European hare

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The European hare (Lepus europaeus), also known as the brown hare,
is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Western Asia and
Central Asia. It is a mammal adapted to temperate, open country. It is
related to and looks very similar to the European rabbit, which is in the
same family but in a different genus. Hares are larger than the European
rabbit, have longer ears and hind legs and breed on the ground rather
than in a burrow. They rely on speed to escape from predators.
Generally nocturnal and shy in nature, hares change their behaviour in
the spring, when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another
around fields and meadows. During this spring frenzy, they can be seen
striking one another with their paws ("boxing"). For a long time, this had
been thought to be competition between males, but closer observation
has revealed it is usually a female hitting a male, either to show she is
not yet ready to mate or as a test of his determination. This species has a
fairly long breeding season which lasts from January to August. Hares
are herbivorous and feed on grasses, herbs, twigs, buds, bark and field
crops. Their natural predators include birds of prey, canids and felids.
The European hare is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN.
However it is declining in mainland Europe because of changes in
farming practices. The hare has been a traditional symbol of fertility and
reproduction in some cultures, and its courtship behaviour in the spring
inspired the English idiom mad as a March hare.

Contents
1 Taxonomy and genetics

European hare[1]

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Mammalia

Order:

Lagomorpha

Family:

Leporidae

Genus:

Lepus

Species:

L. europaeus
Binomial name

2 Description
3 Range and habitat
4 Behaviour and life history

Lepus europaeus
Pallas, 1778

4.1 Food and foraging

4.2 Mating and reproduction
5 Status and human interactions
European hare range

5.1 In culture

(dark red - native, red - introduced)

6 References
7 External links

Taxonomy and genetics

The European hare was first described by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas
in 1778. It shares the genus Lepus with other hares and jackrabbits. These
animals are distinguished from other leporids by their longer legs, wider nostrils
and precocial young. The former two are adaptations for long distance running.
Historically, up to 30 subspecies of European hare have been classified, although
their status has been variable.[3] These subspecies have been distinguished by
differences in pelage colouration, body size, external body measurements, and
skull and tooth shape.[4] The Corsican hare, Broom hare and Granada hare were
at some points considered to be subspecies of the European hare, however DNA
sequencing and morphological analysis has supported them as separate
A European hare (top)
compared with a mountain
hare

species.[5][6]
There is some debate as to whether the European hare and Cape hare are the
same species. A 2005 nuclear gene pool study supported this position.[7]
However, a 2006 study of the mtDNA of these same animals concluded they had

diverged enough to be considered separate species.[8] A 2008 study claims that in the case of Lepus hares, with
their rapid evolution, species designation cannot be based solely on mtDNA but should also include an
examination of the nuclear gene pool.[9] It is possible that the genetic differences between the European and
Cape hare is due to geographic distance rather than actual divergence. It has been speculated that in the Near
East, hare populations are intergrading and experiencing gene flow.[9] Another 2008 study suggests that more
research is needed before a conclusion is reached as to whether there is a species complex.[10] As of 2008, the
European hare remains classified as a single species until further data shows otherwise.[2]
There appears to be genetic diversity in the European hare in the North Rhine-Westphalia region of
Germany.[11] However, it is possible that restricted gene flow could change this within populations that become
isolated.[11] Based on molecular phylogenetic studies, the Cantabric population in Spain has unique mtDNA in
relation to other European populations.[12]

Description
The European hare is one of the largest living members of Lagomorpha. Its head and body length can range
from 48 to 75 cm (19 to 30 in) with a tail length of 7 to 13 cm (2.8 to 5.1 in). The body mass can range from 2.5
to 7 kg (5.5 to 15.4 lb).[13] As with all leporids, the hare has elongated ears which, in this species, ranges from
9.4 to 11.0 cm (3.7 to 4.3 in) from the notch. It also has long hind feet that have a length from 14 to 16 cm (5.5
to 6.3 in). The fur colour is grizzled yellow-brown on the back; rufous on the shoulders, legs, neck and throat;
white on the underside and black on the tail and ear tips. The European hares fur does not turn completely

white in the winter,[14] although the sides of the head and base of the ears do develop white areas.[3] The limb
musculature of hares is adapted for high-speed endurance running in open areas. By contrast, cottontail rabbits
are built for short bursts of speed in more covered habitats.[15]

Range and habitat

European hares are native to
much of continental Europe.
Their range extends from
northern Spain to southern
Scandinavia, eastern Europe and
northern parts of the Middle East
and Central Asia. They have
been extending their range into
Hare running in open field

