Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
OF PLANE MECHANISMS
JEREMY HIRSCHHORN
~
San Francisco
Toronto
London
Original from
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction .
1-1.
1-2.
1-3.
1-4.
1-5.
1-6.
1-7.
1-8.
3
3
4
8
8
11
13
14
15
..
Vll
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v
1
Definitions . .
.
Cartesian Reference Frame
Polar Reference Frame. .
Moving Reference Frame .
Summary.
The Radius of Curvature
Graphic Differentiation and Integration .
.
Method of Finite Differences .
.
.
. .
Absolute and Relative Motion; Relative Motion of Separate Particles
Problems.
.
.
.
.
Chapter 3.
3-1.
3-2.
3-3.
3-4.
3-5.
3-6.
3-7.
3-8.
3-9.
3.:10.
3-11.
3-12.
Chapter 2.
2-1.
2-2.
2-3.
2-4.
2-5.
2-6.
2-7.
2-8.
2-9.
2-10.
Chapter 1.
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15
15
16
18
19
20
23
28
29
30
32
32
34
35
38
38
40
43
44
44
46
47
49
CONTENTS
Vlll
Chapter 4.
52
55
56
4-1. Definitions .
.
.
.
4-3. Inversions of a Linkage .
4-4. Relative Motion of Two Planes; the Relative-velocity Pole . . . .
4-5. Relative Motion of Three Planes; Kennedy's Theorem . . . . .
. .
. .
4-6. Velocity Poles in Mechanisms .
4-7. Velocity Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Velocity Poles . . .
4-8 . Velocity Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Orthogonal Velocities .
4-9. Velocity Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Relative Velocities . .
.
4-10. Comparison of the Three Methods of Velocity Analysis . .
4-11. Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms by Means of Relative Accelerations
.
.
4-12. Analysis of Mechanisms with Rolling Pairs . . .
4-13. Analysis of Mechanisms with Sliding and Slip-rolling Pairs in Motion;
Coriolis Component.
. .
.
.
4-14. Problems . .
.
Chapter 5.
5-4.
5-5.
5-6.
5-7.
5-8.
5-9.
5-10.
. .
Problems.
.
Carter's Method .
Comparison of Methods
Problems .
Chapter 7.
7-1.
7-2.
7-3.
7-4.
7-5.
7-6.
7-7.
Coogle
106
107
108
109
112
113
115
116
117
119
122
131
133
140
141
142
145
100
94
88
121
83
121
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80
82
82
106
59
59
61
63
68
69
70
76
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145
146
152
156
160
162
165
CONTENTS
Chapter 8.
8-1.
8-2.
8-3.
8-4.
8-5.
8-6.
8-7.
8-8.
Chapter 10.
Introduction .
Free-body Diagrams
lllustrative Examples
Friction in Link Connections
Chapter 9.
9-1.
9-2.
9-3.
9-4.
9-5.
9-6.
9-7.
Forces in Mechanisms .
lX
167
167
168
181
184
188
190
193
199
167
199
200
205
207
209
213
214
217
10-1.
10-2.
10-3.
10-4.
-5.
10-6.
10-7.
10-8.
10-9.
10-10.
Hartmann's Construction . .
The Inflection Circle for the Relative Motion of Two Moving Planes .
Application of the Inflection Circle to Kinematic Analysis
.
Polode Curvature (General Case).
Polode Curvature (Special Case); Hall's Equation .
Polode Curvature in the Four-bar Mechanism; Coupler Motion .
Polode Curvature in the Four-bar Mechanism; Relative Motion of the
Output and Input Links; Determination of the Output Angular Acceleration and Its Rate of Change .
.
10-11. Freudenstein's Collineation-axis Theorem; Carter-Hall Circle .
Chapter 11.
11-1.
11-2.
11-3.
11-4.
11-5.
11-6.
11-7.
11-8.
11-9.
11-10.
11-11.
11-12.
217
222
224
225
232
233
235
239
241
243
245
248
251
254
254
The Four-bar Linkage .
262
Guiding a Body through Two Distinct Positions .
266
Guiding a Body through Three Distinct Positions .
267
The Rotocenter Triangle . .
277
Guiding a. Body through Four Distinct Positions; Burmester's Curve
281
Function Generation; General Discussion .
284
Function Generation; Relative-rotocenter Method.
289
Function Generation; Reduction of Point Positions
295
Function Generation; Overlay Method .
.
300
Function Generation; Velocity-pole Method.
304
Path Generation; Hrones's and Nelson's Motion Atlas
Path Generation; Reduction of Point Positions (Fixed Pivot Coincident
305
with Rotocenter) .
. . . . .
. .
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CONTENTS
11-13. Path Generation; Reduction of Point Positions (Moving Hinge Coincident with Rotocenter) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 309
11-14. Path Generation; Roberts's Theorem.
. . . . . . . . . 314
Chapter 12.
319
12-1.
12-2.
12-3.
12-4.
12-5.
Chapter 13.
319
321
322
323
324
330
. 336
13-1.
13-2.
13-3.
13-4.
Index.
