Theory of equations

1.

p(x) = x 4 + 4x 3 8x 2 1 ,

then p'(x) = 4x3 + 12x2 16x = 4x(x + 4)(x 1)

(a)

Let

x = 4, 0, 1 are roots of the equation p'(x) = 0

p(x)

There is one real root with x < 4 and another with x > 1.
There is no real root with 4 < x < 1 .

Since p(5) < 0 , p(6) > 0

and

There are two real roots

p(1) < 0 and p(2) > 0 .

and 1 < < 2 .

(b)

Let p(x) = 8x 5 5x 4 40x 3 50 , then p'(x) = 40x4 20x3 120x2 = 20x2(2x + 3)(x 2)

x = 3/2, 0, 2 are roots of the equation p'(x) = 0

3/2

p(x)

There is one real root with x > 2.

Since p(3) < 0 , p(4) > 0 ,there is one real root

2.

6 < < 5

for p(x) = 0 with

(a)

for p(x) = 0 with

3< < 4 .

Let p(x) = x 4 + 2x 2 + 3x 1 .
The number of sign change for

p(x) is 1 .

By the Decartes' rule of sign, there is at most one positive root.

p(x) = x 4 + 2x 2 3x 1 .
The number of sign change for

p(x) is 1 .

By the Decartes' rule of sign, there is at most one negative root.

There are at most two real roots.
Since deg[p(x)] = 4, there is at least 2 complex roots.
p(2) < 0 , p(1) < 0 and p(0) < 0 , p(1) > 0 .

There are 2 complex roots and 2

2 < < 1

real roots

for p(x) = 0 with

and 0< < 1 .

)(

(b)

Let p(x) = x 5 2x 3 + x 10 , then p'(x) = 5x 4 6 x 2 + 1 = 5x 2 1 x 2 1

x = 1,

,1

p(x)

are roots of the equation p'(x) = 0

There is one real root with x > 1.

Since p(1) < 0 , p(2) > 0

,there is one real root

for p(x) = 0 with

1< < 2 .

3.

, , are the roots of the equation x3 px + q = 0

++=0

+ + = p

(2)

( )2 = 2 + 2 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 2

Now,

= 0 2 2( p ) 2

( )2 , ( )2 , ( )2

y = 2p x 2 +

.
.

(1)
= q .

(3)

(4)

2
2
2
= ( + + ) 2( + + ) 2

2( q )
2q
= 2p 2 +

, by (1) - (4) .

are roots of a new equation formed by putting:

2q
3q
. (5)
xy = 2px x 3 + 2q x 3 px + q + xy px = 3q xy px = 3q x =
x
yp
3

3q
3q

p
+ q = 0 y 3 6py 2 + 9p 2 y + 27q 2 4p 3 = 0
yp
yp

Substitute (5) in (1),

The product of roots of

D = ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 = (27q2 4p3) =

(6)

4p3 27q2

.(6)
. (7)

Since (1) is of degree 3 , the condition of roots are shown below:

(i)

3 real and distinct roots

(ii)

1 real double root and one other real root or 1 triple root D = 0 .

D>0.

(iii) 2 complex roots and 1 real roots

(w.l.o.g. let

4.

The roots of (1)

D<0.

= a + bi, = a bi , = c and substitute in (7) )

D0

should be real

4p3 27q2 0 .

x 2 (3 + 2 )x + (4 ) = 0

x2 3x + 4 = (1 + 2x)

This quadratic equation has real roots

= (3 + 2 ) 4(4 ) 0
2

42 + 16 0

4 21
2

or

4 + 21
2

x2 3x + 4 = (1 + 2x)

y = x 2 3x + 4 ....(1)

y = (1 + 2 x ) ....(2)

(2)

is a pencil of straight lines passing through

the point

=3

1
,0 .
2

4 21
2

4 + 21
2

(1) and (2) cut each other only when

4 21
2

or

4 + 21
2

1
,0
2

as shown in the graph.

5.

When

= 3,

When

9 77
9 + 77
<x<
2
2

(2) becomes

Let y = (x 1)2 ( x a) + t

y = 3 + 6x .
(0.11 < x < 8.89),

3 + 6x greater than (x2 3x + 4) .

