Tennis

This article is about the sport. For other uses, see Tennis
(disambiguation).
Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually
against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams
of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis
racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber
ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the
opponents court. The object of the game is to play the
ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a
valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball
will not gain a point, while the opposite player will.

Jeu de paume in the 17th century

Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of

society and at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users.
The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham,
England, in the late 19th century as "lawn tennis".[1]
It had close connections both to various eld (lawn)
games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older
racket sport of real tennis. During most of the 19thcentury in fact, the term tennis referred to real tennis, not lawn tennis: for example, in Disraeli's novel Sybil
(1845), Lord Eugene De Vere announces that he will go
down to Hampton Court and play tennis.[2]

1.1 Predecessors
Historians believe that the games ancient origin lay in
12th century northern France, where a ball was struck
with the palm of the hand.[3] Louis X of France was
a keen player of jeu de paume (game of the palm),
which evolved into real tennis, and became notable as
the rst person to construct indoor tennis courts in the
modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made
in Paris around the end of the 13th century.[4] In due
course this design spread across royal palaces all over
Europe.[4] In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne and
following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a
large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of
either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.[5] Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is historys rst tennis player
known by name.[5] Another of the early enthusiasts of the
game was King Charles V of France, who had a court set
up at the Louvre Palace.[6]

The rules of tennis have changed little since the 1890s.

Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server
had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the
adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition
to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic
review technology coupled with a point challenge system,
which allows a player to contest the line call of a point.

Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and

is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. The four
Grand Slam tournaments (also referred to as the Majors) are especially popular: the Australian Open played
It wasn't until the 16th century that rackets came into use,
on hard courts, the French Open played on red clay
and the game began to be called tennis, from the Old
courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US
French term tenez, which can be translated as hold!",
Open played also on hard courts.
receive!" or take!", an interjection used as a call from
the server to his opponent.[7] It was popular in England
and France, although the game was only played indoors
where the ball could be hit o the wall. Henry VIII
of England was a big fan of this game, which is now
known as real tennis.[8] During the 18th century and early
19th century, as real tennis declined, new racket sports
1 History
emerged in England.[9]
Further, the patenting of the rst lawn mower in 1830,
in Britain, is strongly believed to have been the catalyst,
world-wide, for the preparation of modern-style grass

Main article: History of tennis

courts, sporting ovals, playing elds, pitches, greens, etc.

This in turn led to the codication of modern rules for
many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes,
lawn bowls and others.[10]

1.2

Origins of the modern game

HISTORY

the world. He had very good connections with the clergy,

the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the rst year or so, in 1874.[16] The
worlds oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon Championships, were rst played in London in 1877.[16][17] The
rst Championships culminated a signicant debate on
how to standardize the rules.[16]

Lawn tennis in the U.S., 1887

Augurio Perera's house in Edgbaston, Birmingham, where he and

Harry Gem rst played the modern game of lawn tennis

Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem and his friend

Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of racquets and the Basque ball game pelota, which
they played on Pereras croquet lawn in Birmingham,
England, United Kingdom.[11][12] In 1872, along with two
local doctors, they founded the worlds rst tennis club in
Leamington Spa.[13]

In the U.S. in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young

socialite, returned from Bermuda with a sphairistik set.
She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army ocers play.[18] She laid out a tennis
court at the Staten Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The
rst American National championship was played there
in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100,
by defeating Canadian I. F. Hellmuth.[19] There was also
a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There
were dierent rules at each club. The ball in Boston
was larger than the one normally used in New York. On
21 May 1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize
competitions.[20] The U.S. National Mens Singles Championship, now the US Open, was rst held in 1881 at the
Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island.[21] The U.S.
National Womens Singles Championships were rst held
in 1887 in Philadelphia.[22]

In December 1873, British army ocer Major Walter

Clopton Wingeld designed and patented a similar game
; which he called sphairistik (Greek: ,
meaning ball-playing), and was soon known simply
as sticky for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friends estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in
Llanelidan, Wales.[14] According to R. D. C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, Sports historians all agree that [Wingeld] deserves much of the credit for the development of
modern tennis.[9][15] According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingeld popularized this
game enormously. He produced a boxed set which in- Lawn tennis in Canada, ca. 1900
cluded a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game -and most importantly you had his rules. He was abso- Tennis also became popular in France, where the French
lutely terric at marketing and he sent his game all over Championships dates to 1891 although until 1925 it was

3
open only to tennis players who were members of French
clubs.[23] Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French
Open, and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in
tennis.[17][24] Together these four events are called the
Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather
than baseball).[25]

which all players could compete in all tournaments, and

top players were able to make their living from tennis.
With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of
an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues
from the sale of television rights, tenniss popularity has
spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class
English-speaking image[33] (although it is acknowledged
[33][34]
The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the that this stereotype still exists).
International Lawn Tennis Federation, now known as In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis
the International Tennis Federation (ITF), have remained Hall of Fame, a non-prot museum in Newport, Rhode
largely stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major Island.[35] The building contains a large collection of tenchange being the addition of the tiebreak system designed nis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring
by Jimmy Van Alen.[26] That same year, tennis withdrew prominent members and tennis players from all over the
from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned world. Each year, a grass court tournament and an induc60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in tion ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are
1984. This reinstatement was credited by the eorts hosted on its grounds.
by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo
Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio 2 Equipment
Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming
and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal
Main article: Tennis technology
sport at Seoul in 1988.[27][28]
Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity
of equipment required for play. Beginners need only a
racket and balls.

2.1 Rackets
Main article: Racket (sports equipment) Tennis
The components of a tennis racket include a handle,

International Tennis Hall of Fame at the Newport Casino

The Davis Cup, an annual competition between mens

national teams, dates to 1900.[29] The analogous competition for womens national teams, the Fed Cup, was
founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the
50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF.[30]
In 1926, promoter C. C. Pyle established the rst professional tennis tour with a group of American and
French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[24][31] The most notable of these early
professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and
the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[24][32] Once a player
turned pro he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.[24]

Wooden racket - c. 1920s

known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a

roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly
pulled strings. For the rst 100 years of the modern game,
rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and
strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most
In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some am- of the 20th century until rst metal and then composites
ateurs taking money under the table led to the abandon- of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as
ment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era, in titanium were introduced. These stronger materials en-

MANNER OF PLAY

abled the production of over-sized rackets that yielded

yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of
synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added
durability.

was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part

of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight,
deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation
Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) denes
the ocial diameter as 65.41-68.58 mm (2.575-2.700
the following guidelines;[36]
inches). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 grams
(1.975-2.095 ounces).[39] Tennis balls were traditionally
The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although
at and generally uniform.
the process of producing the balls has remained virtually
unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of man The frame of the hitting area may not be more than
ufacturing now takes place in the Far East. The reloca29 inches in length and 12.5 inches in width.
tion is due to cheaper labour costs and materials in the
[40]
The entire racket must be of a xed shape, size, region.
weight, and weight distribution. There may not be
any energy source built into the rackets.

2.3 Miscellaneous

The rackets must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the Advanced players improve their performance through a
match.
number of accoutrements. Vibration dampeners may be
interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for imThe rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as proved feel. Racket handles may be customized with abmaterial and engineering advances have been made. For sorbent or rubber-like materials to improve the players
example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 grip. Players often use sweat bands on their wrists to
inches until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches.[37] keep their hands dry and head bands or bandanas to keep
the sweat out of their eyes as well. Finally, although the
game can be played in a variety of shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, at soles for stability and a built-up
front structure to avoid excess wear.