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361
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INTRODUCTION
The design of a new machine or device for the performance of an operation, or sequence of operations, associated with some particular industrial
process, usually involves the following steps:
1. An assessment of the problem
2. A conception of a suitable mechanism in its skeletal form
3. A kinematic analysis, or examination of the mechanism's motion
characteristics from a purely geometrical point of view, which may reveal
the need for a modification of the layout
4. A static analysis, or determination of the nature and magnitude of
the forces associated with the primary function of the device
5. A choice of suitable materials of construction, based on technological
and economic considerations, and a tentative proportioning of the members
6. A dynamic analysis, or determination of the inertia forces and their
effects on safety and operational requirements, which may disclose the
need for redesign
The chief purpose of this book is to provide the student with the
proper tools for carrying out steps 3, 4, and 6 and to give him a basis
for a rational approach to some problems of synthesis. It is also hoped
that the book will prove a useful source of reference to the practicing
engmeer.
Before proceeding to the detailed investigation of the kinematic and
dynamic behavior of mechanisms, it will be necessary to select a suitable
and consistent system of units and it will be advisable to review some
fundamental notions, usually discussed in basic courses in mathematics,
physics, or general mechanics.
Because the concept of force is of more immediate interest to the
engineer than that of mass, force is chosen as one of the three fundamental
quantities in the engineering or gravitational system of units, the other
two being displacement and time. The fundamental units of measure
adopted in this book are, respectively, the pound (lb), the inch (in.), and
the second (sec). The reasons for selecting the inch, rather than the foot,
as unit of displacement are threefold:
1. Relative displacements of machine parts are generally of the order
of a few inches, and sometimes amount to only fractions of an inch.
1
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Quantity
Symbol
Unit
Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s, x
.,.
F, R
m.
sec
lb
v, s,
:z;
a, s, .i
8, cp
in./sec
in./sec 1
rad
rad/ sec
rad/sec1
lb-sec 2 /in.
lb-sec
in.-Ibt
lb-in.-sec 2
in.-lb-sec
lb-in. t
lb-in.
lb-in./sec
w
a
M
mt
T
I
g
s
<P
t The reasons for choosing the in.-lb as unit of torque and the lb-in. as unit of work
are given in Sees. 1-4 and 1-5.
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CHAPTER
Unit Vector. A very useful concept in vector analysis is the unit vector,
a directed element of length one, having no physical units. It will be
denoted by the symbol i with an appropriate lower-case suffix:
i, denotes a unit vector in the direction s
When dealing with the balancing of rotating and reciprocating masses, a different
convention is adopted.
3
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,---I-f-Plane of action
......
Rotational vector
FIG. 1-1
frequently used to indicate the sense as clockwise (cw) or counterclockwise (ccw), and the magnitude is stated separately.
1-3. Composition, Subtraction, and Resolution of Vectors
Resultant. By definition, the resultant of a vector system is a vector
obtained by the process of composition, or geometrical addition.
Parallelogram Method of Composition. The resultants of two vectors
a and b is constructed by setting off the vectors from a common origin, or
pole, and then completing the parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 1-2. The
diagonal which originates at the pole represents the resultant in magnitude and direction.
0
FIG. 1-2
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FUNDAME~TALS
OF VECTOR
A~ALYSIS
s'
FIG. 1-3
+ b +c
= b
+ a + c, etc.
B
0
FIG. 1-4
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Direction n
Direction t
Direction b
0
FIG. 1-6
FIG. 1-7
Direction l
.,
0
.F'IG. 1-8
and
The components Bz and s11 of the resultant are computed by adding algebraically the corresponding component projections:
(1-2)
and
The magnitude of the resultant is given by
3 = (8z2
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+ 8v2)1
(1-3)
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t an 8,
Su
= -
(1-4)
s~
+.)'
8 ;y
+z
0 s..,
FIG. 1-9
mlr
signifying that the vector q has a magnitude m and acts in the direction r.
(It is not necessary to denote the magnitude and direction by the same
letter as the vector itself.)
.
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= ab( sin
Oab)in
--
axb
FIG. 1-10
a X b = (a:~:
a 11) X (bz
b 71)
= (az X hz)
(az X b 71)
+ (a
11
X bz)
+ (a
11
X by)
+ (a
11
X bx)
a X b = (azb 11
mag (a X b) = azb11 -
aybz)iz
a11bz
(1-6)
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b.c
FIG. 1-12
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10
= r X
(1-7)
Sense of torque
/l
v=wxr
dmt
dM(w X r)
r
I
I
I
M888dM
FIG. 1-14
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Illustrative Example.
Fz
F cos 120
T
Hence
-10 lb
and
+.r
I
I
I
I
-- - --------------FIG. 1-15
In Fig. 1-15 the force arm (perpendicular distance of 0 from the line of
action of F) l measures 4.2 in., so that
T = (4.2)(20)
84 in.-lb
The angle between the position and force vectors may be calculated by
using the concept of the vectorial product:
T = rF sin Orl'
With T = 83.92 in.-lb, r = 6.32 in., and F = 20 lb, the angle is computed
as Or, = 12514'. The measured angle is 12515'.
ab
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ab cos Ooo
(1-8)
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12
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Bab :
0
FIG. 1-16
The scalar product may be expressed in terms of the cartesian components of the two vectors in the following manner:
a b = (a.z + a") (b.z + b")
= (a.z b.z) + (a.z b") + (a" b.z)
(a" b")
'W=Fs
By common usage the force appears as the first vector in the product,
particularly if elemental displacements are considered:
d'W
Fds
This circumstance was the reason for choosing the pound-inch (lb-in.) as
unit of work.
