Lecture #4(14).

Loading of the plane at flight from gusts

Plan:
1. Gusts.
2. Action of a horizontal impulse
3. Action of a vertical impulse
4. Change of load factor in time. Influence of a structure of an impulse on a load
factor.
5. The valid and effective speed of an impulse
6. Statistical research of maneuverable load factor
1. Gusts
The maneuverable load factor is resulted from control of plane by the pilot. Gust
loads operate independently from pilot wish owing to non-uniform distribution of the
temperature field. In an atmosphere, always there are ascending and descending
streams. Speed of these impulses depends on lines of factors:
1. Heights of flight;
2. A relief of land;
3. Latitude of district;
4. A season and so on.
Wy

Wx
Fig. 1. Decomposition of arbitrary impulse.
At formation of cumulus clouds impulses of gusts are registered up to 15 m/s in
the equivalent airspeeds. In storm, overcast speeds are marked up to 40 m/s. At flight
above the Caucasian ridge, speed of vertical impulses was registered up to 20 m/s.
At estimation of load factor from gusts on the plane, we shall count it absolutely
firm not deformable body. By turns in a plane pitch, it is neglected.
In the beginning, we shall study sharply limited impulse that is such impulse
when his speed jump reaches limiting value and remains to a constant (fig. 2).
W0

Wx
0

t1

t2
Fig. 2. Sharply limited impulse.

2. Action of a horizontal impulse

The impulse is considered only a passer, as behind an impulse can not catch up
the plane. In horizontal flight load factors are accordingly equal to:

Y
;
G
P Q;
nx
G
ny

(1)

where Y lift force, P - thrust of engines, Q - drag force, G- weight of the

plane.
At hit of the horizontal counter impulse speed of the plane is became at once:
V=V0+Wx,
(2)
where V0 - speed of the plane up to a meeting of an impulse, WX - speed of an
impulse.

Fig. 3. Action of a horizontal impulse aboard the plane

Accordingly lift force and load factors ny are increased:

( V0 W x )2
W
V02
V 2
Y Cy
Sw C y
Sw C y
SW ( 1 x )2
2
2
2
V0

Let us divide both part of equation by G:

where

W
n y n y0 ( 1 x ) 2 .
V0

n y0

C yV02

2p
G .
p
Sw

(3)

Sw

where CY - factor of lift force, - density of air, SW- the wing area, nY0 - a
beginning load factor in horizontal flight, nY is load factor after a meeting of an
impulse, p - specific loading on a wing.
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Simultaneously drag force is increased:

V02

Q Cx

Sw ( 1

Wx 2
) ,
V0

where - factor of drag force.

The load factor on an axis can be presented as:
P Q
nx = nx0 - nx=
.
G
Then
V02
V02
P C
S
C
S

nx

2
G

Wx
V0

Wx 2
) ,
V0

(4)

(5)

Where an increment of load factor from action of a counter horizontal impulse is

equall:

n x

C x V0W x
2p

(2

Wx
V0

).

(6)

Let's consider an example of hit of the plane flying with airspeed

360 km /hour a counter horizontal impulse with speed Wx = 20 m / s, density of air let's
accept = 0.1 (kg * s2 )/ m 3, Cx = 0.02, specific loading on a wing p = 200 kg / m2,
load factor up to a meeting of an impulse were equal
ny0 = 1, nx0 = 0.

W
n y n y0 1 x
V0

nx0 0-

20

2
1 1
1 1.2 1.44

100
nx = nx0 - nx=

C x V0W x
2p

(2

Wx
V0

)=

0.02 * 0.1 * 100 * 20

20
) = 0.022
( 2+
2 * 200
100

Apparently from the carried out calculations additional load factor at action from
horizontal impulse is small and is usual them neglect. The load factor on an axis is
negative that is tears of the passenger or pilot from sitting forward.
3. Action of a vertical impulse

Upon a vertical impulse plane airspeed is changed insignificantly. The increment

of load factor arises owing to change of angle of attack. The plane is counted a material
point, that is, we believe, and that the impulse operates on all parts of the plane
simultaneously. At hit in a vertical impulse, the angle of attack is increased on . The
increment of angle of attack can be found from geometrical parities on fig. 4:

tg

Wy
V0

(7)