3 Manner of play
For individual terms see: Glossary of tennis

3.1 Court
Main article: Tennis court
A tennis racket and balls.

Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are some of the more
commonly used brands; however, many more companies
exist. The same companies sponsor players to use these
rackets in the hopes that the company name will become
more well known by the public.

2.2

Balls

Main article: Tennis ball

Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched
together with thread and stued with feathers.[38] Modern
tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized rubber with a
felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour

Tennis is played on a rectangular, at surface. The

court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.23 m)
wide for singles matches and 36 ft (10.97 m) for doubles matches.[41] Additional clear space around the court
is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A
net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It
is held up by either a metal cable or cord that can be no
more than 0.8 cm (1/3 inch).[42] The net is 3 feet 6 inches
(1.067 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.914 m) high in
the center.[41] The net posts are 3 feet (0.914 m) outside
the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet
(0.914 m) outside the singles court on each side.
The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter
Clopton Wingeld who, in 1873, patented a court much
the same as the current one for his stick tennis (sphairistike). This template was modied in 1875 to the court

3.2

Play of a single point

5
changed to a rectangle.[43]

centre mark

Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of

surfaces.[44] Grass, clay, and hardcourts of concrete or
asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood
ooring having been historically used. Articial turf
courts can also be found.

27 ft (8.23 m)
39 ft (11.89 m)

service line
singles sideline

net

net
centre service line

21 ft (6.40 m)

36 ft (10.97 m)

baseline
4 ft 6 in (1.37 m)

3.1.1 Lines
The lines that delineate the width of the court are called
the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of
the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline
is referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark.
The outermost lines that make up the length are called the
doubles sidelines. These are the boundaries used when
doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of the
doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as
boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles
sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles play.
The line that runs across the center of a players side of
the court is called the service line because the serve must
be delivered into the area between the service line and
the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not
where a player legally stands when making a serve.[45]
The line dividing the service line in two is called the
center line or center service line. The boxes this center
line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a
players position, he or she will have to hit the ball into
one of these when serving.[46] A ball is out only if none
of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its
rst bounce. All the lines are required to be between 1
and 2 inches (51 mm) in width. The baseline can be up
to 4 inches (100 mm) wide.[45]

The dimensions of a tennis court

3.2 Play of a single point

Main article: Point (tennis)

Two players before a serve

The players (or teams) start on opposite sides of the net.

One player is designated the server, and the opposing
player is the receiver. The choice to be server or receiver
in the rst game and the choice of ends is decided by a
coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates
game by game between the two players (or teams). For
each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between
the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may start
anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is
ready, the server will serve, although the receiver must
play to the pace of the server.

In a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without

touching it) and into the diagonally opposite service box.
design that exists today, with markings similar to Wing- If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a
elds version, but with the hourglass shape of his court let or net service, which is void, and the server retakes that

MANNER OF PLAY

serve. The player can serve any number of let services in

a point and they are always treated as voids and not as
faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the
service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a
foot fault, which occurs when a players foot touches
the baseline or an extension of the center mark before the
ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server
double faults, and the receiver wins the point. However,
if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate
hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of
the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced
twice or hit any xtures except the net, provided that it
still falls in the servers court. A player or team cannot
hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel past the The scoreboard of a match between Andy Roddick and Cyril
Saulnier.
net into the other players court. A ball that hits the net
during a rally is still considered a legal return as long as it
crosses into the opposite side of the court. The rst player
or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The
server then moves to the other side of the service line at
A set consists of a sequence of games played with serthe start of a new point.[47]
vice alternating between games, ending when the count
of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player
wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two
3.3 Scoring
games more than the opponent. If one player has won
six games and the opponent ve, an additional game is
Main article: Tennis scoring system
Break point redirects here. For software term, see played. If the leading player wins that game, the player
wins the set 75. If the trailing player wins the game, a
Breakpoint.
tie-break is played. A tie-break, played under a separate
set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and
thus the set, to give a nal set score of 76. A love set
3.3.1 Game, Set, Match
means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a 'jam donut' in the USA.[48] In tournament
play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set
Game
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the and the overall score. The nal score in sets is always
same player serving. A game is won by the rst player read with the winning players score rst, e.g. 62, 46,
to have won at least four points in total and at least two 60, 75.
points more than the opponent. The running score of
each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis:
scores from zero to three points are described as "love",
"fteen", "thirty", and "forty", respectively. If at least
three points have been scored by each player, making the
players scores equal at forty apiece, the score is not called
out as forty-forty, but rather as "deuce". If at least three
points have been scored by each side and a player has one
more point than his opponent, the score of the game is
"advantage" for the player in the lead. During informal
games, "advantage" can also be called "ad in" or "van in"
when the serving player is ahead, and "ad out" or "van
out" when the receiving player is ahead.

Match

Set

match" followed by the winning persons or teams name.

A match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is

determined through a best of three or ve sets system.
Recreational players may agree to play any number of
sets, depending upon time availability or stamina. On the
professional circuit, men play best-of-ve-set matches at
all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the nal of the Olympic Games and best-of-three-set matches
at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-threeset matches at all tournaments. The rst player to win
two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-ve,
wins the match.[49] Only in the nal sets of matches at
the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, the
The score of a tennis game during play is always read Olympic Games, Davis Cup, and Fed Cup are tie-breaks
with the serving players score rst. In tournament play, not played. In these cases, sets are played indenitely
the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "fteen-love") until one player has a two-game lead, leading to some
after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire remarkably long matches.
also announces the winner of the game and the overall In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end
score.
of the match with the well-known phrase "Game, set,

7
3.3.2

Special point terms

Game point
A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who
is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to
win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set
point), matches (match point), and even championships
(championship point). For example, if the player who
is serving has a score of 40-love, the player has a triple
game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three
consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set
points, and match points are not part of ocial scoring
and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament
play.
Break point
A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a
chance to win the game with the next point. Break points
are of particular importance because serving is generally
considered advantageous, with servers being expected to
win games in which they are serving. A receiver who
has one (score of 3040), two (score of 1540) or three
(score of love-40) consecutive chances to win the game
has break point, double break point or triple break point,
respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break
point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to have converted their break point. If the
receiver fails to win their break point it is called a failure to convert. Winning break points, and thus the game,
is also referred to as breaking serve, as the receiver has
disrupted, or broken the natural advantage of the server.
If in the following game the previous server also wins a
break point it is referred to as breaking back. At least one
break of serve is required to win a set.

