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Control

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Control Systems 2015

Index
Chapter: -1 Control systems : Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

Introduction
Definitions and Terminology
Example of Control Systems
Closed-Loop and Open-Loop Control Systems
Closed-loop versus open-loop control systems
The Control Problems
Response Characteristics and System Configurations
Analysis and Design Objectives
The Design Process

Chapter: - 2 Laplace Transform and Transform Function


2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

Dynamic Systems
Review of Complex Variables and Complex Functions
Review of Laplace Transform
Transfer Functions

Chapter: - 3 Reduction of Multiple Subsystems


3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

Introduction
Block diagrams
Signal Flow Graphs
Masons rule

Chapter: - 4 Modeling a Control System


4.1
4.2
4.3

Analogous Systems
Electrical Systems
Mechanical Systems

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Chapter: - 5 Time Response


5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6

Poles, Zeros, and System Response


First Order Systems
Second Order System: Introduction
The General Second Order System
Type of a transfer function and steady-state errors
Sensitivity

Chapter: - 6 Control Action


6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6

Introduction
Proportional Control
Derivative Control
Integral Control
Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Control
PID controller theory further explanation

Chapter: - 7 STABILITY
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
Routh - Hurwitz criterion: special cases
Routh-Hurwitz criterion: additional examples

Chapter: - SYSTEM STABILITY


8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5

Review of System Stability and Some Concepts Related to Poles and Zero.
Sketch the Polar plot of Frequency Response
Nyquist Criterion and Diagram
Cauchys Principle of Argument
Nyquist Criterion

Chapter:- Bode Plots and Gain Adjustments Compensation


9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5

Introduction
Plotting frequency response
Asymptotic Approximations: Bode Plots
Bode plots for Second-order
Stability, Gain Margin, and Phase Margin via Bode Plots

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Chapter: - Root Locus Techniques


10.1
10.2
10.3

Introductions
The root locus concept
Construction Rules

Chapter: - Compensation of Control Systems


11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7

LEAD COMPENSATOR
LEAD COMPENSATOR DESIGN USING ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUES
BODE DESIGN OF LEAD COMPENSATOR
LAG COMPENSATOR DESIGN USING BODE PLOTS
BODE DESIGN OF LAG COMPENSATOR
LAG-LEAD COMPENSATOR DESIGN USING BODE PLOTS
Design procedure: Compensator Structure

Chapter:- State space representation of control system


12.1
12.2
10.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10

Introduction
SOME OBSERVATIONS
THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO STATE SPACE
CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO TRANSFER FUNCTION
CONTROLLABILITY AND OBSERVABILITY
METHODS INVOLVING EIGEN VALUES
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN SOLUTION OF THE STATE EQUATION
FINDING THE STATE TRANSITION MATRIX
STATE EQUATION FROM TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