(a > 1)

y' = (x 1) (3x 2a 1) , y" = 2(3x a 2)

y"

y"

x =1

= 2(1 a ) < 0 since a > 1.

y is a max. when x = 1,

2a + 1 = 2(a 1) > 0 since a > 1.

x=
3

As x -, y -

y is a min. when x =

4(a 1)
+t<0
27

ymax > 0 ymin < 0

4(a 1)
27

t>0

ymax = t.

2a + 1
,
3

4(a 1)
+t
27
3

y min =

as x +, y + .

and

The equation y = 0 has three real roots

2a + 1
.
3

x = 1 or x =

For critical values, y' = 0 .

3
t = 4(a 1)

27

0<t<

y = (x 1)2 ( x a) + t y = x3 (2 + a)x2 + (1 2a) x + (a + t)

++=2+a

+ + = 1 2a
= a + t

+ + - 2( + + ) + 3
t=0

= 1 2a 2 (2 + a) + 3 = 0

6.

Let x =

p
q

be a rational root of ax2 + bx + c = 0 , where p, q Z , H.C.F (p,q) = 1, p , q 0 .

By the rational zero theorem, p|c and q|a .

Since a, c are odd and p , q 0 , p, q are odd .
2

However

p
p
a + b + c = 0
q
q

ax2 + bx + c = 0

ap2 + bpq + cq2 = 0 (q 0)

There is a contradiction since ap2 , bpq, cq2 are all odd so their sum is also odd,
and must not be equal to 0 .
7.

(a)

P(x ) a 0 x n + a 1 x n 1 + ... + a n 1 x + a n

P(p) P(q) = a 0 p n q n + a 1 p n 1 q n 1 + ... + a n 1 (p q )

[ (

= (p q ) a 0 p

n 1

+p

n 2

q + ... + q

n 1

) + a (p
1

n 2

+ p n 3 q + ... + q n 2 + ... + a n 1

Since a0 , a1 , , an , p, q are integers, the second factor in the above expression is an integer.
The first factor (p q) is an even integer if

(b)

P(p) P(q)

p, q are both even integers (or both odd integers).

is even .

Suppose, on contrary, x = q is an integral root of P(x) = 0. Then P(q) = 0 .

(i)

If q is odd, then P(1) P(q) is even by (a) .

But P(1) P(q) = P(1) 0 = P(1),

(ii)

which is odd by given.

If q is even, then P(0) P(q) is even by (a) .

But P(0) P(q) = P(0) 0 = P(1),

which is odd by given.

In both cases, there is a contradiction.

8.

If

is the root of the equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0, then a2 + b + c = 0 and a2 = b c .(1)

A2 + B + C is rational a(A2 + B + C) = A(b c) + Ba + Ca , by (1)

= (Ab + Ba) Ac + Ca is rational
Ab + Ba = 0, since is irrational and all other constants are rational .
Ab = Ba
3

a = b c

From (1),

(2)

(3)

A3 + B2 +C is rational Aa3 + Ba2 +Ca = A(b2 c) + Ba2 +Ca , by (2)

= (Ba Ab) 2 + (Ca Ac) = (Ca Ac)

is rational , by (3)

Ca Ac = 0 , since is irrational and all other constants are rational .

Ac = Ca
Let p(x) = a 0 x n + a 1 x n 1 + ... + a n 1 x + a n .
2

p(x) = (ax + bx + c) q(x) + mx + n, where

Now, p(x)

Then by Division Algorithm,

m, n

are rational constants.

is rational (a2 + b + c) q() + m + n

is rational .

m + n is rational , given that a + b + c = 0

2

m = 0, since is irrational
p(x) = (ax2 + bx + c) q(x) + n , that is, the remainder is independent of x .
9.

Let y = p(x) = x3 px + q then p(x) = 3x2 p, p(x) = 6x

Since

lim p( x ) = + , lim p( x ) = ,

x +

p(x) = 0 has at least one real root .

For stationary points, p(x) = 0, 3x2 p = 0

From (1),

x=

p
3

(1)

There are two turning points if p > 0.