3.4

Rule variations

See also: Types of tennis match

No ad
From 'No advantage'. Scoring method created
by Jimmy Van Alen. The rst player or doubles
team to win four points wins the game, regardless of whether the player or team is ahead by
two points. When the game score reaches three
points each, the receiver chooses which side of
the court (advantage court or deuce court) the
service is to be delivered on the seventh and
game-deciding point. Utilized by World Team
Tennis professional competition and ITF Junior Doubles.[50][51]
Pro set
Instead of playing multiple sets, players may
play one pro set. A pro set is rst to 8 (or

10) games by a margin of two games, instead

of rst to 6 games. A 12-point tie-break is usually played when the score is 88 (or 1010).
These are often played with no-ad scoring.
Match tie-break
This is sometimes played instead of a third set.
A match tie-break is played like a regular tiebreak, but the winner must win ten points instead of seven. Match tie-breaks are used in the
Hopman Cup and the 2012 Olympic Games for
mixed doubles, on the ATP and WTA tours
for doubles and as a players choice in USTA
league play.
Another, however informal, tennis format is called
Canadian doubles. This involves three players, with one
person playing a doubles team. The single player gets
to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles
team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as a
regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any ocial body.
Australian doubles, another informal and unsanctioned
form of tennis, is played with similar rules to the
Canadian doubles style, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game. As such, each player
plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with
the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but
one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each
game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds
serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break
serve.
Wheelchair tennis can be played by able-bodied players
as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility.
An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It
is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair
player and an able-bodied player (referred to as one-up,
one-down), or for a wheelchair player to play against an
able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only.

4 Ocials
Main article: Ocial (tennis)
In most professional play and some amateur competition,
there is an ociating head judge or chair umpire (usually
referred to as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to
one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be
assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball
has landed within the required part of the court and who

5 JUNIOR TENNIS
be called on court at a players request, and the referee
or assistant may change a players call. In unociated
matches, a ball is out only if the player entitled to make
the call is sure that the ball is out.

5 Junior tennis
An umpire informing two players of the rules

also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who
determines whether the ball has touched the net during
service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge
or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake
has been made.[52]

Main article: Junior tennis

The referee, who is usually located o the court, is the nal authority about tennis rules. When called to the court
by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the
umpires decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpires decision on
a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court
during play, the referee may overrule the umpires decision (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup
matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair).[52]

In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme

to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined
tally.[57] Junior tournaments do not oer prize money except for the Grand Slam tournaments, which are the most
prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from
tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into dierent
tiers oering dierent amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A.

Ball boys and girls may be employed to retrieve balls, pass

them to the players, and hand players their towels. They
have no adjudicative role. In rare events (e.g., if they are
hurt or if they have caused a hindrance), the umpire may
ask them for a statement of what actually happened. The
umpire may consider their statements when making a decision. In some leagues, especially junior leagues, players make their own calls, trusting each other to be honest. This is the case for many school and university level
matches. The referee or referees assistant, however, can

Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation

in the Junior Fed Cup and Davis Cup competitions. To
succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at
a young age. To facilitate and nurture a juniors growth
in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed
a junior development system. Juniors develop their play
through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all dierent standards of play. Talented juniors
may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or
private institutions.

In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally

protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main
adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed
In some tournaments, line judges who would be calling by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still
the serve, were assisted by electronic sensors that beeped eligible to play in junior tournaments.
to indicate the serve was out. This system was called The International Tennis Federation (ITF) conducts a ju"Cyclops".[53] Cyclops has since largely been replaced by nior tour that allows juniors to establish a world rankthe Hawk-Eye system.[54][55] In professional tournaments ing and an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or
using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful Womens Tennis Association (WTA) ranking. Most juappeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tie-break niors who enter the international circuit do so by proto challenge close line calls by means of an electronic re- gressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger
view. The US Open, Miami Masters, US Open Series, tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter
and World Team Tennis started using this challenge sys- three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some
tem in 2006 and the Australian Open and Wimbledon in- juniors, however, such as Australian Lleyton Hewitt and
troduced the system in 2007.[56] In clay-court matches, Frenchman Gal Monls, have catapulted directly from
such as at the French Open, a call may be questioned by the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior
reference to the mark left by the balls impact on the court scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to
surface.
them to participate in professional tournaments.

6.3

On-court coaching

9
warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of
the match balls is resumed only when play resumes.

6.3 On-court coaching

A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a
limited basis during a match.[60][61][62][63] This has been
introduced in womens tennis for WTA Tour events in
2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per
set.[64]
Convention dictates that two players shake hands at the end of a
match

6
6.1

Match play
Continuity

A tennis match is intended to be continuous.[58] Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are
not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur
no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous
point.[58] This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a
2-minute break is permitted between sets.[58] Other than
this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players control, such as rain, damaged footwear,
damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball.
Should a player be determined to be stalling repeatedly,
the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by
subsequent penalties of point, game, and default of
the match for the player who is consistently taking longer
than the allowed time limit.[59]

7 Shots
Main article: Tennis shots
A competent tennis player has eight basic shots in his
or her repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley,
half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob.

7.1 Grip
Main article: Grip (Tennis)

A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots

during a match. The grip aects the angle of the racket
face when it hits the ball and inuences the pace, spin, and
placement of the shot. Players use various grips during
play, including the Continental (The Handshake Grip),
Eastern (Can be either semi-eastern or full eastern. Usually used for backhands.), and Western (semi-western or
full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot
In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call
conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later for a Continental grip.[65]
time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and
the players at the same end of the court when rain halted
play, or at the same position (north or south) if play is 7.2 Serve
resumed on a dierent court.
Main article: Serve (tennis)
A serve (or, more formally, a service) in tennis is a shot
to
start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball
6.2 Ball changes
into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its traBalls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, in jectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without
overATP and WTA tournaments, they are changed after ev- touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or [66]
If
hand
although
underhand
serving
remains
a
rarity.
ery nine games with the rst change occurring after only
the
ball
hits
the
net
on
the
rst
serve
and
bounces
over
into
seven games, because the rst set of balls is also used for
the pre-match warm-up.[39] As a courtesy to the receiver, the correct diagonal box then it is called a let and the
the server will often signal to the receiver before the rst server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There
server serves the ball and the reserve of the game in which new balls are used as a re- can also be a let if the
[67]
If the server misses his or her
ceiver
isn't
prepared.
minder that they are using new balls. However, in ITF
rst
serve
and
gets
a
let
on
the second serve, then they get
tournaments like Fed Cup, the balls are changed in a 9
one
more
try
to
get
the
serve
in the box.
11 style. Continuity of the balls condition is considered
part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an Experienced players strive to master the conventional
extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re- overhand serve to maximize its power and placement.

10

SHOTS

and is now used by many modern players. No matter

which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed
with one hand holding the racket, but there have been
ne players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s
and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American player Pancho Segura used a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating eect against larger, more powerful players. Players such as Monica Seles or Frances Fabrice Santoro and
Marion Bartoli are also notable players known for their
two-handed forehands.[69]

7.4 Backhand
Main article: Backhand
For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that

Martina Navrtilov featured on a Paraguayan stamp

The server may employ dierent types of serve including at serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a
manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the
server, the spin direction depending upon right- or lefthandedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it
will curve right from the hitters point of view and curve
left if spinning clockwise.[68]
Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate
the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a
winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not
touched by the opponent is called an ace.