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CHAPTER 1
Control systems : Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Control systems are everywhere around us, they regulate temperature in homes, stabilize aircraft and
spacecraft, affect production of food by regulating the quality and purity of produce, are used in
refineries, and so on.
A system is generally made up of components which could be mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, and/or
pneumatic. The function of the control system is to regulate the output of the system in accordance
with some input signal. The controlled output may be position, velocity, acceleration, temperature, etc.
The output is required to track and follow the input signal as closely as possible. The output is
measured by using transducers and, fed back to the controller in order to correct deviations from the
input signal. This is referred to as feedback and is an essential element of closed-loop control systems.
When feedback is not used, we have an open-loop control system.
In closed-loop control systems, feedback is used for calculating the error which is the difference
between the input and output signals. The error signal is then filtered, amplified and applied to a
power element within the system such as an electrical motor, hydraulic valve/ram) that acts upon the
quantity to be controlled.
Modern control is increasingly based on having an electrical signal as input and having transducers
that produce electrical signals as a measure of the output. These are then fed into the controller which
acts upon the system being controlled. Computers are increasingly used in control applications.
1.2. Definitions and Terminology
Controlled Variable and Manipulated Variable:
The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is measured and controlled. The manipulated
variable is the quantity or condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the
controlled variable. Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the system.
Control:
Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the system and applying the
manipulated variable to the system to correct or limit deviation of the measured value from a desired
value.
Plants:
A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts functioning together, the
purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. In this book, we shall call any physical object to
be controlled (such as a mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical reactor, or a spacecraft) a
plant.
Processes:
Defined as natural, progressively continuing operation or development marked by a series of gradual
changes that succeed one another in a relatively fixed way and lead toward a particular result or end;
or an artificial or voluntary, progressively continuing operation that consists of a series of controlled
actions or movements systematically directed toward a particular result or end. In this book we shall
call any operation to be controlled a process. Examples are chemical, economic, and biological
processes.
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Systems:
A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain objective. A system
is not limited to physical ones. The concept of the system can be applied to abstract, dynamic
phenomena such as those encountered in economics. The word system should, therefore, be
interpreted to imply physical, biological, economic, and the like, systems.
Disturbances:
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a system. If a
disturbance is generated within the system, it is called internal, while an external disturbance is
generated outside the system and is an input.
Feedback Control systems:
A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output and the reference input by
comparing them and using the difference as a means of control is called a feedback control system.
An example would be a room-temperature control system. By measuring the actual room temperature
and comparing it with the reference temperature (desired temperature), the thermostat turns the heating
or cooling equipment on or off in such a way as to ensure that the room temperature remains at a
comfortable level regardless of outside conditions.
1.3. Example of Control Systems
An example of a closed-loop system is a temperature-control system in a room. For this system we
wish to maintain, automatically, the temperature of the room at a desired value. To control any
physical variable, which we usually call a signal, we must know the value of this variable, that is, we
must measure this variable. We call the system for the measurement of a variable a sensor. In this
system, the sensor is a thermistor. Thermistor is a device which has a resistance that varies with
temperature. By measuring this resistance, we obtain a measure of the temperature.

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We defined the plant of a control system as that part of the system to be controlled. It is assumed in
this example that the temperature is increased by activating a gas furnace or a heating sub-system.
Hence the plant input is the electrical signal that activates the furnace, and the plant output signal is
the actual temperature of the living area. The plant is represented as shown in the above figure. In this
example, the output of each of the systems is connected to the input of the other, to form the closed
loop. In most closed-loop control systems, it is necessary to connect a third system into the loop to
obtain satisfactory characteristics for the total system. This additional system is called a compensator
or a controller.
The usual form of a single loop closed-loop control system is as follows:

The system input is a reference signal; usually we want the system output to be equal to this input.
In the temperature-control system, this input is the setting of the Desired Temperature. If we want to
change the temperature, we change the system input. The system output is measured by the sensor,
and this measured value is compared with (subtracted from) the input. This difference signal is
called the error signal, or simply the error. If the output is equal to the input, this difference is zero,
and no signal reaches the plant. Hence the plant output remains at its current value. If the error is
not zero, in a properly designed system the error signal causes a response in the plant such that the
magnitude of the error is reduced. The compensator is a filter for the error signal, since usually
satisfactory operation does not occur if the error signal is applied directly to the plant.
1.4. Closed-Loop and Open-Loop Control Systems
Open-loop control systems:
Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are called open-loop control
systems. In other words, in an open-loop control system the output is neither measured nor fed back
for comparison with the input. One practical example is a washing machine. Soaking, washing, and
rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, that is,
the cleanliness of the clothes.
In any open-loop control system the output is not compared with the reference input. Thus, to each
reference input there, corresponds a fixed operating condition; as a result, the accuracy of the system
depends on calibration. In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not perform
the desired task. Open-loop control can be used, in practice, only if the relationship between the input
and output is known and if there are neither internal nor external disturbances. Clearly, such systems
are not feedback control systems. Note that any control system that operates on a time basis is open
loop. For instance, traffic control by means of signals operated on a time basis is another example of
open-loop control.