Since

p
p" +
>0

y is a min when x = +

p
.
3

y min = q

2p
3

p
,
3

Since

p
p"
>0

y is a max when x =

p
3

y max = q +

2p
3

p
,
3

p(x) = 0 has 3 real roots (or 1 double real root and 1 real root) ymin 0 and ymax 0

4p 3 27q 2

2p p
0
3 3

and

y has only one real root

2p p
2p
q+
q

3 3
3

(a)

q+

2p p
0
3 3

2p p
2p p
q+
0
q

3 3
3 3

[ymin > 0 and ymax > 0] or [ymin < 0 and ymax < 0]

p
>0
3

4p3 < 27q2 .

x3 2x + 7 = 0, Since 4p3 = 4(2)3 = 32 , 27q2 = 27(7)2 = 1323, 4p3 < 27q2.

The equation has only one real root.

(b)

3x3 + 4x 2 = 0, Since 4p3 = 4(-4/3)3 = -256/27 , 27q2 = 27(-2/3)2 = 12, 4p3 < 27q2.
The equation has only one real root.

(c)

4x3 7x + 3 = 0 . Since 4p3 = 4(7/4)3 = 343/16 , 27q2 = 27(3/4)2 = 243/16, 4p3 > 27q2.
The equation has 3 real roots .

10.

(a)

x3 + Px2 + Qx + R = 0

(1)

(2)

Put x = X + k , where k is a constant .

(X + k) 3 + P(X + k)2 + Q(X + k) + R = 0
2

In (2) , the coeff. of x -term is (3k + P).

By putting 3k + P = 0 or k =

P
P
, then the transformation x = X
3
3

can transform (1)

into (2) where x2-term disappears.

(b)

x3 15x = 126

(3)

x=y+z

(4) (3), (y + z) 3 15(y + z) = 126

y3 + z3 + 3y2z + 3yz3 15(y + z) = 126

y3 + z3 + (3yz 15) (y + z) = 126

(4)

y3 + z3 + (3yz 15)x = 126 .

(5)

If further we choose 3yz 15 = 0 , or yz = 5

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

y + z = 126

(5) becomes :

From (6), (y3 ) (z3 ) = 125

3

From (7) and (8), y

and z

are roots of a quadratic equation t 126 t + 125 = 0

If y3 and z3 are both real and y0 , z0 are their real roots, possible values for y , z are y0,
y0, 2y0

and z0, z0, 2z0 .

By (6) , the product yz must be real. Therefore the only combinations consistent with this give, as
y0 + 2z0 ,

the three roots of the cubic, by (4) : y0 + z0 ,

2y0 + z0 .

Similarly for the eq. x3 15x = 126 .

From (9) ,

Then the solutions are

11.

(a)

Take y03 = 1,

t = 1 or 125.

x2 + px + q = 0

1 + 5, + 52 ,

z03 = 125, we have

y0 = 1,

z0 = 5 .

2 + 5 .

+ = p , = q .

(1)

(3 )(3 ) = 33 + (4 + 4) = ()3 + [( + )4 4(2 + 2) 622]

= ()3 + {( + )4 4[( + )2 2] 6()2} = q3 + q {(p)4 4q[(p)2 2q] 6q2} , by (1)
= q3 + 2q2 + q (p4 4p2 q + 4q2) = q(q + 1)2 (p2 2q)2

(2)

One of the roots of the equation x + px + q = 0 is equal to the cube of the other

(b)

3 =

(p2 2q)2 = q(q + 1)2 .

or

x2 + px + q = 0

3 =

(3 )(3 ) = 0

+ = p , = q

q(q + 1)2 (p2 2q)2 = 0 , by (2)

(1)

(t + ) + (t + ) = (1 + t) ( + ) = (1 + t) (p) = p(1 + t)
(t + ) (t + ) = t(2 + 2) + + t2 = t[( + )2 2] + + t2 = t[(p)2 2q] + q + t2 q
= t2 q + t(p2 2q) + q
Hence the new equation is

x2 + p(1 + t) x + t2 q + t(p2 2q) + q = 0

If p2 4q < 0 , p 0 , then (1) has two complex conjugate roots and .

Since p, q are real, and and are complex conjugates ,

(1)

If t 1 and is real, (t + ) , (t + )

(2)

If t = 1 , (t + ) , (t + )

are complex numbers.

are equal to p .

Since p 0 , therefore (t + ) , (t + ) are different from zero.

12.

