Properties of Wood

Cellular Makeup
Cells are
elongated,
tube like
cells
Cell walls
are made
of cellulose
Cells are
bound
together by
lignin
http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-66141/Cross-section-of-a-tree-trunk

Effect of Cell Structure

Since the cells are elongated, the wood
has different strength properties when
stress is transverse or parallel to the cell
longitudinal axis.
Shrinkage properties are also different in
each direction.

 Grain
runs
along the
trunk.
Grain size
is non
uniform

Grain

Principle Directions
With the Grain =
Longitudinal
Cross Grain or
Perpendicular to
Grain = Radial or
Tangential
Strength and
Shrinkage
Properties are
DIFFERENT IN
EACH DIRECTION

Radial

Tangential

Longitudinal

http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/art-66141/Cross-section-of-a-tree-trunk

Moisture Content & Shrinkage

MC = (moist wt oven dry wt)/ (oven dry weight) x 100

Living trees may have MC up to 200%.

Lumber in service has MC less than 20%
The loss of moisture results in wood shrinkage
Shrinkage is most pronounced perpendicular to grain

Moisture is found within the wood cell cavities

(free water) and the cell walls (bound water)

More Moisture

This can vary with occupancy and/or

season

200
180
160
140
120

MC

Fiber Saturation Point (FSP):

The MC where all the free water is
lost, leaving only the bound water.
There is no shrinkage when the
MC is above the FSP
Volume changes take place as the
MC varies below the FSP.
Typically, MC continues to
decrease after both manufacturing
and installation.
Equilibrium Moisture Content
(EMC): The in service moisture
content

MC vs. Shrinkage

Manufacture

100
80

Installation

60
40
20
0
0

0.5

Shrinkage

Shrinkage Example
5 Story Condo
in Juneau, AK
It rained all but
3 days during
the 4-5 weeks
of framing.
In the first year
after
construction
there was
considerable
shrinkage

Imperfections in Wood
Knots

http://www.vermonttimberworks.com/images/shake.jpg

Members
Cut from
a Log
Perpendicular
to grain
direction may
be either
tangential,
radial, or a
combination
of each

Cross Grain

Cross Grain

Cross Grain

http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/images/zuni%20doug-fir.jpg

Sawn Lumber Visual Grading

Rules agencies establish grading rules
based on observed wood quality
Inspectors visually grade and mark each
piece as it is manufactured

Pressure Treated Wood

Wood is often chemically
treated to increase its
durability
Minimizes decay and mold
Discourages insect infestation
Fire treatments also available

Moist, dark (or nearly dark)

locations with minimal air
circulation are prime locations
for decay and mold
High moisture conditions that
are variable are also
problematic

Standard Sizes for

Sawn Lumber
NDS Supplement Section 3, Table 1B
Nominal Sizes are larger than the actual
sizes!
Check out the sizes! Not all are readily
available
Some available sizes:
2x2 to 2x12
4x4 to 4x12
6x6 to 6x12

Sawn Lumber Size

Classifications
See text pg 4.30
Structural Joists and Plank (SJ&P)
2 to 4 inches thick
2 inches and wider

Beams & Stringers (B&S)

5 inches & thicker
Width > thickness + 2 inches

Posts & Timbers (P&T)

5 inches & thicker
Width <= thickness + 2 inches

Glue Laminated Timbers

Laminations can be
strategically used to
make efficient use of the
best materials.
Members can be
fabricated for particular
uses
Larger, Longer, &
Curved sections are
possible
http://www.lamisellbeams.com/images/cover-image/lamisell-image03c-shadow04.jpg

Glulams Designed as Beams

Best material on outer faces
Butt splice in compression zone
Scarf splice in tension region

Glulams Designed as Columns

Materials more uniform
Butt joints can be used throughout

Glulam Standard Sizes

See NDS Supplement
Table 1C
Common Widths for
Western Species GL
3.1/8, 5.1/8, 6.3/4,
8.3/4, 10.3/4

Common depths:
6 and larger, in 1.1/2
increments

http://www.woodnet.org.uk/wec/images/gluelam2.jpg

The National Design Specification

The model code for timber design in the
US
The NDS Specification tells us what we
can do with timber
The NDS Supplement provides material
data for the various types of timber

Basic Design Inequality

As with all structural codes:
Reqd Strength < Available Capacity

In the NDS this takes the general form:

f < F or U < fN
Where:

f = stress caused by internal forces

F = adjusted design stress = F * modifiers
F = Reference design stresses
U = the LRFD factored internal force
N = nominal capacity = F * (Section Property)

Sawn Lumber
Reference Values
NDS Supplement Table 4A

Sawn Lumber
Reference Values
NDS Supplement Table 4D

Glulam Reference Values

NDS Supplement Table 5A

Glulam Reference Values

NDS Supplement Table 5B

Sawn Lumber Design Values

NDS
Table
4.3.1

Glulam Design Values

NDS
Table
5.3.1

The Modifiers

CM: Wet Service Factor

Applies to all reference values
Applies to both Sawn Lumber and Glulams
Specified in EACH NDS Supplement
Reference Value Table
This factor generally reduces strengths for
wood that is used in a high moisture
environment (EMC > 19%)

Ct: Temperature Factor

Applies to all reference values
Use for timber used in environments with
sustained temperatures up to 150 deg F
NDS 4.3.4 for Sawn Lumber & NDS 5.3.4
for Glulams
References NDS Table 2.2.3