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Closed-loop control systems:
Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed-loop control systems. In practice, the terms
feedback control and closed-loop control are used interchangeably. In a closed-loop control system
the actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input signal and the feedback signal
(which may be the output signal itself or a function of the output signal and its derivatives and/or
integrals), is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a
desired value. The term closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback control action in order
to reduce system error.
1.5. Closed-loop versus open-loop control systems
An advantage of the closed loop control system is the fact that the use of feedback makes the system
response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in system parameters. It
is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain the accurate control
of a given plant, whereas doing so is impossible in the open-loop case. From the point of view of
stability, the open-loop control system is easier to build because system stability is not a major
problem. On the other hand, stability is a major problem in the closed-loop control system, which may
tend to overcorrect errors that can cause oscillations of constant or changing amplitude.
1.6. The Control Problems
We may state the control problem as follows. A physical system or process is to be accurately
controlled through closed-loop, or feedback, operation. An output variable, called the response, is
adjusted as required by the error signal. This error signal is the difference between the system
response, as measured by a sensor, and the reference signal, which represents the desired system
response.
Generally a controller, or compensator, is required to filter the error signal in order that certain control
criteria, or specifications, are satisfied. These criteria may involve, but not be limited to:
1. Disturbance rejection
2. Steady-state errors
3. Transient response characteristics
4. Sensitivity to parameter changes in the plant
Solving in control problem generally involves
1. Choosing sensors to measure the plant output
2. Choosing actuators to drive the plant
3. Developing the plant, actuator, and sensor equations (models)
4. Designing the controller based on the developed models and the control criteria
5. Evaluating the design analytically, by simulation, and finally, by testing the physical system
6. If the physical tests are unsatisfactory, iterating these steps

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ystems 2015
The relationnship of mathhematical annalysis and ddesign to phy
ysical-system
m design proocedures is ddepicted
below.

1.7. Respon
nse Characteristics and
d System Coonfiguration
ns
Response chharacteristic input, outpput, transiennt response, steady-state
s
response an
nd steady-staate error

F
Figure
1.2

ut/stimulus a desired reesponse


Inpu
Outp
put the actuual responsee
Trannsient respon
nse a graduual change before the steeady-state response
Steady-state respponse afteer the transieent responsee, which is itts approxim
mation to the desired
respo
onse
Steady-state erroor the diffeerences betw
ween input an
nd output

Two major system


s
confi
figurations of control sysstems:

Open-Loop
O
Systems
S
ass shown in F
Figure 1.2.
It
I consists off subsystemss called an innput transduucer, controller and proccess or plantt.
Input
I
transd
ducer converrts the form of the inputt to that useed by the controller. Coontroller
drives
d
a pro
ocess or plan
nt. Other siignals, such as disturbaances, are sh
hown addedd to the

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controller and process outputs via summing junctions. The open-loop system cannot correct
for these disturbances.
Examples toasters, washing machine (washing process)

Disturbances 1
Input
Transduc
er

Input
= ref

+
Controller

Process
Or Plant

+
Summing
Junction

Disturbances 2
+
+
Summing
Junction

Figure 1.3

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control) Systems The disadvantages of open-loop systems may


be overcome in closed-loop system as shown in Figure 1.3. An output transducer/ sensor,
measures the output response and converts into the form used by controller. The closedloop systems measured the output response through a feedback path, and comparing that
response to the input at the summing junction. If there is any difference between the two
responses, the system drives the plant, via the actuating signal, to make a correction. If
there is no difference, the system does not drive the plant.
Examples air conditioning, lift, washing machine (water level control)

Error
Input
Transducer

Disturbances 1
+

+
Summing
Junction

Controller

+
Summing
Junction
Output
Transducer
= sensor

Figure 1.4

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Process
Or Plant

Disturbances 2
+
+
Summing
Junction

Control Systems 2015


The differences between open and closed-loop system are:
Closed-Loop System
Have the feedback path.
Greater accuracy.
Less sensitive to noise, disturbances and
changes in the environment.
The system can compare the output response
with the input and make a correction if there is
any difference.
More complex and expensive.