(a)

p2 and q are the roots of x2 + bx + q = 0

p +p b+q=0

(2)

Case (1), If q 0 , then from (3) ,

. (1)
2

q + bq + q = 0

(3)

q + b + 1 = 0 q = (b + 1)

(4) (2), p + p b + (b + 1) = 0
4

p2 = (b + 1) or p2 = 1

p = (b + 1) or

(4)

(p + b + 1) (p 1) = 0
2

p = 1 .

Case (2), If q = 0, then (2) becomes p4 + p2b = 0 p2 (p2 + b) = 0

(b)

p = 0 or

The equation x2 + bx + c = 0

+ = b , = c

(1)

( + ) 2 + 2 = b 2c + 2
1
1
+ +2
+
=
=
2
2
1 + 2 1 + 2
1 + 2 1 + 2
1 + b 2 2c + c 2
1 + ( + ) 2 + ( )
2

)(

1
1
1
=
1 + 2 1 + 2 1 + b 2 2c + c 2

If

The new equation is

(1 + b

2c + c 2 x 2 + 2c 2 b 2 x + 1 = 0 .

b = 1 and c = 1 , then the given equation is x2 + x 1 = 0 , with roots

x=

The new equation is 5x2 5x + 1 = 0, with roots

13.

, , r
r

Let

Then + 1 + r = 3
r

b
3

(3)/(2),

(6)(1),

x 3 + 3x 2 + bx +

x=

b
or
3

x3 + 3x2 + bx + c = 0

be the roots of

. (1)

(2)

2 +1+ r = b
r

(5)

(5)(4),

c=

From (5)

and division,

3 3
3

x=
2

1 5
2

5 5
.
10

b2
= 0.
27

x=

b2
27

(3)

(6)

3 = c

(4)

b 2
b
b2

x + x + 3 x +
=0
3
3
9

b
4b 2

3
9

(7)

(8)

In (7),

b 4b 2
b 2 4b 2 27 6b b 2

= 9 2b +

=
= 3
3
9
9
9
3

From (5), Since

In (8),

is an integer and 0 , b

must be a non-zero integer divisible by 3 . (9)

Since the roots are integers, > 0

 b2 + 6b 27 = (b + 9)(b 3) < 0 9 < b < 3

(10)

The only b satisfying (9) and (10) is that b = 6 and = 9 .

From (7),

14.

x = 2, 1, 4.

x4 + a3 x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 = 0
4

z is a root of (1),
1/z is a root of

(1)

(2)

= 0

z + a3 z + a2z + a1z + a0 = 0
(1/z)4 + a3 (1/z)3 + a2(1/z)2 + a1(1/z) + a0 = 0

(1),

a0z4 + a1z3 + a2z2 + a3z + 1 = 0

a
a
a 1
z 4 + 1 z 3 + 2 z 2 + 3 z +
a
a
0
0
a0 a0

(3)

Since z and 1/z are roots, (2) and (3) are identical.
a0 =

By comparing coefficients of constant terms of (2) and (3),

1
2
a 0 = 1 a 0 = 1
a0

(by comparing coeffs of x2-terms)

Case (1),

When a0 = 1, a1 = a3

Case (2),

When a0 = 1, a1 = a3 , a2 = 0 (by comparing coeffs of x3-terms

The necessary and sufficient conditions are : [(a0 = 1,

4

a1 = a3)

and x2-terms)

or (a0 = 1, a1 = a3 , a2 = 0)]

Put p(x) = x + a3 x + a2x + a1x + a0

For Case (2),

p(1) = 1 + a3 + a2 + a1 + a0 = 0 ,

p(1) = 1 a3 + a2 a1 + a0 = 0 .

(x 1)(x + 1) is a factor of p(x) by Factor Theorem.

Division of p(x) by (x 1)(x + 1) gives a quadratic factor and the problem reduces to solving quadratic
equation.
For Case (1),

equation

x 2 + a1x + a 2 +
Put

y=x+

(1)

reduces to x4 + a1 x3 + a2x2 + a1x + 1 = 0

a1 1
1
1

+
= 0 x 2 + 2 + a1 x + + a 2 = 0
x x2
x
x

1
x

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(1)

1
1
x + 2 = x + 2 = y2 2
x
x

Then

y2 2 + a1y + a2 = 0 or y2 2 + a1y + ( a2 2) = 0

(4)

becomes

(6)

is a quadratic and let y1 and y2 be the roots. From (5), we have:

x y1x + 1 = 0 and x2 y2x + 1 = 0

which are quadratic equations in x

15.