7.3

Forehand

Main article: Forehand

For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that
begins on the right side of the body, continues across the
body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the
left side of the body. There are various grips for executing the forehand, and their popularity has uctuated
over the years. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the western.
For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s player Bill
Johnston was considered by many to have had the best
forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high
using a western grip. Few top players used the western
grip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed
radically, the western forehand made a strong comeback

Andy Murray hitting a two-handed backhand.

begins on the left side of their body, continues across

their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on
the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered
more dicult to master than the forehand. For most of
the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one
hand, using either an eastern or a continental grip. The
rst notable players to use two hands were the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich, but they
were lonely exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s as Bjrn Borg, Chris Evert, Jimmy
Connors, and later Mats Wilander and Marat San used

11
it to great eect, and it is now used by a large number wards towards the net, thus making it even more dicult
of the worlds best players, including Rafael Nadal and to return.
Serena Williams.[70]
Two hands give the player more control, while one hand
can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to
produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited
with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to
have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge, had a
powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that
imparted topspin onto the ball. Ken Rosewall, another
player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very
accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A
small number of players, notably Monica Seles, use two
hands on both the backhand and forehand sides.

8 Injuries
Main article: Tennis injuries

Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in

tennis.[72] When an isolated large-energy appears during
the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight
apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle
which can result in the occurrence of muscle strain.[73] Inammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain
occur which resulted in redness, pain and swelling.[73]
Overuse is also common in tennis players from all level.
7.5 Other shots
Muscle, cartilage, nerves, bursae, ligaments and tendons
A volley is a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air be- may be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a
fore the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, particular muscle without time for repair and recover in
[73]
and is usually made with a sti-wristed punching motion the most common case among the injury.
to hit the ball into an open area of the opponents court.
The half volley is made by hitting the ball on the rise just
after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the 9 Tournaments
net, and played with the racket close to the ground.[71]
The swinging volley is hit out of the air as the player
See also: List of tennis tournaments
approaches the net. It is an oensive shot used to take
preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns
the ball into the opponents court much faster than a stan- Tournaments are often organized by gender and number
of players. Common tournament congurations include
dard volley.
mens singles, womens singles, and doubles, where two
From a poor defensive position on the baseline, the lob
players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be
can be used as either an oensive or defensive weapon,
organized for specic age groups, with upper age limits
hitting the ball high and deep into the opponents court to
for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example
either enable the lobber to get into better defensive poof this include the Orange Bowl and Les Petits As junior
sition or to win the point outright by hitting it over the
tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with
opponents head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into
disabilities, such as wheelchair tennis and deaf tennis.[74]
the other court, however, an opponent near the net may
In the four Grand Slam tournaments, the singles draws
then hit an overhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try
are limited to 128 players for each gender.
to end the point.
Most large tournaments seed players, but players may also
A dicult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob
be matched by their skill level. According to how well a
over the backhand side of a player. When the contact
person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a ratpoint is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand,
ing that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive
most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball
matches. For example, the United States Tennis Assoor sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand skyciation administers the National Tennis Rating Program
hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin
(NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2
backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful expoint increments. Average club players under this system
ecution of any of these alternatives requires balance and
would rate 3.04.5 while world class players would be 7.0
timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact
on this scale.
point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular
pattern of play.
If an opponent is deep in his court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected drop shot, by softly tapping
the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable
to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will
often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to
skid upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even back-

9.1 Grand Slam tournaments

The four Grand Slam tournaments are considered to be
the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They
are held annually and comprise, in chronological order,
the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, and
the US Open. Apart from the Olympic Games, Davis

12
Cup, Fed Cup, and Hopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by the International Tennis Federation (ITF).[75] The ITFs national associations, Tennis
Australia (Australian Open), the Fdration Franaise
de Tennis (French Open), the Lawn Tennis Association
(Wimbledon) and the United States Tennis Association
(US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize
these events.[75]
Aside from the historical signicance of these events,
they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event
and are worth double the number of ranking points to the
champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, the
Masters 1000 (men) and Premier events (women).[76][77]
Another distinguishing feature is the number of players
in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other
professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed
of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the worlds
top 100, qualiers, and players who receive invitations
through wild cards. Grand Slam mens tournaments have
best-of-ve set matches while the women play best-ofthree. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small
number of events that last two weeks, the others being
the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami Masters.

TOURNAMENTS

was renamed to the Masters 1000, the addition of the

number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points
earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to
earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced
from nine to eight and the Monte Carlo Masters remains
part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does
not have a mandatory player commitment. The Hamburg
Masters has been downgraded to a 500-point event. The
Madrid Masters moved to May and onto clay courts, and
a new tournament in Shanghai took over Madrids former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine
1000 level tournaments are combined ATP and WTA
events.[82]
9.2.2 250 and 500 Series
The third and fourth tier of mens tennis tournaments are
formed by the ATP World Tour 500 series, consisting of
11 tournaments, and the ATP World Tour 250 series with
40 tournaments.[83] Like the ATP World Tour Masters
1000, these events oer various amounts of prize money
and the numbers refer to the amount of ranking points
earned by the winner of a tournament.[76] The Dubai
Tennis Championships oer the largest nancial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975
(2012).[84] These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48
and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events,
including at least one after the US Open.

Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour

events that have mixed doubles contests. Grand Slam
tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments and junior tennis competitions. These
tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For
example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white. Andre Agassi chose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the events traditional9.2.3 Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments
ism, particularly its predominantly white dress code.[78]
Wimbledon has its own particular methods for dissemiThe Challenger Tour for men is the lowest level of tournating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex
nament administered by the ATP. It is composed of
[79]
procedures to obtain tickets.
about 150 events and, as a result, features a more di* The international tournament began in 1925
verse range of countries hosting events.[85] The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rank9.2 Mens tournament structure
ings. Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Chal9.2.1 Masters 1000
lenger Series events for match experience and to progress
back up the rankings.[86] The Challenger Series oers
The ATP World Tour Masters 1000 is a group of nine prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000.
tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in
mens tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaof these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When the ments, events on the ITF Mens Circuit. These tourATP, led by Hamilton Jordan, began running the mens naments also contribute towards a players ATP rankprize funds of
tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tour- ings points. Futures Tournaments oer
[87]
Approximately
between
US$10,000
and
US$15,000.
naments, outside of the Grand Slam events, as Super 9
events.[80] In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Se- 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year.
ries and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November
at the end of the tennis year, the worlds top eight play9.3 Womens tournament structure
ers compete in the ATP World Tour Finals, a tournament
with a rotating locale. It is currently held in London, Eng9.3.1 Premier events
land.[81]
In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the Premier events for women form the most prestigious level
tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series of events on the Womens Tennis Association Tour af-

10.3

Greatest male players

13

ter the Grand Slam tournaments. These events oer

the largest rewards in terms of points and prize money.
Within the Premier category are Premier Mandatory,
Premier 5, and Premier tournaments. The Premier events
were introduced in 2009 replacing the previous Tier I and
II tournament categories. Currently four tournaments are
Premier Mandatory, ve tournaments are Premier 5, and
twelve tournaments are Premier. The rst tiering system
in womens tennis was introduced in 1988. At the time
of its creation, only two tournaments, the Lipton International Players Championships in Florida and the German
Open in Berlin, comprised the Tier I category.

9.3.2

International events

International tournaments are the second main tier of the

WTA tour and consist of 31 tournaments, with a prize
money for every event at U.S.$220,000, except for the
year-ending Commonwealth Bank Tournament of Champions in Bali, which has prize money of U.S.$600,000.