Siberia.[3] They may have been

introduced to Britain by the

Romans.[16] They have also been introduced, mostly as game animals, to

Portrait of a European hare
North America (in Ontario and New York State, and unsuccessfully in
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut), Brazil, Chile,
Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, the Falkland Islands, Australia, both islands of New Zealand and
the south Pacific coast of Russia.[3][14] [17]
Hares primarily live in open fields with scattered brush for shelter. They are very adaptable and thrive in mixed
farmland.[3] According to a study done in the Czech Republic, the mean hare densities were highest at altitudes
below 200 metres (660 ft), 40 to 60 days of annual snow cover, 450 to 700 millimetres (18 to 28 in) of annual
precipitation, and a mean annual air temperature of around 10 C (50 F). With regards to climate the study
found that hare densities were highest in: "A warm and dry district with mild winter and longer duration of
sunshine; a warm and dry district with mild winter and shorter duration of sunshine; a warm and moderately dry
district with mild winter".[18]
In the United Kingdom, hares are seen most frequently on arable farms, especially those with fallow land, wheat
and sugar beet crops. In mainly grass farms their numbers are raised when there are improved pastures, some
arable crops and patches of woodland. They are seen less frequently where foxes are abundant or where there
are many buzzards. They also seem to be fewer in number in areas with high rabbit populations. Although they
are shot as game when they are plentiful, this is a self-limiting activity and is less likely to occur in localities
where they are scarce.[19]

Behaviour and life history

Hares are primarily nocturnal and spend a third of their time foraging.[3] During daytime, a hare will hide in a
depression called a "form" where it is partially hidden. Hares can run at 70 km/h (43 mph) and when confronted
by predators they rely on outrunning them in the open.[14] Hares may be preyed on by canids, felids and birds of
prey.[20] They are generally thought of as asocial but can be seen in both large and small groups. They do not

appear to be territorial, living in shared home ranges of around 300 ha (740 acres). Hares communicate with
each other by a variety of visual signals. To show interest they raise their ears, while lowering the ears warns
others to keep away. When challenging a conspecific, a hare will thump its front feet; the hind feet are used to
warn others of a predator. A hare will squeal when hurt or scared and a female will make "guttural" calls to
attract her young.[14]

Food and foraging

European hares are primarily
herbivorous. During the summer,
they eat grasses, herbs and field
crops.[14] Their preference is for
wild grasses and weeds but with
the intensification of agriculture,
they have taken to feeding on
crops.[2]

During the winter, they

eat herbage, twigs, buds and the
Hare pellets

European hare displaying typical

hiding behaviour.

bark of shrubs and young fruit trees.[14] They have been known to eat
their own green, pellet feces to recover proteins and vitamins.[20] Two to

three adult hares can eat more food than a single sheep.[14]
European hares forage in groups. Group feeding is beneficial as individuals can spend more time feeding
knowing that other hares are being vigilant. Nevertheless, the distribution of food affects these benefits. When
food is well-spaced, all hares are able to access it. When food is clumped together, only dominant hares can
access it. In small gatherings, dominants are more successful in defending food, but as more individuals join in,
they must spend more time driving off others. The larger the group, the less time dominant individuals have in
which to eat. Meanwhile, the subordinates can access the food while the dominants are distracted. As such,
when in groups, all individuals fare worse when food is clumped as opposed to when it is widely spaced.[21]

Mating and reproduction

European hares have a prolonged
breeding season which lasts from
January to August.[22][23] Sexual
maturity occurs at seven or eight
months for females and six
months for males.[2] Females, or
does, can be found pregnant in
all breeding months and males,
Young European hare
or bucks, are fertile all year
Hares during "March madness"
round except during October and
November. After autumn, the resting period for breeding activity, the
size and activity of the males' testes increase, signalling the start of a new reproductive cycle. This continues
through December, January and February and the reproductive tract gains back its functionality. Matings start

before ovulation with the first pregnancies containing one foetus and pregnancy failures being common. Full
reproductive activity begins in March and April, when all the females may become pregnant, the majority with
three or more foetuses.[23]
Females have six-weekly reproductive cycles and are receptive for only a few hours in one day. Thus
competition among local bucks is intense.[22] This phenomenon is known as "March madness"[23] as it
observed in March as the nights, the bucks' preferred time for activity, are shorter and thus forces them to be
active in the daytime. In addition to dominants subduing subordinates, the female will fight off her numerous
suitors if she is not ready to mate. Fights can be vicious and can leave numerous scars on the ears.[22] Hares will
stand upright and attack each other with their paws, a practice known as "boxing", and this activity is usually
between a female and a male and not between males as previously believed.[14] When a doe is ready to mate,
she will run across the countryside, starting a chase that will test the fitness of the following males. When only
the most dominant male remains, the female will stop and allow copulation.[22]
Female fertility continues through May, June and July, however
testosterone production decreases in males and sexual behaviour
becomes less overt.[23] Litter sizes decrease as the breeding season
draws to a close with no pregnancies occurring after August. The testes
of males begin to regress and sperm production ends in September.[23]
Does give birth in hollow depression in the ground. An individual
female may have three litters in a year with a 41 to 42 day gestation
period. The young weigh about 100 grams (3.5 oz) at birth.[2] The
leverets (young hares) are fully furred and are precocial, being ready to