and (7) gives the roots of (1) .

x4 s1x3 + s2x2 s3x + s4 = 0

Writing as symmetric sum, then
= s1

. (2)

= s2

(3)

, = s3

( + ) = = s2
( + )( +) = 2 = ()() 4 = s1 s3 4 s4

(4)

(6)

= s4

(5)

(7)

( + )( +)( +) = + = () + [() 222]

3

2 2 2

= ()[()2 2 ] +[()2 2 ] = s4 [s12 2s2] + [s32 2s4 s2] = (4s2 s4 s12 s4 s32).(8)
From (6), (7), (8), the required cubic equation is

y3 s2y2 + (s1 s3 4 s4)y + (4s2 s4 s12 s4 s32) = 0

(9)

Supposing that methods of solving cubic equation are known,

(9) is solved and let the roots be y1, y2 and y3 . Then:
+ = y1
From (5),

+ = y2

(10) ,

()() = s4

(11)

+ = y3

are roots of the quadratic equation : z2 y1z + s4 = 0

z1 = , z2 =

Suppose (14) is solved, let the roots be

From (3), ( + ) + ( + ) = s3 z2 ( + ) + z1 ( + ) = s3
( + ) + ( + ) = s1

From (2),

(12)

(13)

and

From (10) and (13),

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

(14)

(17) and (18) are simultaneous equation with unknowns ( + ) , ( + ) .

k1 = + , k2 = +

Let the equations be solved and

(15) , (16) form two quadratic equations for which , , , can be found.
Note that if (11) or (12) is used instead of (10) , the solution is the same due to the arbitrary use of the
, , , for the four roots of (1).

notation
16.

(a)

We use induction on k that xk + x-k can be expressed as a polynomial

pk(z) in z = x + x-1 .

The proposition is obviously true for k = 1 where p1(z) = z.

For

x2 + x-2 = (x + x-1)2 1 = z2 2

k = 2,

Assume the proposition is true for k n

For

(n+1)

k = n + 1, x

-(n+1)

+x

where n

-n

-1

.
(n-1)

= (x + x )( x + x ) [x

= pn(z) p1(z) pn-1(z)

Putting

and the proposition is true for k = 2.

+ x-(n-1)]

, by inductive hypothesis.

pn+1(z) = pn(z) p1(z) pn-1(z) , then the proposition is also true for k = n + 1.

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, the proposition is true k

(b)

x 6 + ax 5 + bx 4 + cx 3 + bx 2 + ax + 1 = 0
3

-3

-2

-1

(x + x ) +a(x + x ) + b( x + x ) + c = 0
Putting z = x + x-1 , then (1) becomes

(c)

z3 = az2 + (b 3)z + (c 2a) = 0

If is a root of the polynomial equation (1), then

Putting z = x + x , then (4) becomes

or

z2 + 4z + 3 = 0
-1

....

(2)

(3)

is a root of (2) .

(4)

(z 2) + 4z + 5 = 0

(z + 3)(z +1) = 0
or

z = x + x-1 = -1

x2 + 3x + 1 = 0

or

x2 + x + 1 = 0

or

x=

3 5
2

(1)

z = x + x = -3

x=

+ 1

(x2 + x-2) + 4( x + x-1) + 5 = 0

-1

....
(z3 3z) + a+ bz + c = 0 .

or

x 4 + 4 x 3 + 5x 2 + 4 x + 1 = 0

1 3i
2

17.

(r 0) .

x3 + 3qx + r = 0
++=0

(1)
+ + = 3q

(2)

Put

p(x ) = r 2 x 2 + x + 1 + 27q 3 x 2 (x + 1)

Then

p = r 2 2 + + 1 + 27q 3 2

= r

(3)

(4)

2
2
2 + +1

3 ( + )

+ 1 = r 2
+
27
q

2
2
2

2 2
3 3
( 3q + r ) + ( 3q + r )
2
3
+ 27q 3 4 ( )2 = r 2

+
27
q
= r 2

2 ( )
4

( )
3

3q
( )2 = 27q 3 r 2 + 27q 3 ( r )2 = 0
= r 2 2 + 27q 3
6
6
6

3

satisfies

(a)

When q = 0 ,

p(x ) = r 2 x 2 + x + 1 + 27 q 3 x 2 (x + 1) = 0
3

x3 + r = 0

(1) becomes
3

The roots of (6) are

r,

r ,

Take be any one of these three roots and

=

Then

When q = 0 ,

= or

, where

(6)

be any other root not equal to .