10
10.1

Players
Professional players

Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks

as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and
endorsements. Like players of other individual sports Bill Tilden
such as golf, they are not salaried, but must play and nish
highly in tournaments to obtain money.
Donald Budge became the rst person to win all four maIn recent years, some controversy has surrounded the in- jor singles titles during the same calendar year, the Grand
voluntary or deliberate noise caused by players grunting. Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and
1938. Tilden called Budge the nest player 365 days a
year that ever lived.[89] And in his 1979 autobiography,
10.2 Grand Slam tournament winners
Jack Kramer said that, based on consistent play, Budge
was the greatest player ever.[90] Some observers, however,
See also: Tennis statistics
also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur
The following players have won at least ve singles titles and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early
1950s. Tony Trabert has said that of the players he saw
at Grand Slam tournaments:
before the start of the open era, Kramer was the best male
champion.[91]

10.3

Greatest male players

Further information: Tennis male players statistics,

World number one male tennis player rankings

By the latter half of the 1950s and 1960s, Budge and others had added Pancho Gonzales and Lew Hoad to the list
of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.[92] Gonzales said about
Hoad, When Lews game was at its peak nobody could
touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever.
Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots
than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead
was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with
the most natural tennis physique.[93]

A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and

commentators is who was the greatest male singles player
of all time. By a large margin, an Associated Press poll
in 1950 named Bill Tilden as the greatest player of the
rst half of the 20th century.[88] From 1920 to 1930,
Tilden won singles titles at Wimbledon three times and During the open era, rst Rod Laver and then more rethe U.S. Championships seven times. In 1938, however, cently Bjrn Borg and Pete Sampras were regarded by

14

11 IN POPULAR CULTURE

many of their contemporaries as among the greatest ever.

Andre Agassi, the rst of two male players in history
to have achieved a Career Golden Slam in singles tennis (followed by Rafael Nadal), has been called the best
service returner in the history of the game.[94][95][96][97]
He is the rst man to win slams on all modern surfaces
(previous holders of all slams played in an era of grass
and clay only), and is regarded by a number of critics
and fellow players to be among the greatest players of all
time.[94][98][99]

panel of experts assembled by the Associated Press.[115]

Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his book The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the
best female player of the 20th century, directly followed
by Martina Navratilova.[116]

Ste Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player. Billie Jean King said in 1999, Ste is denitely the greatest womens tennis player of all time.[114]
Martina Navratilova has included Graf on her list of great
players.[114] In December 1999, Graf was named the
greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a

Confetti (2006) is a mockumentary which sees three

couples competing to win the title of Most Original Wedding of the Year. One competing couple (Meredith MacNeill and Stephen Mangan) are a
pair of hyper-competitive professional tennis players holding a tennis-themed wedding.[126]

Tennis magazine selected Martina Navratilova as the

greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through
2005.[117][118] Tennis historian and journalist Bud Collins
has called Navratilova arguably, the greatest player of
all time.[119] Billie Jean King said about Navratilova in
Roger Federer is now considered by many observers to 2006, Shes the greatest singles, doubles and mixed douhave the most complete game in modern tennis. He bles player whos ever lived.[120]
has won 17 grand slam titles and 6 world tour nals,
the most for any male player. Many experts of tennis, former tennis players and his own tennis peers be- 11 In popular culture
lieve Federer is the greatest player in the history of the
game.[100][101][102][103][104][105][106] Federers biggest rival
David Foster Wallace, an amateur tennis player himRafael Nadal is regarded as the greatest competitor in tenself at Urbana High School in Illinois,[121] included
nis history by some former players and is regarded to have
tennis in many of his works of nonction and cthe potential to be the greatest of all time.[107][108] Nadal
tion including Tennis Player Michael Joyces Pro[109]
is regarded as the greatest clay court player of all time.
fessional Artistry as a Paradigm of Certain Stu
about Choice, Freedom, Discipline, Joy, Grotesquerie, and Human Completeness, the autobio10.4 Greatest female players
graphical piece Derivative Sport in Tornado Alley,
and Innite Jest, which is partially set at the ctional
Further information: World number one women tennis
Eneld Tennis Academy in Massachusetts.
players, List of WTA number 1 ranked players
Japanese Manga series The Prince of Tennis revolves
around the tennis prodigy Echizen Ryoma and tennis
As with the men there are frequent discussions about who
matches between rival schools.
is the greatest female singles player of all time with Ste
Graf, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams being the
The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) features Richie
three players most often nominated.
Tenenbaum (Luke Wilson), a tennis pro who suffers from depression and has a breakdown on court
In March 2012 the TennisChannel published a combined
in front of thousands of fans.[122]
list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players
of all time.[110] It ranked Ste Graf as the greatest fe Wimbledon (2004) is a lm about a discouraged
male player (in 3rd place overall), followed by Martina
pro tennis player (Paul Bettany) who meets a young
Navratilova (4th place) and Margaret Court (8th place).
woman on the womens tennis circuit (Kirsten
The rankings were determined by an international panel.
Dunst) who helps him nd his drive to go and win
Sportwriter John Wertheim of Sports Illustrated stated in
Wimbledon.[123]
an article in July 2010 that Serena Williams is the greatest
In The Squid and the Whale (2005), Joan (Laura
female tennis player ever with the argument that HeadLinney) has an aair with her kids tennis coach,
to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone
Ivan (William Baldwin). In a symbolic scene, Joans
at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other
ex-husband, Bernard (Je Daniels), loses a tennis
legends..[111] In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports
match against Ivan in front of the kids.[124]
blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 womens
tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in
Woody Allen's Match Point (2005) features a love
rst spot.[112] This top-10 list was similar to the one pubaair between a former tennis pro (Jonathan Rhys
lished in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also
Meyers) and his best friends ance (Scarlett Johansranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of
son).[125]
[113]
all time.

15
There are several tennis video games including
Mario Tennis, the TopSpin series, Wii Sports, and
Grand Slam Tennis.[127][128]

Paddle tennis
Padel tennis
Real tennis

12

See also

Glossary of tennis
Tennis games
Tennis injuries
Tennis strategy
Tennis technology

Soft tennis
Squash tennis
Table tennis
Turbo tennis

13 References
Notes

Statistics
ATP World Tour records
List of ATP number 1 ranked players (1973
present)
List of WTA number 1 ranked players (1975
present)
Major professional tennis tournaments before the
Open Era (19271967)
Tennis statistics
Tennis male players statistics
Tennis performance timeline comparison (men)
Tennis performance timeline comparison (women)
World number one male tennis player rankings
(1913present)
WTA Tour records
Players
List of male singles tennis players
List of male doubles tennis players
List of female tennis players
List of Australian Open champions

[1] William J. Baker (1988). Sports in the Western World.

p.182. University of Illinois Press,
[2] Benjamin Disraeli (1845) Sybil, chapter 1
[3] Gillmeister, Heiner (1998). Tennis : A Cultural History.
Washington Square, N.Y.: New York University Press. p.
117. ISBN 0-8147-3121-X.
[4] Newman, Paul B. (2001). Daily life in the Middle Ages.
Jeerson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. p. 163. ISBN 978-07864-0897-9.
[5] Gillmeister, Heiner (1998). Tennis : A Cultural History
(Repr. ed.). London: Leicester University Press. pp. 17
21. ISBN 978-0-7185-0195-2.
[6] John Moyer Heathcote , C. G. Heathcote , Edward Oliver
Pleydell-Bouverie , Arthur Campbell Ainger (1901). Tennis. p. 14.
[7] Online Etymology Dictionary. Etymonline.com. 10
June 1927. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
[8] Crego, Robert. Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th
Centuries, page 115 (2003).
[9] J. Perris (2000) Grass tennis courts: how to construct and
maintain them p.8. STRI, 2000
[10] Australian Broadcasting Corporations Radio National
Ockhams Razor, rst broadcast 6 June 2010.
[11] Tyzack, Anna, The True Home of Tennis Country Life,
22 June 2005

List of French Open champions

[12] The Harry Gem Project.