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13
q = m1,.
at the time ,., and 0 ~ A', t he same quantity after a time interval Ar.
The vector A ~ A' represents, therefore, the total change Aq which has
taken place.
q' = q + ~q
Direction of i 1 obtained by
turning i,. 90 in the
sense of increasing eq
0
FIG. 1-17
and
mi,.
dfJ q
m dr l z
+ mwq iz
(1-12)
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(1-13)
Will
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14
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CHAPTER
+ (dy) ]i
2
tan q, = '!:1!.
dx
Velocity. The x andy components of the velocity vector are the time
rates of the corresponding projections of the elemental displacement:
V:e
dx
.
=-=X
dT
and
Vu
dy
.
= (I; = y
(2-1)
15
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16
(vx2
+ vll2)t
dy
tan q," = - = Vx
dx
V11
Since 4>" = 4>, it follows that the velocity vector is tangent to the path.
y
FIG. 2-1
dvx
..
(2-2)
and
au = = y
ax= =x
dr
dr
and
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector follow from
a
tan cf>a
(ax 2
+ ai)l
all
=-
az
This reference frame consists of a fixed point, or pole, and a fixed axis
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17
i.e., by its distance r from the pole, and the angle 8 which the radius
vector makes with the reference axis. 8 is measured from the axis in a
counterclockwise sense.
Displacement. Since displacement is the change in position, it may be
expressed, in accordance with Eq. (1-11), as
ds
dr
+ r d8 iz
dr ir
+ (r d8)2]l
r d8
8 + A = 8 + arctan dr
ds = [(dr) 2
and
cp
FIG. 2-2
Velocity.
ds
dr
dr
d8
v = - = - = - lr + r - lz
dT
dT
dT
dT
= iir + r8iz = Vr + Vz
(2-4)
and
= (vr 2
cl>v = 8
+ vz2 )t
+ Av =
Vz
+ arctan Vr-
a = -dr lr
dT
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dT
r -dO lz.
dT
+ r 8. -diz
dT
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18
By observing the rules for differentiating unit vectors, derived in Sec. 1-6,
the above expression is reduced to
a = (r - r8 2 )ir
+ (r8 + 2r8)i, =
&r
+ ar
(2-5)
a = (ar2
and
tPa = 8
+ a,2)l
+ Xa
= 8
a,
arctan ar
i,.
FIG. 2-3
Displacement.
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S1c
pWplt
(2-6)
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19
... + s. di,- =
a =
Sic
...
. .
swp1,.
Sic -
dT
...
= 81t -
2
v.
ln
dv.
= v d 1t
8
2
v.
ln =
+
a, a,.
(2-7)
Alternatively,
a=
di,
. + pw,. )"1t + fJWp dT
(pwp
(2-8)
In the foregoing equations wp and ap are, respectively, the angular speed
and angular acceleration of the radius of curvature.
The component along the t axis is called tangential acceleration. It
represents the rate of change of speed. It should be noted that the
expressiOn
a,=
pa
a
and
(a,2
a,.
+ an )l
2
tan '1 = -
a,
2-5. Summary
The important relationshipB derived in the preceding paragraphs are
summarized in Table 2-1.
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20
2-1.
Cartesian
Coordinate
Polar
v., =X
Velocity
(speed )
VII
Acceleration
a.,= x
= y
dv.,
= v.,
dx
av = ti
dv 11
= VII
v,. =
v, ==
t
r(J
a,. =
r -
a1 = rB
Moving
v=
=pwp
r8 2
a,
= v= 8
dv
= vds
= pwp +pap
v2
+ 2t(J
a.. = -
dy
an = a Sln 11
van = va Sin 11
Hence
y
a,.
t
v
At
n
FIG. 2-4
va sin 11
mag (v X a)
= v:za11 - v11a:z
Hence
and
p = -----
v;zall - v11a:z
(v:z2 + v112)f
v:za11 - v11a:z
(2-9)
A positive result indicates that the center of curvature lies in the direction
obtained by turning the velocity vector through 90 in the countetclock
w1se sense.
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21
p=
.
.
h
f(
)
,
Po1ar coordmates,
w1t r = 8 , r
P =
Illustrative Example 1.
r2
y" -
~~:
(y')2]f
y"
(2-10)
2
dr
,
d
r
= do' r = d() 2 :
rr"
*'
+ 2(r')
(2-11)
=0
Determine:
(a) The path equation, y = f(x)
(b) The acceleration of the particle
(c) The velocity at T = 4 sec
(d) The radius of curvature of the path at the point occupied by the
particle at T = 4 sec
Solution. (a) The displacement components x andy are first expressed
as functions of time. By eliminating T from the resulting equations, the
path equation is obtained:
Vz
f az dT
+ C1
= 2r
X =
fvz dr
(a)
+ C2
(b)
(c)
v11 = - 3T + 21
y = -jr 2 + 21r
Similarly
and
(d)
Elimination ofT from Eqs. (b) and (d) yields the path equation:
y
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-!x + 21 Vx
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22
a~
and
a = (a~2
tl>a
+~}
2
arctan~
as
=-= 3.61
in.jsec 2
(c) From Eqs. (a) and (c), vz. = 8 in.jsec and v11 . = 9 in.jsec.