Open-Loop System
Does not have the feedback path.
Not accurate.
Sensitive to noise, disturbances and changes
in the environment.
The system cannot correct the disturbances.

Simple and inexpensive.

1.8. Analysis and Design Objectives


Control systems are dynamic: they respond to an input by undergoing a transient response before
reaching steady-state response that generally resembles the input.
The 3 major objectives are:
o Producing the desired transient response
o Reducing steady-state error
o Achieving stability
Transient Response
Important in control system
Ex: In the case of an elevator, a slow transient makes passenger impatient, whereas an excessively
rapid response makes them uncomfortable. Too fast a transient response could cause permanent
physical damage. Therefore, we have to analyze the system for its existing transient response. Then,
adjust parameters or design components to yield a desired transient response.
Steady-State Response
This response resembles the input and is usually what remains after the transients have decayed to
zero. We define steady-state errors quantitatively, analyze a systems steady-state error, and then
design corrective action to reduce this error.
1.9. The Design Process
The design of a control system follows these steps:
1. Determine a physical system and specifications from requirements.
2. Draw a functional block diagram.
3. Represent the physical system as a schematic.
4. Use the schematic to obtain a mathematical model such as a block diagram.
5. Reduce the block diagram.
6. Analyze and design the system to meet specified requirements and specifications that
include stability, transient response and steady-state performance.

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This topic is for those students who dont have the knowledge of Laplace Transform and Transform
Function. If you are already comfortable with these topics you can skip this chapter.

CHAPTER 2
Laplace Transform and Transform Function
2.1. Dynamic Systems
This course is about controlling dynamic systems. What makes dynamic systems unique and
distinctive is that dynamic systems have a memory. Their present output, y(t), does not just depend on
the present input signal value u(t), but on past inputs u() for t.
The way this memory is described in mathematical form is through integral/differential equations. In
this course, we will learn that even simple dynamic systems are modeled by derivative and integral
terms.
The Laplace transform allows us to transform these integral/differential equations into simpler
algebraic equations and solving them. It is a method for solving differential equations and
corresponding initial and boundary value problems.
2.2. Review of Complex Variables and Complex Functions
Analysis of dynamic systems relies heavily on the theories associated with complex variables and
complex functions. A complex number has a real part and an imaginary part, both of which are
constant. If the real part and/or imaginary part are variables, a complex number is called a complex
variable. In the Laplace transformation, we use the notation s as a complex variable; that is,
s = + j
where is the real part and is the imaginary part.
Complex function:
A complex function F(s), a function of s, has a real part and an imaginary part or
F(s) = Fx + jFy
where Fx is the real part and jFy is the imaginary part. F(s) can be represented graphically in the
complex plane as follows:
I

F(s)

Fy
|F|

Re
Fx

Fy

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F (s )

Control Systems 2015

Fx2 Fy2

. Its angle is obtained as


The magnitude of F(s) is denoted by |F| and is equal to
1
tan ( Fy / Fx )
. The angle is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis.
F Fx jFy
The complex conjugate of F(s) is defined as
. Another form in which complex conjugate
*
F
. Note that the magnitude of F(s), denoted by |F|, can also be defined as:
is denoted is

F FF Fx2 Fy2
2.3. Review of Laplace Transform
We can convert many common functions, such as sinusoidal functions, differential equations, and
exponential functions, into algebraic functions of a complex variable s. Operations such as
differentiation and integration can be replaced by algebraic operations in the complex plane. Thus, a
linear differential equation can be transformed into an algebraic equation in a complex variable s. If
the algebraic equation in s is solved for the dependent variable, then the solution of the differential
equation (the inverse Laplace transform of the dependent variable) may be found by use of a Laplace
transform table or by use of the partial-fraction expansion technique.
An advantage of the Laplace transform method is that it allows the use of graphical techniques for
predicting the system performance without actually solving system differential equations. Another
advantage of the Laplace transform method is that, when we solve the differential equation, both the
transient component and steady-state component of the solution can be obtained simultaneously.
Let us define
f(t) = a function of time t such that f (t) = 0 for t < 0
s = a complex variable
L = an operational symbol indicating that the quantity that it prefixes is to be transformed by the
Laplace integral