Retrieved 2 May 2012.

List of Wimbledon champions

[13] Leamington Tennis Club. Retrieved 18 March 2008.

List of US Open champions

Similar racket sports
Beach tennis
Frontenis

theharrygemproject.co.uk.

[14] E. M. Halliday. Sphairistik, Anyone?". American Heritage. Retrieved 2 May 2012.

[15] Major Walter Clopton Wingeld International Tennis Hall
of Fame. Retrieved 24 September 2011
[16] 125 years of Wimbledon: From birth of lawn tennis to
modern marvels. CNN. Retrieved 21 September 2011

16

[17] History of Tennis. International Tennis Federation. Retrieved 28 July 2008.

[18] Grimsley, Will (1971). Tennis: Its History, People and
Events. Englewood Clis, New Jersy: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
p. 9. ISBN 0-13-903377-7.
[19] Lawn-Tennis on Staten Island. The New York Times. 4
September 1880. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[20] History of United States Tennis Association. Archived
from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 29 May
2007.
[21] Fact & History. Rhodes Island Government. Retrieved
29 May 2007.
[22] History of the U.S. National Championships/US Open.
USOpen.org. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[23] History of the French Open. Retrieved 29 May 2007.
[24] Suzanne Lenglen and the First Pro Tour. Retrieved 29
May 2007.
[25] Originality of the phrase Grand Slam"". Retrieved 29
May 2007.
[26] James Henry Van Alen in the Tennis Hall of Fame.
Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2007.

13

REFERENCES

[40] Balls- Manufacture. ITF. Retrieved 19 June 2014.

[41] Tennis court dimensions. Sportsknowhow.com. Retrieved 29 May 2007.
[42] International Tennis Federation. ITF Rules of Tennis
(PDF). United States Tennis Association Website. USTA.
Retrieved 27 September 2013.
[43] Tennis court history Grass. ITF. Retrieved 28 July
2008.
[44] Surface Descriptions. International Tennis Federation.
Retrieved 15 October 2015.
[45] ITF Rules of Tennis Rule 1 (The Court)" (PDF). ITF.
Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[46] ITF Rules of Tennis Rule 17 (Serving)" (PDF). ITF.
Retrieved 3 May 2012.
[47] Tennis Terminology. cbs.com. Retrieved 31 December
2011.
[48] ATP Most Jam Donuts Served. Tennis.com. Retrieved
6 May 2012.
[49] From 1984 through 1998, women played rst-to-winthree-sets in the nal of the year-ending WTA Tour
Championships.

[27] Olympic Tennis Event. ITF. Retrieved 2 May 2012.

[50] WTT Firsts & Innovations. WTT.com. Retrieved 3

May 2012.

[28] The Tennis and Olympics Love Aair. SportsPundit.com. Retrieved 2 May 2012.

[51] Alternative Procedures and Scoring Methods. ITF. Retrieved 3 May 2012.

[29] Davis Cup History. ITF. Retrieved 2 May 2012.

[30] Fed Cup History. ITF. Retrieved 2 May 2012.

[52] ITF Rules of Tennis Appendix V (Role of Court Ocials)" (PDF). ITF. Retrieved 5 May 2012.

[31] History of the Pro Tennis Wars Chapter 2, part 1 1927

1928. Retrieved 29 May 2007.

[53] Cyclops and speed guns. BBC. 20 June 2003. Retrieved

6 May 2012.

[32] Open Minded Bruce Goldman

[54] Cyclops knocked o centre as Wimbledon adopts Hawkeye. The Guardian (London). 24 April 2007. Retrieved
6 May 2012.

[33] Henderson, Jon (10 December 2008). Middle-class

heroes can lift our game. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2 August 2008.
[34] Kate Magee (10 July 2008). Max Cliord to help shed
tennis middle-class image. PR Week. Retrieved 2 August 2008.
[35] International Tennis Hall of Fame Information.
Archived from the original on 18 May 2007. Retrieved
29 May 2007.
[36] ITF Tennis Technical Appendix II. ITF. Retrieved
4 May 2012.
[37] ITF Tennis Technical The Racket. ITF. Retrieved 4
May 2012.
[38] Grimsley, Will (1971). Tennis: Its History, People and
Events: Styles of the Greats. Englewood Clis, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. p. 14. ISBN 0-13-903377-7.
[39] History of Rule 3 - The Ball. ITF. Retrieved 1 May
2012.

[55] Evans, Richard (27 June 2009). Hawk-eye Vision. The

Guardian (London). Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[56] The History Of Hawk-Eye. WTA Tour. 7 October
2011. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
[57] ITF Announce Combined Junior Rankings (PDF). ITF.
Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[58] The ITF states this in Rule No. 29 (PDF).
[59] Code of Conduct for 2012 ITF Pro Circuits Tournaments (PDF). ITF. Retrieved 7 May 2012. The rst violation of this Section shall be penalised by a Time Violation warning and each subsequent violation shall be penalised by the assessment of one Time Violation point
penalty.
[60] Tennis On-Court Coaching. Expert-tennis-tips.com.
[61] Coaching during a match. USTA. Retrieved 7 May
2012.

17

[62] Tennis Coaching Debate. NPR. Retrieved 7 May 2012.

[63] Does on-court coaching have a future?". ESPN. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
[64] WTA 2012 Ocial Rulebook Chapter XVII/H
[65] Grip Guide A Grip on Your Game. Tennis.com. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
[66] Chang refused to lose 20 years ago. ESPN.com. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[67] International Tennis Federation. ITF Rules of Tennis
(PDF). United States Tennis Association Website. Retrieved 27 September 2013.

[85] About the Challenger Circuit. Association of Tennis

Professionals. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[86] An appreciation of Andre Agassi. ESPN, Matt Wilansky. 1 July 2006. Retrieved 18 March 2008.
[87] About the ITF Mens Circuit. International Tennis Federation. Retrieved 18 March 2008.
[88] Tilden brought theatrics to tennis.
[89] Don Budges Comments After 1937 Davis Cup Seminal Match Against Baron Gottfried von Cramm (1:07)".
Archived from the original on 26 April 2007. Retrieved
29 May 2007.

[68] Serves. BBC. 12 September 2005. Retrieved 6 May

2012.

[90] Kramer, Jack; Deford, Frank (1979). The Game, My 40

Years in Tennis. ISBN 0-399-12336-9.

[69] The Two-handed Forehand Revisited. TennisONE. Retrieved 6 May 2012.

[91] Richard Pagliaro (26 February 2004). The Tennis Week

Interview: Tony Trabert Part II. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2007.