Hence
and
-41.5 in.
The minus sign shows that the velocity vector v, is to be turned in the
clockwise sense to indicate the location of the center of curvature. It
is left to the reader to verify this result by means of Eq. (2-4) and the
path equation established in part a.
ruustrative Example 2. The rigid bar of Fig. 2-5 revolves about its
pivot at a constant speed of 1.2 rad/ sec in the counterclockwise sense.
- Guiding groove
~---"---+---
Xu
Rod
FIG. 2-5
The bead, free to slide on the bar, is guided by a spiral groove, defined by
the equation
r = 4.25
where fJ is in radians.
from the pivot:
(}
+-
11'
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23
6=w
(a)
and integration leads to
8 = 8o
+ 1.2T
(b)
T =
leading to
(c)
const
(d)
7r
= 1.2 ,
11"
r = 0
and
+ 8o + 1.2T
components are
Vr
and
1.2.In. I sec
vz = 7.2 in./sec
11"
<Pv = 8 + Xv = 8 +
arctan~
Vr
7.21 in./sec
18716'
and
al =
re + 2r8
ar = -8.64 in./sec 2
a = 8.69 in./sec 2
ar
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24
The distance s covered by the moving point (measured along the path)
can also be represented graphically as a function of time. This curve
permits the determination of the speed and the tangential acceleration
(v = s, a, = 8).
Graphic Differentiation. Figure 2-6 shows the x displacement of a
particle as function of time.
Scale factor&
Displacement, 1 in. ks in.
Time, 1 in.-= k., sec
1:::
L.,
'T
FIO. 2-6
where the lengths lz and l" are measured in inches, and the scale factors
kz (in./in.) and k" (sec/ in.) ensure dimensional correctness. By repeating
this calculation for a sufficient number of points, the velocity curve
(Fig. 2-7) may be developed. Similarly, since az = Vz, it follows that, at
any given time, az is proportional to the slope of the vz-T curve at the
corresponding point:
(2-13)
As in the previous case, l" and l~ are measured in inches. The velocity
scale factor k" is expressed in (in.jsec}/ in.
After this computation is repeated for a sufficient number of points, the
acceleration curve (Fig. 2-8} may be drawn.
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25
Vs
Scale factors
Velocity, 1 in.-iv in./aee
Time, 1 in.-=~ sec
2
lu
~~
5 T
FIG. 2-7
Equation (2-12) shows that if l,. is made the same for all points of the
curve, then the values of Vz are represented directly by the corresponding
intercepts lz, which may therefore be used immediately in plotting the
velocity diagram. With this constant value of l,. denoted by L,., the
velocity scale factor becomes
(in.fsec)/ in.
Similar considerations apply to the determination of the acceleration
from the velocity curve; i.e., if z: is made constant L:, then the intercepts
l. represent directly the corresponding accelerations to a scale defined by
k
1 k"
o=v-k
T
(in./sec2)/in.
.,.
FIG. 2-8
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26
The application of the general principles, discussed above, to a practical problem is illustrated by Fig. 2-9, which
shows a mechanism whose crank q is assumed to rotate at a given constant speed. Required are the motion characteristics of the point B.
The orientation of the superposed coordinate system and the position
of its origin are completely arbitrary. For convenience, the origin has
been placed at the outermost left-hand position of B, with the axes
inclined at 45 to the extreme chord of the path, so that Ymax = Xmax
Dlustrative Example.
'
,,'
7A
11
,,
/Oq
,
,
"
,5, ,
10
,/
-- -- --
,------- --
_,
---
_,
--
,-
FIG. 2-9
r
lo
which shows that. the change in vz from its initial value vz.o is proportional
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. .'
az-T
27
(2-14)
Thus, in Fig. 2-8, where Vz,o = 0, the stippled area Aa,3 is a measure of the
speed, in the x direction, 3 sec after the start.
Evaluation of areas for a sufficient number of points yields data for
the construction of the velocity-time curve.
%,
y, s (in.)
I (crank angle)
10
11~12~ ., (time)
ll-r =..!..sec
6r
FIG. 2-10
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28
j..
la =
Vz
tan
= Vz
dvz
dx
With the scale factors taken into consideration, the acceleration becomes
(2-16)
where la is measured in inches.
2-8. Method of Finite Differences
The accuracy of the results obtainable by graphic differentiation
depends on the accuracy with which the displacement curve can be
constructed, on the choice of scales, and on the skill of the individual in
placing tangents. Since errors are usually magnified by successive
differentiations, the resulting acceleration-time curve represents, at best,
only a close approximation to the true conditions.
The method of finite differences overcomes to a large extent some of the
difficulties.
If a function p = p(T) and its derivatives are continuous in the vicinity
of a point p~, then, for any value of p close to p~, the function may be
represented by Taylor's series. Since this condition is satisfied by the
displacements of points in any real mechanism, p = p(T) may be taken to
represent the time dependence of the position of any given point. (p = x,
x coordinate; p = y, y coordinate; p = s, path lengths.)