f (t )e st dt

.
F(s) = Laplace transform of f (t)
0

Then the Laplace transform of f (t) is given by

L[ f (t )] F ( s ) f (t )e st dt
0

Laplace transform of common functions have been tabulated [see the text book page 40] and are used
to transform the time domain functions f(t) into their Laplace form directly from tables and, vice versa.
Important Properties of Laplace Transforms
Real differentiation theorem.
The Laplace transform of the derivative of a function f (t) is given by
df (t )
L[
] sF ( s) f (0)
dt
where f (0) is the initial value of f (t) evaluated at t = 0.
Similarly, we obtain the following relationship for the second derivative of f(t) applies:
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L[

d 2 f (t )
] s 2 F ( s ) f (0) sf (0)
2
dt

th
and for the n derivative:
( n2)
( n 1)
d n f (t )
n
n 1
n2
L[
]

s
F
(
s
)

s
f
(
0
)

s
f
(
0
)

...

s
f
(
0
)

f ( 0)
dt n

In most of the problems that we will consider in this course, it is assumed that the initial values of f (t)
th
and its derivatives are equal to zero, then the Laplace transform of the n derivative of f (t) is given by

s n F (s) .
Real-integration theorem.
Similarly to above, the Laplace transform of

L f (t ) dt

f (t )dt exists and is given by

F ( s ) f 1 ( 0 )

s
s

for zero initial value,

L f (t ) dt

F (s)
s .

Final-value theorem.
The final-value theorem is extensively used throughout the course and relates the steady-state behavior
of f (t) to the behavior of sF(s) in the neighborhood of s = 0. The final-value theorem may be stated as
follows:
If f (t) and df (t)/dt are Laplace transformable, if F(s) is the Laplace transform of f (t), and if

limt f (t ) exists, then


limt f (t ) lims0 sF (s)
This formula allows you to calculate the final steady state value of f(t) by using F(s) without having to
convert F(s) back into its time domain representation f(t).
Other important properties of Laplace transforms are tabulated in the text book page 41.
Inverse Laplace Transformation
The reverse process of finding the time function f (t) from the Laplace transform F(s) is
1
called the inverse Laplace transformation. The notation for the inverse Laplace transformation is L ,
and the inverse Laplace transform can be found from F(s) by the following inversion integral:
1 c j
L1 [ F ( s )] f (t )
F ( s )e st ds
2j c j
for t >0
where c is a constant related to the stability and convergence of the integral.
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Evaluating the inversion integral appears complicated. In practice, we seldom use
this integral for finding f(t). Instead, we usually decompose the F(s) into a simpler form by using
partial fraction expansion and, then use a conversion table to obtain the time domain equivalent of the
partial fractions.
If a particular transform F(s) cannot be found in a table, then we expand it into partial fractions and
write F(s) in terms of simple functions of s for which the inverse Laplace transforms are already
known.
Partial-fraction expansion method for finding inverse Laplace transforms:
For problems in control systems analysis, F(s), the Laplace transform of f (t), frequently occurs in the
form
F(s) =B(s)/ A(s) where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials in s. In the expansion of F(s) = B(s)/A(s) into a
partial-fraction form, it is important that the highest power of s in A(s) be greater than the highest
power of s in B(s). If such is not the case, the numerator B(s) must be divided by the denominator A(s)
in order to produce a polynomial in s plus a remainder (a ratio of polynomials in s whose numerator is
of lower degree than the denominator).
If F(s) is broken up into components,
obtained as:

