What is a relay?

We know that most of the high end industrial application devices have relays for their
effective working. Relays are simple switches which are operated both electrically and
mechanically. Relays consist of an electromagnet and also a set of contacts. The
switching mechanism is carried out with the help of the electromagnet. There are also
other operating principles for its working. But they differ according to their applications.
Most of the devices have the application of relays.

Why is a relay used?

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can be used
to control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal can be used to control a
lot of circuits. The application of relays started during the invention of telephones. They
played an important role in switching calls in telephone exchanges. They were also used
in long distance telegraphy. They were used to switch the signal coming from one source
to another destination. After the invention of computers they were also used to perform
Boolean and other logical operations. The high end applications of relays require high
power to be driven by electric motors and so on. Such relays are called contactors.
TAKE A LOOK: TYPES OF RELAYS
TAKE A LOOK : HOW TO TEST A RELAY

Relay Design
There are only four main parts in a relay. They are

Electromagnet

Movable Armature

Switch point contacts

Spring
The figures given below show the actual design of a simple relay.

Relay Construction
It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron core. A path of very
low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for the movable armature and also the
switch point contacts. The movable armature is connected to the yoke which is
mechanically connected to the switch point contacts. These parts are safely held with the
help of a spring. The spring is used so as to produce an air gap in the circuit when the
relay becomes de-energized.

How relay works?

The working of a relay can be better understood by explaining the following diagram
given below.

Relay Design
The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is surrounded by a
control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the electromagnet through a control
switch and through contacts to the load. When current starts flowing through the control
coil, the electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus the
upper contact arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the
contacts causing a short circuit for the power to the load. On the other hand, if the relay
was already de-energized when the contacts were closed, then the contact move
oppositely and make an open circuit.
As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force back
to its initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the strength of the magnetic
force. This force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the spring and also gravity.
Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage application and the
other is high voltage. For low voltage applications, more preference will be given to
reduce the noise of the whole circuit. For high voltage applications, they are mainly
designed to reduce a phenomenon called arcing.

Relay Basics
The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 pin relay shown below.
There are two colours shown. The green colour represents the control circuit and the red
colour represents the load circuit. A small control coil is connected onto the control
circuit. A switch is connected to the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the
control circuit. Now let us take the different steps that occour in a relay.

relay operation

Energized Relay (ON)

As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1 and 3
causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing of the pins 2
and 4. Thus the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part of the
load circuit, it is used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus, when
the relay in energized the current flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.

Energized Relay (ON)

De Energized Relay (OFF)

As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens and thus the
open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes deenergized and thus in off position.

De-Energized Relay (OFF)

In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates,
causing a magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2
and 4 causing a closed circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1, there will
be no electromagnetic force and thus no magnetic field. Thus the switches
remain open.

Pole and Throw

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A relay is
said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in mainly
three ways. They are

Normally Open Contact (NO) NO contact is also called a make contact. It

closes the circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the relay
is inactive.
Normally Closed Contact (NC) NC contact is also known as break contact.

This is opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit
disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the circuit connects.
Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts This type of contacts

are used to control two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and
also a NC contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are called by
the names break before make and make before breakcontacts.
Relays are also named with designations like

Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) This type of relay has a total of four

terminals. Out of these two terminals can be connected or disconnected. The other
two terminals are needed for the coil.
Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) This type of a relay has a total of five

terminals. Out f these two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also included
which connects to either of two others.
Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) This relay has a total of six terminals.

These terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPSTs
which are actuated by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two of them are coil
terminals.
Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) This is the biggest of all. It has mainly
eight relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be change over terminals.
They are designed to act as two SPDT relays which are actuated by a single coil.

Relay Applications

Relays are used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role in

providing safety critical logic.

Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to time the delay

open and delay close of contacts.

Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage

signals. Similarly they are used to control high current circuits with the help of low
current signals.
They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults during
transmission and reception can be detected and isolated.