Taylor's series, with the higher-order terms neglected, may be written
as
(a)
B. W. Shaffer and I. Krause, 14The Kinematic Analysii of a Specific Point in a
Mechanism by the Use of Finite-difference Expressions," New York University,
Research Division, College of Engineering, New York, November, 1957.
1
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
29
or
(b)
where P-r and P-r are, respectively, the values of the first and second time
derivative of p at the point P-r
Subtraction of Eq. (b) from (a) yields
(2-17)
and the addition of the two equations gives
(2-18)
Figure 2-12 represents a portion of the X-T curve of a particle. The x
components of its velocity and acceleration may be calculated by means
of Eqs. (2-17) and (2-18), as follows;
X-r+~-r
Vz,-r =
and
az,-r =
X-r-~-r
2 AT
x,.+~-r -
2x,.
AT2
+ X-r-~"
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30
relative to the earth, the motion is called absolute. Motion with respect
to a moving reference frame is called relative.
Figure 2-13 shows two separate, i.e., physically disconnected, particles
A and B within a stationary reference frame x-y. Their absolute instantaneous positions are defined by the radius vectors r A and r n, while the
vector rnA defines the position of B relative to A. The coordinate system
~-71 is a reference frame attached to A and moving with it in translation,
i.e., with the axes remaining parallel to
y
their original attitude.
7J
vB
The relationship between the three
position vectors is given by the
equation
(2-19)
FIG. 2-13
FIG. 2-14
2-10. Problems
lr The path of a particle is .defined by .the equations
Digitized by
= O.Sr' - 0.01T'
Coogle
and
y ;. 5 - 0.4-r
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
31
(a) Plot the path, y = f(x), for the first seven seconds.
(b) Derive expressions for the velocity and acceleration components.
(c) Calculate the radius of curvature of the path forT = 2 and 4 sec.
= 10e0.02B
where r
n
+ ~ cos 2WT)
= length of crank
::::::1
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
CHAPTER
rad = 180
1r
30
rad/sec
32
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33
so
, ,,
p..
''
8'
,.,.. .. ----4
A' --'
'
''
'
' B'
3-1
FIG.
'
\
FIG.
3-2
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
34
Hence, in translation, at any given instant, all points of the body have
equal velocities and equal accelerations.
FIG.
3-3
FIG.
3-4
--
~ob
~~
so that
and
Digitized by
Oa
Ob
Oa = O,
Coogle
(3-1)
(3-2)
~ = (,)
=~=a
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
MOTIO~
35
OF RIGID BODY
Equations (3-1) and (3-2) show that, for the purpose of determining w
and a, ..it is completely immaterial whether the body line considered
intersects the axis of rotation or not (Fig. 3-4).
Given w and a, the velocity and acceleration of any point may be
computed by means of the equations derived in Chap. 2. Since, in
fixed-axis rotation, the center of rotation 0 coincides with the center of
curvature of the path of any pointS, rs = ps, where rs is the distance OS,
and ps, the radius of curvature. Moreover, since rs does not change,
fs
Ps
=0
and
fs
ps
=0
expressions:
(3-3)
Vs = wrs
vs 2
(as)n = wvs =
= w2rs
rs
(as)t = ars
(3-4)
(3-5)
The velocity vector Vs and the tangential acceleration vector (as)t are
perpendicular to the position vector r s = 0--+ S and point in directions
governed, respectively, by the sense of w and a. The normal, or centripetal, acceleration component (as)n acts along rs and points toward 0.
The foregoing statements are expressed conveniently in vectorial notation:
Vs = w X rs
(as)n = w X Vs
(as)t = a X rs
(3-3a)
(3-4a)
(3-5a)
w X ((a) X rs)
3. General Plane Motion. A type of motion which is neither a translation nor a fixed-axis rotation. It will be shown in subsequent sections of
this chapter that, as far as velocities alone are concerned, general plane
motion may be replaced by an instantaneous rotation about a virtual
axis, and that, as regards velocities and accelerations, it is equivalent to a
superposition of a translation and a rotation.
3-3. The Velocity Pole, or Instant Center of Rotation
Figure 3-;j shows that the finite displacement of the body from the
position AoBo to the positionA'B', accomplished by moving A and B along
prescribed paths, could also be brought about by a rotation ~a = ~cp,
about an axis through R, the point of intersection of the normal bisectors
of A oA' and BoB'. Of course, with the large displacements depicted, the
discrepancy between the actual paths and the corresponding circular arcs
is rather appreciable. The closest approximation to the true paths is
obtained in the limiting case of an infinitesimal displacement, suggested in
Original from
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
36
Fig. 3-6. Here the virtual axis of rotation passes through P u, the point
.of intersection of the two path normals. This point is known as the
velocity pole, or instant center of rotation.
As indicated by the double suffix, P12 is a dual point: P 1 is the intersection of the virtual axis with the stationary reference plane 1, and P2,
its intersection with the moving plane 2. Pt and P2 may be visualized
as instantaneous bearings of a virtual shaft. This mental picture enables
one to realize quite readily that, at the instant of their coincidence at
\ PathofA
B
il.t/1
FIG.