[70] Damir Popadic. Two-Handed is Superior to OneHanded Backhand (PDF). ITF. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[71] Grasso, John. Historical Dictionary of Tennis. Lanham,
Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-8108-72370.
[72] Abrams, Georey D.; Renstrom, Per A.; Safran, Marc R.
(2012-06-01). Epidemiology of musculoskeletal injury
in the tennis player. British Journal of Sports Medicine 46
(7): 492498. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-091164. ISSN
1473-0480. PMID 22554841.
[73] Levangie, P. K., & Norkin, C. C. (2011). Joint structure and function: A comprehensive analysis (5th ed.).
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co. ISBN 9780803623620.
[74] Lawn Tennis Association Deaf tennis. Archived from
the original on 5 February 2008. Retrieved 16 March
2008.
[75] Grand Slams Overview. ITF. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[76] ATP Rankings FAQ. ATP. Retrieved 2 May 2012.

[92] Will Grimsley, Tennis: Its History, People, and Events

(1971)
[93] Hoad (PDF). Jame Buddell. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
[94] Molinaro, John. CBC Sports: Tenniss love aair with
Agassi comes to an end"". Cbc.ca. Archived from the
original on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
[95] Reeds shotmakers: Mens return of serve. Yahoo!
Sports. Retrieved 15 May 2010.
[96] Adjectives Tangled in the Net. The New York Times.
Retrieved 15 May 2010.
[97] Dwyre, Bill (14 March 1995). Sampras, Agassi Have
Just Begun to Fight. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved
15 May 2010.
[98] Parsons, John (26 June 2002). Grand-slammed. The
Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[99] Stars pay tribute to Agassi. BBC Sport. 4 September
2006. Retrieved 6 May 2012.

[77] WTA Tour Rankings (PDF). Archived from the original

(PDF) on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 16 March 2008.
[100] Roddick: Federer might be greatest ever. USA Today.
Associated Press. 3 July 2005. Retrieved 2 March 2007.
[78] Sarah Holt (15 June 2005). What not to wear at Wimbledon. BBC Sport. Retrieved 16 March 2008.
[101] Federer inspires comparisons to all-time greats. CNN.
Associated Press. 12 September 2004. Archived from
[79] 10 Ways to Grab a Seat at Wimbledon 2010. Wimblethe original on 13 March 2005. Retrieved 2 March 2007.
dondebentureholders.com. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
[80] History of Tennis. Retrieved 16 March 2008.

[102] 4-In-A-Row For Federer. CBS News. Associated Press.

9 July 2006. Retrieved 2 March 2007.

[81] London to host World Tour Final. BBC Sport, Piers

[103] Sarkar, Pritha (4 July 2005). Greatness beckons FedNewbery. 3 July 2007. Retrieved 16 March 2008.
erer. Reuters. Retrieved 2 March 2007.
[82] ATP Tour 2009. Coretennis.net. Retrieved 24 May
[104] Collins, Bud (3 July 2005). Federer Simply In a League
2010.
of His Own. MSNBC Website (MSNBC.COM). Retrieved 9 April 2007.
[83] ATP World Tour Season. ATP. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[84] Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships. ATP. Re- [105] Newbery, Piers (5 July 2009). BBC Federer Breaks
trieved 6 May 2012.
Sampras Record. BBC News. Retrieved 6 January 2010.

18

15

EXTERNAL LINKS

[106] Metcalfe, Nick (5 July 2009). Pete Sampras In my [127] Topspin 4 Ocial Website. 2K Sports. Retrieved 6 May
books he (Roger Federer) is the greatest"". Daily Mail
2012.
(London).
[128] Mario Tennis ocial website. Nintendo. Retrieved 7
[107] Federer or Nadal? Re-Analyzing the Greatest of AllMay 2012.
Time Debate. World Tennis Magazine. Retrieved 15
May 2013.
[108] Nadal has the talent to be the greatest of all time but
only if his knees are up to it Grand Slam Professional
Tennis Predictions and Picks by Nick Bollettieri.. Nickstennispicks.com. 6 July 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
[109] A Retrospective: Whos the Best Tennis Player on
Clay?". Bleacher Report. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
[110] 100 Greatest of All Time. The Tennis Channel. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
[111] Wertheim, John (7 July 2010). I said it: Serena Williams
is games greatest ever.. SI.com. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
[112] Ranking the top-10 womens tennis players of all time.
Yahoo. Retrieved 3 May 2012.

14 Further reading
Barrett, John Wimbledon: The Ocial History of the
Championships (HarperCollins, 2001) ISBN 978-000-711707-9
Collins, Bud History of Tennis An Authoritative
Encyclopedia and Record Book (New Chapter Press,
2010) ISBN 978-0-942257-70-0
Danzig, Allison and Peter Schwed (ed.) The Fireside Book of Tennis (Simon & Schuster, 1972) ISBN
978-0-671-21128-8

[113] Greatest Ever: Tennis: The Top Ten Female Players of

All Time. Bleacher Report. Retrieved 3 May 2012.

Doherty, Reginald Frank R.F. and H.L. Doherty

On Lawn Tennis (Kessinger Publishing, 2010) ISBN
978-1-167-08589-5

[114] Finn, Robin (18 August 1999). On Tennis; Graf Is Best,

Right? Just Don't Ask Her. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 May 2012.

Dwight, Eleanor Tie Breaker Jimmy Van Alen

and Tennis in the 20th century (Scala Books, 2010)
ISBN 978-1-905377-40-4

[115] Wilstein, Steve (7 December 1999). Tennis Players of

the Century. The Independent (London). Retrieved 3
May 2012.

Gillmeister, Heiner Tennis: A Cultural History

(Continuum, 1998) ISBN 978-0-7185-0195-2

[116] Exclusive Interview with Steve Flink about the career of

Chris Evert. Retrieved 3 May 2012.

Grimsley, Will Tennis Its History, People and

Events (Prentice-Hall, 1971) ISBN 0-13-903377-7

[117] 40 Greatest Players of the Tennis Era. Tennis. Archived

from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 4 May
2012.

King, Billie Jean and Starr, Cynthia We Have Come

a Long Way (McGraw-Hill, 1998) ISBN 0-07034625-9

[118] Redemption Has to Start Somewhere. Tennis.com. Retrieved 3 May 2012.

Whitehead, Dave The Tennis Junkies Guide (To

Serious Humor). (iUniverse, 2002) ISBN 0-59565364-2

[119] Collins, Bud (2008). The Bud Collins History of Tennis:

An Authoritative Encyclopedia and Record Book. New
York, N.Y: New Chapter Press. p. 600. ISBN 0-94225741-3.

Whitman, Malcolm D. Tennis Origins and Mysteries (Dover Publications, 2004) ISBN 0-48643357-9

[120] Bonnie DeSimone (11 September 2006). Act II of

Navratilovas career ends with a win. ESPN. Retrieved 4
May 2012.

15 External links

[121] Brief Interview with a Five Draft Man. Amherst Magazine. Retrieved 28 June 2009.

International organizations

[122] The Royal Tenenbaums. IMDB.com. Retrieved 6 May

2012.

International Tennis Federation (ITF)

[123] Wimbledon. IMDB.com. Retrieved 6 May 2012.