Fig. 4. Action of a vertical impulse aboard the plane

As this increment is not enough, it is possible to write down approximately:

tg

Wy
V0

(8)

Speed of air concerning the plane V is equal to:

V0
V0 .
cos

(9)

Lift force of the plane at hit in an impulse is equal to:

V 2
SW ,
Y C ( 0 )
2

(10)

where 0 - angle of attack before action of an impulse, Cy - angular rate upon

angle of attack of factor of lift force. Generally lift force of the plane can be presented
as the sum of two components: lift force of the plane in horizontal flight Y0, and
increment of lift force from an impulse . Then
Y=Y0+Y
(11)
Accordingly, at action of an impulse the load factor is equal:

ny

Y
,
G

n y n y 0 n y ,
where

C y 0 V 2

Y
0;
2p
G

2
Y C y V
.
n y

G
2p
n y0

(12)

We substitute value

Wy
V0

in expression for calculation of an increment of load factor:

n y

C
y VW y

.
(13)
2p
Let's consider change of load factor on an axis nx at hit in a vertical impulse:
nx

P Cx

where

V 2
SW
2
,
G

(14)

Cx=Cx0 +A2;
Cx0- is the drag factor of frontal resistance at =0;
A is the factor of inductive resistance dependent on a angle of attack is

equal:

In this case:
2
V 2
2 V
p ( C x0
)
SW A( 2 0 )
SW
2
2

(15)
nx
G
G
where p- is specific thrust armament.
Similarly to the load factor ny load factor nx is considered as composed from two

A 02

piece:

n x n x 0 n x .
Then an increment of load factor is equal to:
Wy
A( 2 0
)VW y
V
n x
.
(16)
2p
Let's consider an example. The plane flies with speed V0=200 m / s, his specific

loading on a wing p=500 kg/2, C

y =4; A=1.6, nx0=0, density of air at height of flight
P
=0.1(g*sc2)/m3 , specific thrust armament p 0 .5 ; x0=0.01; 0=4.40, speed
G
of a vertical impulse Wy=20 m/sec.
Substituting numbers, we shall receive:
nx=0.163 ; ny= 1.6.
Conclusion: at estimation of load factor from action of a vertical impulse, it is
possible to be limited to consideration of an increment of a vertical load factor.
Let's analyze the formula for calculation of an increment of load factor from
vertical impulse:
n y

C
y VW y

.
(17)
2p
It is visible, that the increment of load factor depends from aerodynamic (Cy(z))
and constructive () features of the plane, heights of flight, speed of flight. Such picture
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is observed on subsonic and concerning small supersonic speeds of flight. In view of

speed of a sound and number speed of flight can be presented:
V=aM,
(18)
where a acoustic speed at height of flight.
Then:
C y a H MW y
n y
,
(19)
2p
also depends on number M flight. At M 2 .5 3
4
C
.
(20)
y
M
In this case:
n y

2a W y
p

(21)

where p= G/Sw is specific wing load.

That is on the big supersonic speeds the increment of load factor does not depend
on speed of flight.
4. Change of load factor in time.
Influence of a structure of an impulse on a load factor

Received before the formula are fair for sharply limited impulse when his speed
varies by jump. The real impulse has not some structure. On a transitive site an impulse
speed changes from zero up to a maximum under some law. At flight of a transitive site
of an impulse the plane gets vertical speed Vy. Therefore the increment of angle of
attack will be estimated by a difference of vertical speeds of an impulse and the plane
(see fig.6), therefore an increment of angle of attack will be equal to:
Wy Vy

(22)
V
where Wy is vertical gust speed ; Vy- vertical speed of airplane after action of
an impulse, V0= V horizontal airspeed airplane after action of an impulse.

Fig. 5. Change of speed of an impulse

The equation of the plane movement in a vertical plane looks like from 1-st
Newtons law:
(23)
mV y Y ,
where m mass of the plane, V y acceleration of the plane on a vertical from
increment of lift force - .