F (s) F1 (s) ... Fn (s)

then its inverse Laplace transform is

L1 F ( s ) L1 F1 ( s ) ... L1 Fn ( s) f1 (t ) ... f n (t )
The advantage of the partial-fraction expansion approach is that the individual terms of F(s), resulting
from the expansion into partial-fraction form, are very simple functions of s; consequently, it is not
necessary to refer to a Laplace transform table if we memorize several simple Laplace transform pairs.
It should be noted, however, that in applying the partial-fraction expansion technique in the search for
the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) = B(s)/A(s) the roots of the denominator polynomial A(s) must
be obtained in advance. That is, this method does not apply until the denominator polynomial has
been factored.
Partial-fraction expansion when F(s) involves distinct poles only:

Consider F(s) written in the factored form

F (s)

B( s ) K ( s z1 )...( s z m )

A( s ) ( s p1 )...( s p n ) for m < n

where p and z are either real or complex quantities.


If F(s) involves distinct poles only, then it can be expanded into a sum of simple partial fractions as
follows:
F (s)

an
a1
B( s)

...
A( s ) s p1
s pn

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where

ak

(k = 1, 2, . . . , n) are constants. The coefficient

ak

is called the residue at the pole at

s pk . The value of ak can be found by multiplying both sides of the above Equation by (s pk )
s pk

and letting

which gives:

B( s )
ak s pk
A( s) s pk

a
L1 k a k e pk t
pn t
p1t
s pk
then f(t) is obtained as f (t ) a1e ... an e
for all t 0.
since:

2.4. Transfer Functions

A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that represents the
dynamics of the system accurately or, at least, fairly well. Note that a mathematical model is not
unique to a given system. A system may be represented in many different ways and, therefore, may
have many mathematical models, depending on one's perspective. The degree of accuracy and
complexity of models is very much dependent on the use and application that they are intended for.
The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations. Such differential equations
may be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular system, for example, Newton's laws for
mechanical systems and Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems. We must always keep in mind that
deriving a reasonable mathematical model is the most important part of the entire analysis.
Mathematical models
Mathematical models may assume many different forms. We will consider be considering the
transient-response or frequency-response analysis of single-input-single-output, linear, time-invariant
systems. Here, a transfer function representation is more convenient than any other. Once a
mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical and computer tools can be used for
analysis and synthesis purposes.
Simplicity versus accuracy
It is possible to improve the accuracy of a mathematical model by increasing its complexity. In some
cases, we include hundreds of equations to describe a complete system at a certain level of accuracy.
If extreme accuracy is not needed, however, it is preferable to obtain only a reasonably simplified
model. In fact, we are generally satisfied if we can obtain a mathematical model that is adequate for
the problem under consideration. It is important to note, however, that the results obtained from the
analysis are valid only to the extent that the model approximates a given dynamic system.

In general, in solving a new problem, we find it desirable first to build a simplified model so that we
can get a general feeling for the solution. A more complete mathematical model may then be built and
used for a more complete analysis.

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Linear systems
A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies. The principle of superposition states
that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the
sum of the two individual responses. Hence, for the linear system, the response to several inputs can
be calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the results. It is this principle that allows one
to build up complicated solutions to the linear differential equation from simple solutions.
Linear time-invariant systems and linear time-varying systems
A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent
variable. Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components
may be described by linear time-invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations. Such systems
are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems. Systems that are represented
by differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear time-varying
systems. An example of a time-varying control system is a spacecraft control system. (i.e. mass of a
spacecraft changes due to fuel consumption.)
Nonlinear systems
A system is nonlinear if the principle of super-position does not apply. Thus, for a nonlinear system
the response to two inputs cannot be calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the results.
Although many physical relationships are often represented by linear equations, in most cases actual
relationships are not quite linear. In fact, a careful study of physical systems reveals that even socalled "linear systems" are really linear only in limited operating ranges. In practice, many
electromechanical systems, hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems, and so on, involve nonlinear
relationships among the variables. For example, the output of a component may saturate for large
input signals. There may be a dead space that affects small signals. (The dead space of a component is
a small range of input variations to which the component is insensitive). Square-law nonlinearity may
occur in some components. For instance, dampers used in physical systems may be linear for lowvelocity operations but may become nonlinear at high velocities, and the damping force may become
proportional to the square of the operating velocity. Examples of characteristic curves for these
nonlinearities are shown in your text.
Transfer Functions
In control theory, functions called transfer functions are commonly used to characterize the inputoutput relationships of components or systems that can be described by linear, time-invariant,
differential equation.