Young hare hiding

leave the nest as soon as they are born,[14] an adaption to the lack of
physical protection relative to that afforded by a burrow. A mother will
visit the nest to nurse the leverets for five minutes a day. Young can eat solid food after two weeks and are
weaned when they are four weeks old.[14] Hares can live for as long as twelve years.[2]

Status and human interactions

The European hare is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN[2] as it is considered to be wide-ranging and
moderately abundant throughout its geographic distribution.[11] However, population declines have occurred
since the 1960s and have possibly been caused by the intensification of agricultural practices.[24] In low
population densities, hare are vulnerable to local extinctions.[2] The Bern Convention lists the hare under
Appendix III as a protected species.[19] Several countries have placed the species on their Red List as "near
threatened" or "threatened".[25] The hare is considered a pest in some areas and is known to damage crops.[14]
They are also hunted as game animals.[3] Additional threats to the hare are the diseases European brown hare
syndrome, pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudo-tuberculosis), coccidiosis and tularaemia, which are the principal
sources of mortality.[26]

In culture

In Anglo-Saxon paganism, the hare is associated with reproduction

and fertility and is a symbol for the spring goddess Eostre. Its
connection with Easter eggs was based on a misconception by the
Europeans that lapwings laid their eggs in the homes of hares.
Germanic cultures noticed the high activity of hares during the
spring and it was believed that their "mating dance" helped the earth
grow.[27] This observation would also lead to the popular English
idiom mad as a March hare.[28] The hare is a character in some
fables, such as The Tortoise and the Hare of Aesop.[29] It also
appears in Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, in which Alice
participates in a crazy tea party with the March Hare and the Mad
Hatter.[30]

The March Hare with Alice, the Dormouse,

and the Hatter from Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland

References
1. Hoffman, R.S.; Smith, A.T. (2005). "Order Lagomorpha". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World:
A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 198199. ISBN 978-0-80188221-0. OCLC 62265494.
2. Smith, A. T.; Johnston, C. H. (2008). "Lepus europaeus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1.
International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2011-08-18.
3. Chapman, J. A.; Flux, J. E. C. (1991). Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN.
pp. 62, 7678. ISBN 2831700191.
4. Suchentrunk, F.; Mamuris, Z.; Sfougaris, A. I.; Stamatis, C. (2003). "Biochemical genetic variability in brown hares
(Lepus europaeus) from Greece". Biochemical Genetics 41 (56): 12740. doi:10.1023/A:1023354709392.
PMID 12834043.
5. Palacios, F. (1989). "Biometric and morphologic features of the species of the genus Lepus in Spain". Mammalia 53 (2):
22764. doi:10.1515/mamm.1989.53.2.227.
6. Riga, F.; Trocchi, V.; Randi, E.; Toso, S. (2001). "Morphometric differentiation between the Italian hare (Lepus
corsicanus De Winton, 1898) and the European brown hare (Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778)". Journal of Zoology 253 (2):
24152. doi:10.1017/S0952836901000218.
7. Ben Slimen, H.; Suchentrunk, F.; Memmi, A.; Ben Ammar Elgaaied, A. (2005). "Biochemical genetic relationships
among Tunisian hares (Lepus sp.), South African Cape hares (L. capensis), and European brown hares (L. europaeus)".
Biochemical Genetics 43 (1112): 577596. doi:10.1007/s10528-005-9115-6. PMID 16382363.
8. Ben Slimen, H.; Suchentrunk, F.; Memmi, A.; Sert, H.; Kryger, U.; Alves, P. C.; Elgaaied, A. B. A. (2006).
"Evolutionary relationships among hares from North Africa (Lepus sp. or Lepus spp.), Cape Hares (L. capensis) from
South Africa, and brown hares (L. europaeus), as inferred from mtDNA PCR-RFLP and allozyme data". Journal of
Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 44 (1): 8899. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2005.00345.x.
9. Ben Slimen, H.; Suchentrunk, F.; Ben Ammar Elgaaied, A. (2008). "On shortcomings of using mtDNA sequence
divergence for the systematics of hares (genus Lepus): An example from Cape hares". Mammalian Biology 73 (1): 25
32. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2007.02.003.
10. Ben Slimen, H.; Suchentrunk, F.; Stamatis, C.; Mamuris, Z.; Sert, H.; Alves, P. C.; Kryger, U.; Shahin, A. B.; Ben
Ammar Elgaaied, A. (2008). "Population genetics of Cape and brown hares (Lepus capensis and L. europaeus): A test of
Petter's hypothesis of conspecificity". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 36 (1): 2239.
doi:10.1016/j.bse.2007.06.014.
11. Fickel, J.; Schmidt, A.; Putze, M.; Spittler, H.; Ludwig, A.; Streich, W. J.; Pitra, C. (2005). McCorquodale, ed. "Genetic
structure of populations of European brown hare: Implications for management". Journal of Wildlife Management 69 (2):
760770. doi:10.2193/0022-541X(2005)069[0760:GSOPOE]2.0.CO;2.
12. Palacios, F.; Estonba, A.; Perez-Suarez, G.; Alonso-Campos, G.; Sanz, A.; Galan, L. (2004). Report on the restoration
program of the Cantabrian population of brown hare (Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778) in the Basque Country, Spain.
Vairao, Portugal: Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources.