3-5
FIG. 3-6
Returning to Fig. 3-6, it can be seen that the elemental path segments
and the corresponding circular arcs have common tangents. Hence
TA d8a = ds...t
Consequently,
From Eq. (3-1),
so that
or generally,
T A.(Ja = VA
and
and
(Jo = (Jb =
TB d8b = dsB
TB(Jb = VB
W2
and
(3-6)
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
37
Path of A
-Path normal b
2
Path of B
3-7
FIG.
Occasionally, the
simple construction of the velocity pole by means of path normals fails,
and other considerations must be used to locate its position.
a. Parallel Unequal Velocities. If v A. and Vs are parallel but unequal,
either in magnitude or in direction, they are ipso facto perpendicular to
AB (otherwise their projections along AB would differ), and consequently
the path normals coincide. The velocity pole is best located by means of
the construction shown in Fig. 3-8, which is based on Eq. (3-6).
''
A
''
' ',
VA
'''
va
'
'
\
\
'
',,
--
''
' ' ,,
__
-"4C)..
pll
,p12
'
\.
Vs
F1o. 3-8
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
38
~~~~~~::r~
s~~:JS
""--- - --------- ---- - ---A
FIG. 3-U
FIG.
3-10
W2
Thus, with VA, r A, and rs known, both vs and w2 can be calculated. The
sense of w2 and the direction of v s are determined by inspection.
By construction, as shown in Fig. 3-10. The procedure is based on
Eq. (3-6) and is self-explanatory.
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39
r--------
v8
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
FIG. 3-11
to AS, cuts off on the ray, or path normal, s the orthogonal velocity
vector oVs. Consideration of similar triangles shows that
--- - -
-------~
FIG. 3-12
VM
TM
VM
'CW
and
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
40
B
I
VA
............
IVM
rM
...
_.... _
(a)
(b)
FIG.
3-13
3-6. Polodes
As the motion of the body progresses, the instantaneous center of rotation changes its position within the fixed reference system and in relation
to the moving body itself. The traces of the velocity pole in the stationary and moving planes are known as polodes, or centrodes. The locus
of P1 is the fixed, or space, polode, and that of P2, the moving, or body,
polode. Both curves are of importance in the study of motion and
synthesis of mechanisms. Since P. and P2 have no relative velocity at
P u, it follows that the relative motion of the two polodes is pure rolling.
Because a finite displacement of a body may be visualized as a succession
of infinitesimal rotations about the respective instantaneous velocity
poles, it is obvious that the paths of the points in a moving plane can be
reproduced in all details by replacing the actual guides, or constraints,
with a pair of toothed segments in the shape of the polodes (with the
teeth preventing slip), one of which is held stationary while the other is
attached to the moving plane. (An application of this device is shown in
the next illustrative example.)
The converse is also true. If the motion of a body is produced by the
pure rolling of one curve upon another, the two curves are the polodes of
the motion. An example is the rolling wheel: the circle representing the
wheel is the body polode, and the line representing the ground is the space
polode.
Occasionally, when the actual motion constraints are not positive
enough, portions of the polodes may be used to assist the body over an
awkward in-line, or dead-center, position. For instance, such polode
segments would be useful in the mechanism shown in Fig. 3-26 (Sec. 3-16,
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41
Prob. 3), where otherwise, after the in-line position, the motion of the
link AB could continue either with crossed or with parallel guiding arms.
Construction of the Fixed Polo de. The fixed pol ode 1r1 is constructed
by locating the velocity pole in various phases of the motion, by means of
intersecting path normals.
Construction of the Moving Polode. The moving polode 1r,. may be
found by two methods. The first method is illustrated in Fig. 3-14.
Path of B
FIG.
3-14
At the instant when the body A B is in its phase A 11 B 11 , the velocity pole
is at P~ 1 In order to locate the corresponding point P~1 on the body in
its initial phase AoBo, the triangle A 11B 11 Pi1 is referred back, i.e., reerected
on the base line A aBo. After this construction is repeated for a sufficient
number of phases, the moving polode may be drawn.
(~AoBoP~1
~A 1 B 1 P~;
etc.)
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
42
Fixed Polode. In the phase shown in Fig. 3-15a, the velocity pole Pu
lies at the intersection of the path normals a and b. It can be seen that
the distance 01P12 = AB. Since this is true for any other position of the
link ABC, the fixed polode is a circle of radius AB, centered at 01.
Moving Polode. The construction of the moving polode, by the method
of inversion, is shown in Fig. 3-15b. The bar ABC is considered fixed, and
the frame movable. In the initial position the velocity pole is at P12.
'I
I
I'
I'
--
I
o1
- --o--
I
'
AI
I
(a)
p~
(b)
(c)
FIG.
3-15
As the frame moves around the bar, with the guide grooves sliding on the
pins A and B , the velocity pole describes a circle with the center at the
midpoint 02 of AB and radius AB/ 2. (The correctness of the statement
will be recognized from the fact that the angle A P B equals 90 in all
po~Sitions of the frame.)