V0

Fig. 6. Decomposition of speed of an impulse on components

This increment of lift force is equal to:
VS
= C y
(Wy Vy )
2
It follows that:
VS
W y V y .
mV y Y C y
2
Let's transform this to a kind
V y AV y AW y ,

(24)

(25)
(26)

where

g V
.
(27)
2p
Let's proceed in this equation from VY to n. In this differentiate equation (26)
from t let's make replacement:
V y
n
,
(28)
g
(29)
V y gn ,
Vy gn
A C
y

We receive equation:
.

A
W.
(30)
g
For the first site of increase of impulse speed, it is accepted linear dependence
from t:
W V
W 0 W0 t .
(31)
h
where
n An

h
.
V

Then

A W0 V
.

g h
The common decision of this equation is
W V
n Ce At 0 .
gh
at t=0 n=0 , hence
WV
C 0 ,
gh
.

n An

W 0 V
1 e At
gh

(32)

(33)

(34)

We are interested with the maximal value of a load factor which is reached at the
maximal speed of an impulse when t=h/V. In this case we have:
V W0
n KC
,
(35)
y
2p
where
1 e
,
K

A h C y g h

.
V
2p
From here, it is possible to receive dependence for load factor
WV
,
(36)
n n0 KC
y
2p
where n0 the load factor working up to an impulse, - factor of easing of an
impulse or damping factor.
Similarly task was solved for a sine wave impulse and the decision is given in
AR, FAR, JAR.
The shape of the gust is given:
2* * S

U ( S ) 0 ,5Ude 1 cos
,
25 * b

for 0 <= S <= 2H , where S means a distance penetrated into the gust (a depth of a
penetration in the gust, meters);
Ude - the design gust velocity in equivalent airspeed;
H - is the gust gradient which is the distance (meters) parallel to the airplane's
flight path for the gust to reach its peak velocity.
b - means an average geometric chord of the wing (meters):
b = S / L , where S - the wing area, meters ** 2;
L is the wingspan.
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The gust load factor should be determined by the following formula:

n 1

Kg * C
y * U de * V

16 * G / S
0 .88 * u g
2* G / S
, ug
,
where- K g

5 .3 u g
b* * C y * g

where Kg damping factor of the gust influence decrease,

where V - equivalent airspeeds of the airplane, meters/second;
y - is angular rate upon the angle of attack of the lift factor of the airplane (1 /
radian);
G - the design maximum takeoff weight in kilograms of force;
- the density of the air, kgf * second ** 2 / m ** 4;
g - an acceleration of the free fall, meters / second ** 2.
5. The valid and effective speed of an impulse

The valid speed of an impulse is really arising at flight in a turbulent atmosphere.

As speed of air impulses receive in result flight experiments upon sizes ny, that there
are set by the average length of a transitive site of an impulse h and calculate effective
speed of an impulse. Thus, value Wef = Ude is nominal speed of an impulse whish made
on length of a transitive site h=l0=30.5 m= 100 f (by FAR) the same load factor reached,
as well as at a real impulse. In FAR effective speeds of impulses are regulated. Before
received the formula for ny does not take into account moments characteristics of the
plane, pitching and an inclination of a trajectory owing to additional loading aboard the
plane. The account of such characteristics usually gives results in reduction of an
increment of load factor approximate on 5-15 %.
In operation loading from maneuvers and from influence of air impulses aboard
the plane operate. The first loading depends from actions of the pilot (carrying out
repeatedly same maneuver, each time the pilot brings some deviations). The second
loading depends from turbulence of an atmosphere. Research was begun of these
loading since 1910. For this time the huge statistics is saved up for various planes in
different conditions. It is established that it is casual process.
6. Statistical research of maneuverable load factor

For maneuverable planes maneuverable load factor are determining, instead of

load factor in gusts. Dependence, repeatability and an increment of maneuverable load
factor for lines of plane looks like fig.7.

Fig. 7. Repeatability of maneuverable load factor.

N is quantity of load factors surpassing size ny , whish meeting for one typical
flight. Usually negative load factors are smaller than positive load factors.

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