13. Burnie, D.; Wilson, D. E., ed. (2005). Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife. DK Adult. p. 143.
ISBN 0789477645.
14. Naughton, D. (2012). The Natural History of Canadian Mammals. University of Toronto Press. pp. 23538.
ISBN 1442644834.
15. Schnurr, D. L.; Thomas, V. G. (1984). "Histochemical properties of locomotory muscles of European hares and cottontail
rabbits". Canadian Journal of Zoology 62 (11): 21572163. doi:10.1139/z84-313.
16. Hutchings, M.R.; Harris, S (1996). "The current status of the brown hare (Lepus europaeus) in Britain" (PDF). Joint
Nature Conservation Committee. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
17. http://www.seb-ecologia.org.br/2009/resumos_ixceb/1789.pdf
18. Pikula, J.; Beklov, M.; Holeovsk, Z.; Treml, F. (2004). "Ecology of European brown hare and distribution of natural
foci of Tularaemia in the Czech Republic" (pdf). Acta Veterinaria Brno 73 (2): 267273. doi:10.2754/avb200473020267.
19. Vaughan, N.; Lucas, E.; Harris, S.; White, P. C. L. (2003). "Habitat associations of European hares Lepus europaeus in
England and Wales: Implications for farmland management". Journal of Applied Ecology 40 (1): 163175.
doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00784.x. JSTOR 827268.
20. "Lepus europaeus European hare". Animal Diversity. University of Michigan.
21. Monaghan. P.; Metcalfe, N. B. (1985). "Group foraging in wild brown hares: Effects of resource distribution and social
status". Animal Behaviour 33 (3): 993999. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(85)80033-6.
22. Holly, T. (2001). "Mad World of the European Hare". In MacDonald, D. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. pp. 710711. ISBN 0198508239.
23. Lincoln, G. (1974). "Reproduction and March madness in the brown hare, Lepus europaeus". Journal of Zoology 174
(1): 114. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1974.tb03140.x. PMID 4468894.
24. Smith, R. K.; Jennings, N. V.; Harris, S. (2005). "A quantitative analysis of the abundance and demography of European
hares Lepus europaeus in relation to habitat type, intensity of agriculture and climate". Mammal Review 35 (1): 124.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2005.00057.x.
25. Reichlin, T.; Klansek, E.; Hacklnder, K. (2006). "Diet selection by hares (Lepus europaeus) in arable land and its
implications for habitat management". European Journal of Wildlife Research 52 (2): 109118. doi:10.1007/s10344-0050013-3.
26. Lamarque, F.; Barrat, J.; Moutou, F. (1996). "Principal diagnoses for determining causes of mortality in the European
brown hare (Lepus europaeus) found dead in France between 1986 and 1994". Gibier Faune Sauvage 13 (1): 5372.
27. Skye, M. (2007). Goddess Alive!: Inviting Celtic & Norse Goddesses Into Your Life. Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 59.
ISBN 0738710806.
28. Carnwell, S. (2010). Hare. Reaktion Books. p. 181. ISBN 9781861894311.
29. Aesop (2012). Aesop's Fables. Simon & Brown. ISBN 1613823584.
30. Carroll, Lewis (1993). Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486275434.

External links
ARKive
(http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/mammals/Lepus_europaeus/)
Photographs Videos
BBC Wales Nature: Brown hare article

Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Lepus
europaeus.
Wikispecies has information
related to: Lepus europaeus

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/nature/sites/species/mammals/hares.shtml)
BBC Wales Nature: Brown hare (http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/nature/mediaexplorer/?
theme_group=species&theme=mammals&set=hare)
Lepus capensis in Sahara (http://saharanature.wordpress.com/hare/)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_hare&oldid=698917146"

Categories: IUCN Red List least concern species Lepus Mammals of Europe Mammals of Southwest Asia
Mammals of Uruguay Mammals of Brazil Mammals of Argentina Mammals of Chile Mammals of Peru
Mammals of South America Mammals of Australia Mammals of New Zealand Fauna of Iran
Fauna of the Falkland Islands Animals described in 1778 Endangered species of the British Isles
This page was last modified on 9 January 2016, at 01:34.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may
apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered
trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.