The two polodes are shown in Fig. 3.. 15c. If a gear wheel of n external
teeth and pitch diameter AB were attached to the arm ABC, and then
rolled inside a stationary wheel of 2n internal teeth (and pitch radius A B),
points A and B would describe rectilinear paths and C an ellipse. Thus
the two circular polodes replace completely the rectilinear guides.
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
KIXEMATICS OF PLANE
MOTIO~
43
OF RIGID BODY
or
fB
(3-7)
(3-7a)
= fA+ fBA
= fA+
rBAin
VB = VA+ VBA
VB = V.A
wrBAit
VB = VA+ (w X fRA)
(3-8)
(3-8a)
(3-8b)
VBA
(3-9)
= wrBA
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
44
= &A
&BA
&B = aA - w 2rBAin
&B
and
or
&B
+ arBAi,
aA + (w X VBA) + (a X rB.A)
(3-10)
(3-lOa)
(3-10b)
The last two equations may also be expressed in the following more
general tertns:
(3-10c)
(3-11)
It is perpendicular to
Its magnitude is given
(3-12)
[(aBA)n2 + (aBA)t2]i
= rBA(w 4
a 2)i
=
(3-13)
rBA,
-a
,.,. = arctan 2
w
(3-14)
It is assumed that
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
VA.,
45
VcA,
d'
diagram
o'
.,
aD
'
3-17
Digitized by
AB
TBA,
AC
rcA,
etc.
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
46
ad - AD
ab
AB
The velocity image of a body in translation is a point. (Because
VA = VB = vc, etc., points a, b, c, etc., coincide.)
The pole o is the velocity image of the instantaneous center of rotation.
Hence the triangles ABP12 and abo are similar.
ac =as+ acs
+ a2)!
proving that the triangles a'b'c' and ABC are similar. Hence point c'
may be located either by transferring the angles 'Y A and 'Y B to the base
line a'b' or by calculating the distances a'c' and b' c', bearing in mind that
the circulatory sense a'-+ b'-+ c'-+ a' is the same as A-+ B-+ C-+ A.
Since the same argument may be extended to any other point on the
body, the following laws are easily established.
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47
\\ Direction of v B
\
\
a'
asA=o'- b'
\B
\
~b
,. , ,
o'
"VBA
v \
B \
.....
'
',
'\
'
F1o. 3-18
FIG.
3-19
The construction shown in Fig. 3-18 yields the magnitudes and specific
directions of Vn and VnA, and thus permits the determination of the
angular velocity of the body. (w = VnA/TnA = ab/ AB, sense by inspection.)
Acceleration Equation
as= aA
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aBA
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
48
Figure 3-17c illustrated the solution of this equation for fully specified
accelerations aA and aBA In practice, the acceleration equation is
encountered much more frequently in a form in which the three vectors
appear resolved into their normal and tangential components:
+ (aB)t =
(aB)n
(aA)n
Tangential acceleration
T erm
Magnitude
as = o' -+ b'
vs 2
PB
&A
o'-+ a'
VA 2
PA
&sA
= a' -+ b'
(ob) 2
Direct ion
Vector
Magnitude
Direction
Vector
B to Os
o' -+ bo
Unknown
II
bo-+ b'
too~
o' -+ ao
Given
II
a'-+ bo
Unknown
II
PB
(oa) 2
PA
VsA 2
B to A
TBA
VB
VA
in
gtven
sense
a.-+ a'
VsA
bo-+ b'
(ab) 2
AB
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UNIVERSI1Y OF MICHIGAN
49
classed as "unknowns." They correspond to the algebraic signs + or and are yielded automatically by the vector solution. The calculations
are best set out in tabular form, as shown in general terms in Table 3-1.
Upon completion of the acceleration diagram (Fig. 3-19), the angular
acceleration of the body may be computed. [a = (aBA)t/rBA = bab'I AB,
sense by inspection.]
3-12. The Acceleration Pole, or Instantaneous Center of Acceleration
There always exists, on a body in general plane motion, a singular
point which, at a given instant, has zero acceleration. This point is
known as the acceleration pole, or instantaneous center of acceleration. In
the following discussion, the acceleration pole will be denoted by I. The
most outstanding characteristic of the acceleration pole is the fact that
the acceleration of any point S is proportional to the point's pole distance
rsr and that the direction of the acceleration relative to the corresponding
radius vector rsr is the same for all points, as shown by the following
reasoning:
as = ar + asr
and, since ar = 0,
as = asr
However, by Eq. (3-13),
asr
rsr(w 4
+a
)l = krsr
independent of position of S
s
I
FIG. 3-20
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
50
200 in./sec
t
(a)
(c)
50,000 in./sec
I
(d)
FIG.
3-21
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51
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
The
The
The
The
TABLE
3-2.
3-12,
ILLUSTRATIVE ExAMPLE
Normal
acceleration
.
Tangential acceleration
Term
Magnitude
as = o'-+ b'
VB 2
Direction
None
=0
Vector
Magnitude
Direction
-+ bo
Unknown
II
-+ ao
Zero (VA
const)
None
Vs
Vector
bo-+ b'
PB
(PB =
&...t
= o'-+ a'
co)
VA 2
A to
OA
PA
= 125,000
.
.