Relay Selection
You must note some factors while selecting a particular relay. They are

Protection Different protections like contact protection and coil protection must

be noted. Contact protection helps in reducing arcing in circuits using inductors. Coil
protection helps in reducing surge voltage produced during switching.
Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
Switching time Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
Ratings There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current ratings vary

from a few amperes to about 3000 amperes. In case of voltage ratings, they vary
from 300 Volt AC to 600 Volt AC. There are also high voltage relays of about 15,000
Volts.
Type of contact used Whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.
Isolation between coil circuit and contacts

Definition of Switchgear

In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of

electrical disconnects switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to
control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is
used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and
to clear faults downstream.
A switchgear or electrical switchgear is a generic
term which includes all the switching devices
associated with mainly power system protection. It also
includes all devices associated with control, metering
and regulating of electrical power system. Assembly of
such devices in a logical manner forms switchgear. This
is very basic definition of switchgear.
Switchgear and Protection

We all familiar with low voltage switches and re-wirable fuses in our home. The
switch is used to manually open and close the electrical circuit in our home
and electrical fuse is used to protect our household electrical circuit from
over current and short circuit faults. In same way every electrical circuit including
high voltage power system needs switching and protective devices. But in
high voltage and extra high voltage system, these switching and protective scheme
becomes complicated one for high fault current interruption in safe and secure way.

In addition to that from commercial point of view every electrical power system needs
measuring, control and regulating arrangement. Collectively the whole system is
called switchgear and protection of power system. The electrical switchgear has
been developing in various forms.
Switchgear protection plays a vital role in modern power system network, right from
generation through transmission to distribution end. The current interruption device
or switching device is called circuit breaker in switchgear protection system.
The circuit breaker can be operated manually as when required and it is also
operated during overcurrent and short circuit or any other faults in the system by
sensing the abnormality of system. The circuit breaker senses the faulty condition of
system through protection relay and this relay is again actuated by faulty signal
normally comes from transformer or voltage transformer.

Switchgear has to perform the function of carrying, making and breaking

the normal load current like a switch and it has to perform the function of
clearing the fault in addition to that it also has provision of metering and
regulating the various parameters of electrical system. Thus the switchgear
includes circuit breaker, transformer, voltage, protection relay, measuring
instrument, electrical switch, electrical, miniature circuit breaker,
lightening arrestor or surge arrestor, electrical isolator and other associated
equipment.

Electric switchgear is necessary at every switching point in the electrical

power system. There are various voltage levels and hence various fault levels
between the generating stations and load centres. Therefore various types of
switchgear assembly are required depending upon different voltage levels of
the system.
Besides the power system network, electrical switchgear is also required in
industrial works, industrial projects, domestic and commercial buildings.

Types
Switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be
insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly
form of switchgear is the gas-insulated switchgear (GIS), where the
conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulphur
hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil or vacuum
insulated switchgear.
The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows
them to interrupt fault currents of thousands of amps.

A circuit breaker (within a switchgear enclosure) is the primary

component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching of the arc
when the circuit breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects the
circuit) requires careful design. Circuit breakers fall into these five
types:

1. Oil

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil

to blast a jet of oil along the path of the arc. The vapour
released by the arcing consists of hydrogen gas.

2.Air
Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) or the magnetic
force of the arc itself to elongate the arc. As the length of the
sustainable arc is dependent on the available voltage, the elongated
arc will eventually exhaust itself. Alternatively, the contacts are
rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the
displaced air thus blowing out the arc.
Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very
quickly: typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age
and construction of the device.

3. Gas
Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic
field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 gas to
quench the stretched arc.

4. Hybrid
Hybrid switchgear is a type which combines the components of
traditional air-insulated switchgear (AIS) and SF 6 gas-insulated
switchgear (GIS) technologies. It is characterized by a compact and
modular design, which encompasses several different functions in one
module.

5. Vacuum
Circuit breakers with vacuum interrupters have minimal arcing
characteristics (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact
material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched by a small amount
(<28 mm). Near zero current the arc is not hot enough to maintain a
plasma, and current ceases; the gap can then withstand the rise of
voltage. Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern
medium-voltage switchgear to 40,500 volts. Unlike the other types,
they are inherently unsuitable for interrupting DC faults.

6. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Breakers that use carbon dioxide as the insulating and arc
extinguishing medium work on the same principles as a sulfur
hexafluoride(SF6) breaker. Because SF6 is a greenhouse gas more
potent than CO2, by switching from SF6 to CO2 it is possible to reduce
the greenhouse gas emissions by 10 tons during the product lifecycle.

Classification
Several different classifications of switchgear can be made:

By the current rating.

By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current kAIC that
the device can safely interrupt)

Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents

Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal

system load currents

Isolators are off load disconnects which are to be operated

after Circuit Breakers, or else if the load current is very small

By voltage class:

Medium voltage (1 kV AC through to approximately 75

kV AC)

High voltage (75 kV to about 230 kV AC)

Extra high voltage, ultra high voltage (more than 230 kV)

Low voltage (less than 1 kV AC)

By insulating medium:

Air

Gas (SF6 or mixtures)

Oil

Vacuum

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

By construction type:

Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class

or NEMA enclosure type)

Outdoor

Industrial

Utility

Marine

Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)

Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)

Live-front

Dead-front

Open

Metal-enclosed

Metal-clad

Arc-resistant

By IEC degree of internal separation[6]

No Separation (Form 1)

Busbars separated from functional units (Form 2a, 2b, 3a,

3b, 4a, 4b)

Terminals for external conductors separated from busbars

(Form 2b, 3b, 4a, 4b)

Terminals for external conductors separated

functional units but not from each other (Form 3a, 3b)

from

Functional units separated from each other (Form 3a, 3b,

4a, 4b)

Terminals for external conductors separated from each

other (Form 4a, 4b)

Terminals for external conductors separate from their

associated functional unit (Form 4b)

By interrupting device:

Fuses

Air Circuit Breaker

Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker

Oil Circuit Breaker

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker

CO2 Circuit Breaker

By operating method:

Manually operated

Motor/stored energy operated

Solenoid operated

By type of current:

Alternating current

Direct current

By application:

Transmission system

Distribution

By purpose

Isolating switches (disconnectors)

Load-break switches.[7][8]

Grounding (earthing) switches

A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices,

for example, air-insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually
operated switches may all exist in the same row of cubicles.
Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a
multitude
of
standards.
In
North
America
mostly IEEE and ANSI standards are used, much of the rest of the
world uses IEC standards, sometimes with local national derivatives
or variations.

Functions[edit]
One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is
interruption of short-circuit and overload fault currents while
maintaining service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear also provides
isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to
enhance system availability by allowing more than one source to feed
a load.

Power-system protection
Power-system protection is a branch of electrical power
engineering that deals with the protection of electrical power
systems from faults through the isolation of faulted parts from
the rest of the electrical network. The objective of a protection
scheme is to keep the power system stable by isolating only
the components that are under fault & at the same time
leaving as much of the network as possible still in operation.
Thus, protection schemes must apply a very efficient and
pessimistic approach to clearing system faults.
Components:

Protection systems usually comprise five components:

Current and voltage transformers to step down the

high voltages and currents of the electrical power
system to convenient levels for the relays to deal with

Protective relays to sense the fault and initiate a

trip, or disconnection, order;

Circuit breakers to open/close the system based on

relay and autorecloser commands;

Batteries to provide power in case of power

disconnection in the system.

Communication channels to allow analysis of

current and voltage at remote terminals of a line and
to allow remote tripping of equipment.

For parts of a distribution system, fuses are capable of

both sensing and disconnecting faults.
Failures may occur in each part, such as insulation
failure, fallen or broken transmission lines, incorrect
operation of circuit breakers, short circuits and open
circuits. Protection devices are installed with the aims of
protection of assets, and ensure continued supply of
energy.
Switchgear is a combination of electrical disconnects
switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control,
protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switches are
safe to open under normal load current, while protective
devices are safe to open under fault current. [1]
Protective device[edit]

A digital (numeric) multifunction protective relay for distribution networks.

