilization of the resource, had resulted
by the end o f two years in a highly significant
drop in the n u m b e r o f leaves regenerated compared to other treatments. D a m a g e d palms
showed losses ofvigour, with fewer growing points
and shorter leaves and exhibited reduced leaf
area. Continuous cutting, in which only the desired plant parts in suitable harvestable condition were removed, simulates selective harvesting o f leaves for thatch and cigarette wrappers
on separate palm clumps. In each o f the subtreatments for continuous cutting, defoliated
plants rapidly restored leaf numbers in the ensuing months to values comparable to those o f
the corresponding controls. N o significant differences were noted between variation ~ and variation b, either in the rate o f growth o f individual
leaves or in the period between the appearance

1992]

FONG: NIPA PALM

of successive new sword leaves. There was, however, a slight indication that the latter subtreatmerit led to accelerated growth in terms o f number o f new leaves initiated. The difference in
response between these subtreatments and clear
cutting is probably due to the fact that continuous cutting provided an adequate recovery period, particularly when at least some mature or
unexpanded leaves were left intact. However, as
noted in other plant species, continuous or repeated cutting is harmless only when a sufficient
leaf area is left on the plant to allow rapid regrowth (Langer and Steinke 1965).
Sexual reproductive activity was observed on
the palms subjected to experimental leaf r e m o v al. Defoliation causes a rapid redistribution o f
limited resources to vegetative growth rather than
to reproductive ends. Monitoring the palms for
longer periods would reveal the impact on production of inflorescences and infructescences.
U n d e r normal circumstances, plants respond to
a severe drain o f resources by not bearing flowers
for one or more subsequent flowering seasons in
order to replenish their vegetative reserves. Aside
from this, relatively low flowering frequencies
observed can be attributed to c o m p e ti ti v e interactions, particularly in dense swamp conditions.
Individual palms would have to compete for insolation amongst the mass o f fresh green foliage
and slowly decaying leaves in the swamps. (Senescent nipa leaves do not abscise neatly but
merely flop over and rot while still attached at
the base to the parent palm.) Plants therefore can
ill afford an energetically expensive outlay in
flowers and fruits in such an e n v i r o n m e n t , especially when they can reproduce not only by
seeds but also by branching o f subterranean rhizomes as in nipa.
Considerable evidence suggests that rain forest
hunters and gatherers traditionally keep exploitation within limits o f the carrying capacity o f
the ecosystem on which they depend (Dunn
1975). For example, in Sarawak, the sago palm
(Eugeissona utilis Becc.), which grows in dense
clumps with between three to six trunks per clump
arising from a mass o f aerial roots, are felled for
starch. To maintain the stability o f the resource,
the local Penans rotate their extraction o f c t u m p s
systematically from one palm grove to another,
always harvest by cutting only one or two of the
trunks leaving the palm to resprout, and never
cut down the entire plant at the root as this would
surely kilt it (Brosius 1986),