CL: Beam Stability Factor

Applies only to bending stress, Fb
Applies to both Sawn Lumber and Glulams
Found in NDS 3.3.3
This factor accounts for instability in laterally
unsupported beams (i.e. lateral torsional buckling)
Glulams: This factor is
NOT simultaneously
applied with the Volume
Factor, CV
More on this factor when
we cover beam design

More CL
See NDS Equation 3.3-6
LTB is a function of both the laterally unbraced (buckling)
length AND the variation in the moment diagram.
First check the slenderness ratio
RB must not exceed 50

Then compute CL
Note that CL is a function of the beam size!
This means that you must know the beam size before computing
this factor
When designing, this may lead to iterative computations

CF: Size Factor

Applies to Sawn Lumber Fb, Ft, and Fc
bent about the strong axis
Found in NDS 4.3.6
4.3.6.1: For SJ&P see NDS Supplement
Tables 4A and 4B
4.3.6.2: For B&S with d > 12, CF =
(12/d)1/9
4.3.6.3: For beams of circular cross section

The reference values are normalized to

a 12 deep member. This factor
accounts for the difference.

Cfu: Flat Use Factor

Applies only to Fb for both Sawn Lumber and Glulams
when the member is bent about its minor axis.
Found in NDS 4.3.7 and 5.3.7
For Sawn Lumber, values for Cfu are found in the NDS
Supplement Tables 4A, 4B, 4C, and 4F
For Glulams, values for Cfu
are found in the NDS
Supplement Tables 5A,
5B, 5C, and 5D

Ci: Incising Factor

Applies to all reference values for Sawn
Lumber.
Found in NDS 4.3.8
Accounts for
damage to
member due to
incisions made
for chemical
pressure
treatment.

Cr: Repetitive Use Factor

Applies to Sawn
Lumber Fb
Found in NDS 4.3.9
Read criteria in NDS
Intended to account for
the community effort of
a repetitive series of
bending members such
as joists, rafters, studs,
etc.

Cp: Column Stability Factor

Applies to Fc for both Sawn Lumber
and Glulams
Found in NDS 3.7 via 4.3.10 and
5.3.9
This factor accounts for column
stability as a function of slenderness.
There will be more on this factor
when column design is discussed.

CT: Buckling Stiffness Factor

Applies to Emin for Sawn Lumber, which has an
impact on Cp
Found in NDS 4.4.2 via 4.3.11
Only applies to truss top chord members,
subject to combined bending and axial
compression, and made of 2x4 or smaller
sections that meet certain criteria.

Cb: Bearing Area Factor

Applies to Fcp for both
Sawn Lumber and
Glulams
Found in NDS 3.10.4 via
4.3.12 and 5.3.10
Accounts for increased
strength of bearing
areas which are, in part,
aided by adjacent wood.
More on this one when
we cover beams.

CD: Load Duration Factor

ASD ONLY!!!!
Applies to Fb, Ft, Fv, Fc for both Sawn Lumber
and Glulams. Also applies to Frt for Glulams.
Found in NDS 2.3.2 via 4.3.2 and 5.3.2
The value of CD is based on the actual shortest
duration load in the load combination being
considered. This has the unfortunate affect of
making it very difficult to determine the
controlling load combination!

Time Effects on
Timber Strength
Wood has the
property of
carrying
substantially
greater maximum
loads for short
durations than for
long durations of
loading. NDS
2.3.2.1

Determining Controlling
Load Case
Consider ASD tensile limit state:
Ta/A = ft < Ft = FtCDCMCt
for ALL LOAD COMBINATIONS
CD is different for every considered ASCE 7 load
combination
This makes it tough to see which Ta to use.
To determine the controlling load case divide both sides by CD

(Ta/CD)/A = ft / CD < Ft / CD = FtCMCt

The load combination that gives the largest Ta/CD is the
controlling load combination

Example
Consider a
column
subjected
to the
loads
shown

Structural Elements with

Multiple Load Sources
Each source has a different make up
Which ASD LC controls the design of the
member?
D, Lr, S, L
D, L
W, E

- Determine CD for each source and each combination.

- Pick the controlling CD for the combination and apply to
all loads in the combination.

f: Resistance Factor
LRFD Only!!!!!
Applies to all reference values except for E
Found in NDS Appendix N.3.2 via 4.3.15
and 5.3.13

KF: Format Conversion Factor

LRFD Only!!!!!
Applies to all reference values except E
Found in NDS Appendix N.3.1 via 4.3.14
and 5.3.12
Need to know f to determine KF

KF Table

l: Time Effect Factor

LRFD Only!!!!!
Applies to all reference values except E and Emin.
Found in NDS Appendix N.3.3 via 4.3.16 and 5.3.14
This is the LRFD equivalent to CD. l accounts for time
effects on strength.
l is easier to apply than CD since its value is specified
by ASCE 7 LRFD load combination instead of by actual
shortest duration load
Still need to divide load by l to find controlling cases

The l Table

Example
Consider
a column
with the
loads
shown

Computing Adjusted Values

for a Member
Once the modifiers have been determined,
then you can compute the modified
stresses for a member.
Member design often requires more than
one strength limit state, so you will have to
compute adjusted values for several types
of stress.

LRFD Sawn Lumber Example

ASD Sawn Lumber Example