The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving
function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero. Consider the linear time-invariant
system defined by the following differential equation:
(n)

( n 1)

( m)

( m 1)

ao y a1 y ... an 1 y a n y bo x b1 x ... bm1 x bm x


where y is the output of the system and x is the input. The transfer function of this system is obtained
by taking the Laplace transforms of both sides of the above equation, under the assumption that all
initial conditions are zero.

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G( s)
Transfer function =

bo s m b1s m1 ... bm1 s bm


ao s n a1s n1 ... an1 s an

By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by algebraic
equations in s. If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth-order system.
Comments on transfer function
The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to linear, time-invariant, differential
equation systems. The transfer function approach, however, is extensively used in the analysis and
design of such systems. In what follows, we shall list important comments concerning the transfer
function. (Note that in the list a system referred to is one described by a linear, time invariant,
differential equation.)

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an operational method of


expressing the differential equation that relates the output variable to the input variable.
The transfer function is a property of a system itself independent of the magnitude and nature
of the input or driving function.
The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the output; however, it
does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the system. (i.e. transfer
functions of many physically different systems can be identical.)
If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be studied for various
forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of the system.
If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established experimentally by
introducing known inputs and studying the output of the system. Once established, a transfer
function gives a full description of the dynamic characteristics of the system, as distinct from
its physical description.

To derive the transfer function, we proceed according to the following steps.


1. Write the differential equation for the system.
2. Take the Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming all initial conditions are zero.
3. Take the ratio of the Laplace transforms of the output to the input. This ratio is the transfer
function.

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CHA
APTER 3
Reduction of M
Multiple Subsystems
Objectives
After this ch
hapter, you should
s
be abble to:

Reduce
R
a blocck diagram off multiple subbsystems to a single blockk representingg the transfer function
from
f
input to output
Analyze
A
and design
d
for tran
nsient responnse, a system consisting
c
of multiple subssystems

3.1 Introdu
uction
We have beeen working with indiviidual subsysttems represeented by a bblock with itts input and output.
More comp
plicated systtems are reppresented byy the intercoonnection of
o many sub
bsystems. Siince the
response of a single trannsfer functioon can be callculated, we want to represent multiiple subsysteems as a
single transffer function.
Then, we caan apply thee analytical techniques of the previious chapters and obtainn transient response
information about the en
ntire system.
3.2 Block diagrams
In the previoous section the
t concept of
o a transfer function forr a linear tim
me-invariant system was
presented. By
B definitionn the transfeer function iss the ratio off the Laplacee transform of
o the outputt
variable to the
t Laplace transform
t
off the input vaariable. Let X(s) be the (Laplace
(
transform of thhe)
input variabble, Y(s) be th
he output vaariable, and G
G(s) be the trransfer functtion. One method of
graphically denoting thee relationshipp Y(s) = X(s)
s)U(s) is throough a blockk diagram, ass shown in thhe
ms mathemaatical
following figure. The bllock represennts a transfer function coorrespondingg to a system
nals (e.g. electrical voltage from a poosition senso
or).
model and thhe arrows reepresent sign
X(s)
G(ss)

Y(s)

ms are comp
posed of mu
ultiple subsysstems. Whenn multiple suubsystems arre interconnnected, a
Many system
few more elements
e
succh as summing junctionn and pickofff points muust be addedd to the bloock. All
component parts
p
of a blo
ock diagram
m for a linearr, time-invariiant system aare shown inn Figure 3.1..