53

Similarly, the villagers in the Kuala Selangor

area adopt practices that contribute to sustaining
the nipa swamps' continued productivity. When
cutting the palm clumps for thatch, the mature
leaves on the outer whorls are r e m o v e d , leaving
at least one i m m a t u r e leaf in addition to two or
three other unopened sword leaves around the
growing points. Harvests in a given clump are
staggered at four-month intervals. During this
period, the spared i m m a t u r e leaves spread their
leaflets and achieve increased rigidity, while
emerging sword leaves grow a m e t e r or so in
length. Because mature leaves are needed for
thatch and sword leaves for leaf peels in rolling
tobacco, the palm clumps are exploited for only
one type o f utilization and never both in order
to sustain renewability. When cutting sword
leaves for making cigarette wrappers, the cuts are
made at a point well above the leafstalk, leaving
a number o f leaflets behind that will later unfold
and assimilate for the palm. I f the palms are used
for extraction o f sap, the fresh leaves are not cut
since such a practice would interfere with the
productivity o f the plant and greatly decrease the
flow o f nira. On large clumps containing more
than one flower or fruit stalk, the usual practice
is to tap from only one and r e m o v e the others,
although tapping intensity varies according to
the fertility o f the swamps. Areas harvested during one flowering or fruiting season are generally
left alone to recover during the following season.
Although such conservation-oriented behaviour is passed from generation to generation,
many o f the resource users may no longer be in
consonance with the goals o f sustainable management. Increasing scarcity ofresources through
the loss o f c o m m o n lands reduces the managem e n t options for rural inhabitants. As a result,
local people increasingly operate to maximise
their immediate returns, regardless o f the longterm costs that result from over-exploitation o f
the resource. For instance, Pelusco (1983) cites
the disappearance o f traditional management
systems as one cause o f the over-exploitation o f
rattan in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Where over-exploitation is a current or potential problem, i m p r o v e d m a n a g e m e n t o f resources in their natural habitat is essential. Habitat preservation should not be the only means
o f conserving natural resources; utilization on a
sustainable basis under sound management remains a practical necessity. Th e design of an appropriate management regime for a given species

54

ECONOMIC BOTANY

r e q u i r e s a t least a b a s i c k n o w l e d g e o f its r e p r o d u c t i v e b i o l o g y as well as o f its a b u n d a n c e , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d g r o w t h rate in t h e areas to be m a n aged. W i t h o u t this i n f o r m a t i o n , it is difficult to

e s t a b l i s h h a r v e s t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t will g u a r a n t e e t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e resource.
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmad, M . U . 1951. Golpata. Pakistan J. For. 1:5561.
Brosius, J . P . t 986. River, forest and mountain: the
Penan gang landscape. Sarawak Mus. J. 36(57): 173185.
Buza, A. 1989. The treasure o f a nipa swamp. Asian
Wetland News 2(1):20.
Burbridge, P. R., and J. StanturL 1985. The development and management of tidal wetlands in
Southeast Asia. Pages 157-160 in T. Saeki, A. Hino,
T. Hirose, M. Sakamoto, and K. Ruddle, eds., Proc.
M A B / C O M A R Regional Seminar: Man's impact
on coastal and estuarine ecosystems. Nov. 13-16
1984, Tokyo.
Doscas, A. E . G . 1927. The preparation of cigarette
wrappers from nipah palm. Mal. Agric. J. 15:8586.

[VOL. 46

Dunn, F . L . 1975. Rainforest collectors and traders:

a study of resource utilization in m o d e m and ancient Malaya. Monogr. Roy. Asiatic Soc. (Mal Br.)
No. 5. Kuala Lumpur.
Fong, F . W . 1984. Nipa swamps--a neglected mangrove resource. Pages 663-671 in E. Soepadmo, A.
N. Rao, and D. J. Macintosh, eds., Proc. Asian
Symp. on Mangrove Environment: Research and
management. August 25-29 1980, Kuala Lumpur.
Fox, d . J .
1977. Harvest of the palm--ecological
change in eastern Indonesia. Harvard Univ. Press,
Cambridge.
Gonzales, L L 1979. Nipa and its innumerable uses.
Canopy 5(5):9.
Langer, R. H. M., and T. D. Steinke. 1965. Growth
of lucerne in response to height and frequency of
defoliation. J. Agric. Sci. 64:292-294.
Pelusco, N . L . 1983. Networking in the commons: a
tragedy for rattans? Indonesia 35:95-100.
Robilios, Y . U . 1978. The nipa shingle industry of
Batangas. Forpride Digest 2:56-57.
Smitinand, T. 1961. Materials used for thatching in
Thailand. Pages 248-249 in C. Ratanarat et al.,
eds., Proc. Ninth Pac. Sci. Congr. 5(Bot). Nov. 18Dec. 9 1957, Bangkok.