A single such device can replace many single-function
electromechanical relays, and provides self-testing and communication
functions.

Protective relays control the tripping of the circuit

breakers surrounding the faulted part of the network

Automatic operation, such as auto-re-closing or system

restart

Monitoring equipment which collects data on the system

for post event analysis

While the operating quality of these devices, and especially of

protective relays, is always critical, different strategies are
considered for protecting the different parts of the system.
Very important equipment may have completely redundant
and independent protective systems, while a minor branch
distribution line may have very simple low-cost protection.
There are three parts of protective devices:
Instrument transformer: current or potential (CT or
VT)
Relay
Circuit breaker
Advantages of protected devices with these three basic
components include safety, economy, and accuracy.[2][3]
Safety: Instrument transformers create electrical
isolation from the power system, and thus establishing

a safer environment for personnel working with the

relays.
Economy: Relays are able to be simpler, smaller, and
cheaper given lower-level relay inputs.
Accuracy: Power system voltages and currents are
accurately reproduced by instrument transformers over
large operating ranges.

Types of protection[edit]
Generator sets In a power plant, the protective
relays are intended to prevent damage to alternators or
to the transformers in case of abnormal conditions of
operation, due to internal failures, as well as
insulating failures or regulation malfunctions. Such
failures are unusual, so the protective relays have to
operate very rarely. If a protective relay fails to detect
a fault, the resulting damage to the alternator or to the
transformer might require costly equipment repairs or
replacement, as well as income loss from the inability
to produce and sell energy.
High-voltage transmission network Protection on
the transmission and distribution serves two functions:
Protection of plant and protection of the public
(including employees). At a basic level, protection
looks to disconnect equipment which experience an
overload or a short to earth. Some items in substations
such as transformers might require additional
protection based on temperature or gas pressure,
among others.

 Overload and back-up for distance (overcurrent)

Overload protection requires a current transformer
which simply measures the current in a circuit. There
are two types of overload protection: instantaneous
overcurrent
and
time
overcurrent
(TOC).
Instantaneous overcurrent requires that the current
exceeds a predetermined level for the circuit breaker
to operate. TOC protection operates based on a
current vs time curve. Based on this curve if the
measured current exceeds a given level for the preset
amount of time, the circuit breaker or fuse will
operate.
Earth fault ("ground fault" in the United States)
Earth fault protection again requires current
transformers and senses an imbalance in a three-phase
circuit. Normally the three phase currents are in
balance, i.e. roughly equal in magnitude. If one or two
phases become connected to earth via a low
impedance path, their magnitudes will increase
dramatically, as will current imbalance. If this
imbalance exceeds a pre-determined value, a circuit
breaker should operate. Restricted earth fault
protection is a type of earth fault protection which
looks for earth fault between two sets current
transformers[4] (hence restricted to that zone).
Distance (impedance relay) Distance protection
detects both voltage and current. A fault on a circuit
will generally create a sag in the voltage level. If the
ratio of voltage to current measured at the relay
terminals, which equates to an impedance, lands
within a predetermined level the circuit breaker will

operate. This is useful for reasonable length lines,

lines longer than 10 miles, because its operating
characteristics are based on the line characteristics.
This means that when a fault appears on the line the
impedance setting in the relay is compared to the
apparent impedance of the line from the relay
terminals to the fault. If the relay setting is determined
to be below the apparent impedance it is determined
that the fault is within the zone of protection. When
the transmission line length is too short, less than 10
miles, distance protection becomes more difficult to
coordinate. In these instances the best choice of
protection is current differential protection.
Back-up The objective of protection is to remove
only the affected portion of plant and nothing else. A
circuit breaker or protection relay may fail to operate.
In important systems, a failure of primary protection
will usually result in the operation of back-up
protection. Remote back-up protection will generally
remove both the affected and unaffected items of plant
to clear the fault. Local back-up protection will
remove the affected items of the plant to clear the
fault.
Low-voltage networks The low-voltage network
generally relies upon fuses or low-voltage circuit
breakers to remove both overload and earth faults.