F
Figure
3.1

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We will now
w examine some
s
commoon topologiees for interco
onnecting suubsystems an
nd derive the single
transfer fun
nction repressentation forr each of theem. These common
c
toppologies willl form the basis
b
for
reducing moore complicaated systemss to a single bblock.
orm
Cascade Fo
Figure 3.2(aa) shows an example
e
of cascaded
c
subbsystems an
nd Figure 3.22(b) shows th
he equivalennt single
transfer funcction.

F
Figure
2.2
Parallel Forrm
Figure 3.3(aa) shows an example
e
of parallel
p
subssystems. Thee equivalent transfer funnction, Ge(s) appears
in Figure 3.33(b).

F
Figure
3.3
F
Feedback Form
The third topology
t
is the feedbacck form as shown in Figure 3.4(aa) and Figu
ure 3.4(b) shows
s
a
simplified model.
m
We ob
btain the equuivalent, or cclosed-loop, transfer funnction shownn in Figure 3.4(c).
3

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Figure 3..4 (a), (b) annd (c)


Moving Bloocks to Creaate Familiarr Forms
Figure 3.5 shows
s
equiv
valent block diagrams foormed when
n transfer funnctions are moved
m
left or
o right
past a summ
ming junctionn.
Figure 3.6 shows
s
equiv
valent block diagrams foormed when
n transfer funnctions are moved
m
left or
o right
past a pickooff point.

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Figure
F
3.5: Block
B
diagram
d
algebra for
su
umming junnctions
equivalent
e
foorms for
moving
m
a blo
ock
a.
a to the left past
p a
su
umming junnction;
b.
b to the right past a
su
umming junnction

6
Figure 3.6
Block diaggram
algebra forr pickoff
points
equivalentt forms
for movingg a block
a. to the leeft past a
pickoff pooint;
b. to the riight past a
pickoff pooint

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Ex 3.1 Reduuce the block
k diagram shhown in Figuure 3.7 to a single
s
transffer function.

F
Figure
3.7
Answer:

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Ex 3.2 Redu
uce the block diagram shhown in Figure 3.8 to a single transffer function.

F
Figure
3.8
Answer:

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Do-it-yoursself: Find thhe equivalentt transfer funnction, T(s)=
=C(s)/R(s) foor the system
m shown in Figure
F
3.9.

(b)

F
Figure
3.9
Answer:

T ( s)

s3 1
2s 4 s 2 2s
Table 3-1

Original systeem

Rule
Cascaded
elements

Some rules for


f block diag
gram reduction
n

R(s)

R(s)
Addition or
subtraction

Reduceed system
R(s)

G2(ss) C(s)

G1(s))
+

G1(s))

G1(s)G2(s)

C
C(s)

C(s)
R(s)

G1(s)+G2(s)

C(s)
C

G2(s)
R(s)
R(s)

G(s)

Moving a
starting poin
nt

G(s)

C(s)

C(s)
B(s)
B(s)

R(s) +

G
G(s)

Moving a
summing point

C(s)

B(s)

R(s) +

G
G(s)
H
H(s)

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G(s))

C(s)
-

B(ss)

Closed loop
system

R(s)

G(s))

C(s)
R(s)

C(s)

Control Systems 2015


Exercise: Consider the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 3-9a. The final transfer function
is shown in Fig. 3-9d. Note that the first reduction involves a parallel combination; the second
involves a cascade combination.

First reduction

G3(s)
R(s) +

G1(s)
-

+
+

G2(s)

G4(s)

C(s)

H1(s)
H2(s)
Next reduction

(a)
R(s) +

G1(s)
-

G2(s)+G3(s)

G4(s)

C(s)

H 1 ( s)
G4 (s)

H2(s)
(b)

R(s)

G5 (s)

G1(s)
-

[G2 (s) G3 (s)]G4 (s)


1 H1 (s)[G2 (s) G3 (s)]

H2(s)
(c)
R(s)

G1(s)G5 (s)
1 G1(s)G5 (s)H2 (s)

C(s)

(d)
Fig.3-9 Obtaining transfer function by block diagram reduction

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