(ab) 2
B to A
AB
=
21,700
ao-+ a'
a'-+ b11
Unknown
II
VsA
b(l-+ b'
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
52
The acceleration diagram is shown in Fig. 3-21c. The line a'b' is the
acceleration image of the line AB. Point g' divides a'b' in the same ratio
as point G divides AB. The vector o'--+ g' represents the required
(absolute) acceleration of G. It measures 108,000 in./sec 2
(e) a= bab'/AB = 77,700/7 = 11,100 rad/sec 2 Since (a8 A}, has the
direction ba --+ b', o is counterclockwise.
(f) Figure 3-21c shows the vectors va and aa, with the latter resolved
into its normal and tangential components.
From (aa)n = va 2/ pa, pa = 415 2/91,000 = 1.9 in. The direction of
(aa)n indicates that Oa is located below the bar, as shown in Fig. 3-21a.
(g) The acceleration pole is located on the configuration diagram by
constructing the triangle ABI similar to the triangle a'b'i'. Hence
aa = aar = IG(w 4 + a 2)i = (9.4)(11,500) = 108,000 in./sec 2 , which
agrees with the previous solution, and the direction of aa, found by means
of the angle E ( E = p. - 180), is parallel to o' --+ g', as should be.
(h) The acceleration image of P2 is located by constructing the triangle
a'b'p~, in Fig. 3-21c, similar to the configuration triangle ABP 12 The
required acceleration is then represented by the vector o'--+ p~.
3-13. Acceleration of the Velocity Pole P2
Figure 3-22a shows the fixed and moving polodes associated with the
motion of plane 2. 01 and 02 are the centers of curvature of the polodes
at their point of contact P12, and Pt and P2 are the corresponding radii of
curvature.
At the instant of their coincidence at Pn, the points P2 and P1 have
zero relative velocity. However, an infinitesimal time interval thereafter, the two points separate. Obviously, the two points have relative
acceleration, which, because of the nonslipping, must be directed along
the pole normal Pn Since P1 is stationary, the relative acceleration of P2
with respect to P1 is identical with the absolute acceleration of P2. The
objective of the present investigation is the determination of the magnitude and specific direction of ap, .
The following kinematic properties of the velocity pole P2 have already
been established:
1. P2 is instantaneously at rest; i.e.,
Vp 2 =
and
Digitized by
w2(Pu.S)
w2(P u02)
(a)
= W2P2
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
KI~EMATICS
53
p,,
(b)
(c)
ap, will be determined by evaluating the two terms on the right-hand side
of Eq. (b).
"'2
...
P2
ip,.
p2
P1 +pz
tp
II
11"1
pl
r2
P,
(b)
02
11"1
Pt
,.1
(a)
(c)
FIG.
3-22
+ P2
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
54
Consequently,
Vo 1 2
(aot)n =
Po,
w2 2
P2 2
-~Pl
P2
"
. .
. ..
(d)
(e)
(3-16)
+ asP 2
+ (asp2)n + (asp2)e
diip + (w2 X Vs) + (a2 X rs)
as = ap2
= aP 2
= w2 2
(3-17)
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
55
(ao,) n -(
ao ) n
2
(ao,)t
W2
W2
2
+
Pt
P22
P2
(3-18a)
(3-18b)
lp..
P2
PI-
lp,.
P2
= a2(Pu02) =
a2p2
(3-19)
Equation (3-19) gives the magnitude of the tangential acceleration component. Its direction depends on the sense of a2. Hence, in vectorial
notation,
(3-19a)
If the fixed polode is rectilinear (or P1 happens to be a point of inflection), PI = oo, p0 , = oo, and consequently the normal acceleration of 02
vanishes:
rectilinear fixed polode
(3-20)
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56
(a)
b
p
0
a:---..___...--(c)
(b)
FIG.
3-23
%8XlS
AB-4 in.
VA =15
FIG.
in./sec. at 15
3-24 (Prob. 1)
Original from
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
57
B
FIG. 3-25 (Prob. 2)
3. Construct the polodes for the body AB in Fig. 3-26. Assume that the guiding
arms remain crossed after passing the dead-center position.
B
O..t0B=AB=2 in.
O..tA= OBB=4 in.
--4fl.!::
--Path of A
. .
..
: ' .
.:
.
: .
:.. . .
'
. -.-~ . -: .
B ...---Path of B
. ..:: :- .._
=.:: :. ~-. ..:. . :
'
... .. .
.' : ':
:: -~
I'
I
I
I
Path of A
,,
135
~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;,/ !
OA0s=4 in.
OAA = 1.25 in.
OsB=2.5 in.
AB=5 in.
AC=2 in.
BC=4 in.
OB
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
58
6. Construct the velocity and acceleration images of the wheel of Fig. 3-29, and
thus determine VA, vs, vc, vn and aA, as, ac, aD. Check the velocities by means of the
velocity pole. Locate the acceleration pole, and check the accelerations. Compare
the calculated value of the angle p. (or E) with the angle obtained graphically (Fig.
3-21).
MA=2 in.
D
VM=lOO in./sec at 0
2
aM""' BOO in./sec at 180
1. The angular velocity of the small wheel in Fig. 3-30 is 10 rad/sec, ccw, const.
Draw its velocity and acceleration images, and thereby determine vA and aA.
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