(5) becomes

(5)

is the complex cube roots of unity.

or

x2 + x + 1 = 0

(7)

(r 0) and the roots are , 2 .

= 2

(8)

(9)

(10)

It can be seen that (7) and (8) are the same.

(b)

If

4q 3 + r 2 = 0 , then

(9) (5),
If

r2 = -4q3

p(x ) = 4q 3 x 2 + x + 1 + 27 q 3 x 2 (x + 1) = 0
3

q = 0, then by (9) , r = 0 , contradicting to r 0 .

q 0 and (10) becomes

4x6 +12x5 3x4 26x3 3x2 + 12x + 4 = 0

(i)

If

=1, then = .

(ii)

If

= -2, then = -2 . From (1),

(iii) If

= , then
2

= 1 or -2 or

satisfies (10),

Since

4 x 2 + x + 1 + 27 x 2 (x + 1) = 0

(x 1)2 (x + 2)2 (2x + 1)2 = 0

1
.
2

-2 + + = 0 ,

= -2 . From (1), -2 + = 0 ,

=.
=.

In any one of the above cases, there is a double root for (1).

18.

(a)

A.M. G.M. : Let xi (i = 1, 2, ., n) be n distinct positive numbers, then

(b)

f (x ) x n + a 1 x n 1 + a 2 x n 2 + ... + a n 1 x + a n = 0

1 = a 1

Then

has n distinct positive roots i (i = 1, 2, ., n)

1 2 = a 2

(1) ,

n 1
1 2 ... n 1 = ( 1) a n 1 . (n-1)
in i
a i = ( 1) b i , then
i

Writing

(2)

, .,

1 2 ... n 1 n = ( 1) a n . (n)
n

nn
n
n
n
a n = ( 1) b n = ( 1) b n
n

n 1 n
b n 1 n 1 = ( 1)n 1 nb n 1 n 1
a n 1 = ( 1)
n 1

From (i) and (n),

b n = 1 2 ... n 1 n

From (ii) and (n-1),

nb

n 1
n 1

= 1 2 ...

n 1

b n = (1 2 ... n 1 n )

1/ n

From (iii),

xi
> x i .
n

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

1`
1` n 1

= (1 2 ... n 1 ) n 1 = (1 2 ... n 1 ) n

1 2 ... n 1 n 1
n 1
<
< b n 1
n

1
n 1

= b n 1

(v)

n 1 n 2
2
1

f ' (x ) nx n 1 + (n 1) x n 2 + ... + 2a n 2 x + a n 1 = n x n 1 + (
) x + ... + a n 2 x + a n 1
n
n
n

Consider f '(x) = 0.
Since

f(x) = 0

has n

distinct positive real roots and between any two roots of

f(x) = 0 , there is at

least one real root of f'(x) = 0, where deg f'(x) = n 1 .

f '(x) = 0

has

(n 1) distinct positive real roots, each lying between two roots of

Let 1, 2 , ., n-1 be the (n 1) distinct positive real roots of

n 2
1 2 ... n 2 = ( 1)

1 2 ... n 1 = ( 1)

n 1

2 n (n 1)
2
n2
n 2 2
n 2 n
n 2
b n 2 n 2 =
= (n 1)b n 2
a n 2 = ( 1)
b n 2
( 1)
n
2

n
n
n
2

b n 1 = (1 2 ... n 1 )

f '(x) = 0

a n 1
n 1 1
( 1)n 1 nb n 1n 1 = b n 1 n 1
= ( 1)
n
n

1
n 1

1
n 2

f(x) = 0 .

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

1
1

n 1
n 2
= (1 2 ... n 2 ) n 2 = (1 2 ... n 2 ) n 1

(n 1)b n 2 n 2 n 2
1 2 ... n 2
= b n 2
=
<

n 1
n 1

Similarly, by considering f"(x), f'''(x), , f(n-2)(x), we get correspondingly,

bn-2 > bn-3, bn-3 > bn-4 , , b2 > b1 ,
Combining all these inequalities, we have b1 > b 2 > ... > b n 1 > b n .

10