Association of Tennis Players (ATP) : Mens Professional Tennis Organization

[124] The Squid and the Whale. IMDB.com. Retrieved 6

May 2012.
[125] Match Point. IMDB.com. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[126] Confetti. IMDB.com. Retrieved 6 May 2012.

Womens Tennis Association (WTA) : Womens

Professional Tennis Organization
Team competitions

19
Davis Cup
Fed Cup
Other
International Tennis Hall of Fame
Tennis Grand Slam tournaments history

20

16

16
16.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Tennis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis?oldid=699989302 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Jimbo Wales, Bryan Derksen,
Robert Merkel, Zundark, The Anome, Dze27, Css, Alex.tan, Scipius, Hephaestos, Chuq, D, Palnatoke, Sorw, Dominus, Gdarin, Dcljr,
Kosebamse, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Bluelion, Jebba, DropDeadGorgias, Andres, EdH, Denny, OliD~enwiki,
Ffransoo, Timwi, Andrevan, Jay, Lazyr, Steinsky, Timc, DJ Clayworth, Furrykef, Jnc, Sabbut, Ed g2s, Lypheklub, Lord Emsworth, Jerzy,
Adam Carr, Carlossuarez46, Lumos3, Bearcat, Branddobbe, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, TomPhil, Astronautics~enwiki, Owain,
Moriori, RedWolf, Moondyne, Romanm, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Timrollpickering, Tobycat, Hadal, UtherSRG, Orion1147,
Ambarish, Lupo, Znode, Akersmc, Exploding Boy, Gwalla, Christopher Parham, Jao, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Orangemike,
Zigger, Bradeos Graphon, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, Curps, NeoJustin, Alison, Avala, Jackol, Toby Woodwark,
Neilc, Stevietheman, Gadum, Utcursch, Scraggy4, Alexf, Nova77, Abu badali, Slowking Man, LucasVB, Antandrus, Zootalures, Quarl,
Kiteinthewind, Rdsmith4, Neilfein, Girolamo Savonarola, Anythingyouwant, Secfan, Maximaximax, Kevin B12, Thevaliant, Johndbeatty,
TonyW, Aerion, Yappakoredesho, Joyous!, Oknazevad, Ukexpat, DMG413, Tjansen, Canterbury Tail, Reex Reaction, MToolen, Mike
Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Archer3, Ham II, DanielCD, Hayford Peirce, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vague Rant, Pmsyyz, Marxmax~enwiki, Qutezuce, Paulr~enwiki, Vsmith, MeltBanana, Xezbeth, Quiensabe, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Debigboy, Bender235, ESkog, MattTM, Acq3, Martinman11, Janderk, Kaisershatner, Hapsiainen, MisterSheik, Sfahey, Poroubalous, Shanes,
Sietse Snel, RoyBoy, Cacophony, JeDi, Villafanuk, Jpgordon, Adambro, Bobo192, Deathawk, Hurricane111, Wipe, John Vandenberg,
Cmdrjameson, Maurreen, Ignaciomella, Timl, Nk, Slambo, Ewbrown, WikiLeon, Larryv, Pschemp, MPerel, Sam Korn, Nsaa, Ociallyover, G Colyer, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Borisblue, Atlant, Andrewpmk, Riana, MarkGallagher, Echuck215, Batmanand, Dark Shikari,
Gblaz, Bart133, Snowolf, Velella, BaronLarf, ReyBrujo, Yuckfoo, Garzo, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, Mikeo, Aaron Bruce, Kusma,
Drbreznjev, HenryLi, Seitz, Mahanga, Greentryst, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), UFu, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Moitio, TigerShark, Yansa, A.K.A.47, Miaow Miaow, BillC, Qaddosh, Candice, Blindfreddy84, JeremyA, Tckma, Rickjpelleg, Sir Lewk, Schzmo,
JRHorse, Zzyzx11, Pulsemeat, MarkusHagenlocher, Essjay, Radiant!, Dysepsion, MassGalactusUniversum, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, DarkSerge, James26, Island, GrundyCamellia, Reisio, Grammarbot, Mendaliv, CraigKeogh, Sj, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Eoghanacht, Bremen, Ian Page, Skirtley, Vary, Tangotango, Hhst, Crazynas, Gareth McCaughan, SeanMack, Lairor, DoubleBlue, MarnetteD, Johankian, Qaqaq, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp, Titoxd, FlaBot, RCRC, RobertG, Pfctdayelise, Winhunter, Crazycomputers, Nivix, Rbonvall, RexNL, Payo, Gurch, Briguy52748, Kolbasz, Jrtayloriv, ViriiK, Patken4, Alphachimp, Glenn L, Kernitou, Silversmith, Butros, King of Hearts, Jwpark, Chobot, Jared Preston, DVdm, Coursekiller, Agamemnon2, Gwernol, Tone, Ben Tibbetts,
The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Shuzo3p40, RobotE, Eraserhead1, Sceptre, Brandmeister (old), Chriskhong, RussBot, Woseph, Pburka,
Anonymous editor, Farside6, SpuriousQ, Yosef1987, Aree, RadioFan, Deidre Glodjo, Stephenb, Manop, Cate, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Neilbeach, Wimt, Techece, Srini81, Chunitaku, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Grafen, Thatdog, Xtanstic,
Gertrude Toad, ChicosBailBonds, Irishguy, Jaufrec, Mehdig, Peter Delmonte, DAJF, Blu Aardvark, Larry laptop, Wolbo, Raven4x4x,
Mikeblas, Rockero, Misza13, Tony1, Brucevdk, Pym98, Vlad, Sandman1142, PS2pcGAMER, Bota47, Elkman, Mareklug, NWill, The
Halo, Deeday-UK, CrueDude, Zzuuzz, Theda, Jbedell, Closedmouth, Pb30, KGasso, Ronasi, Bondegezou, GraemeL, JoanneB, TBadger, Vicarious, Alias Flood, CWenger, Hrvatska, Xle, Anclation~enwiki, Caballero1967, Garion96, PhS, Ramanpotential, JDspeeder1,
Maxamegalon2000, Kingboyk, SkerHawx, Selmo, DVD R W, Sean123123, Luk, Cohen~enwiki, Cool Genius, Attilios, SmackBot, JimmyGuano, R.E. Freak, Moeron, Prodego, Royalguard11, Paulwiggin@yahoo.com, NaiPiak, David.Mestel, Gnangarra, Shoy, Unyoyega,
Pgk, C.Fred, Nickst, Bmearns, Dwanyewest, Delldot, Jcbarr, RobotJcb, The Octavo, Two stripe, Xaosux, PeterSymonds, Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Cs-wolves, JimmyMac82, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Bluebot, Thegn, TimBentley, MK8, Lollerskates, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Fluri, Timneu22, SchftyThree, Wildsoda, Whispering, Kungming2, BorisG, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris,
Yanksox, Jammus, RuudVisser, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, MyNameIsVlad, Jahiegel, Mulder416, Shalom Yechiel, MrC539, Dustari, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Onorem, Massbless~enwiki, Zaian, Tennis northeast, RespekT, TonySt, JohnJHenderson, TKD, Rsm99833,
Addshore, Whpq, SundarBot, Grover cleveland, Nitsansh, Noelledeg, Khoikhoi, Jmlk17, Gragox, Deademery, BostonMA, Smooth O,
Iapetus, Khukri, Nakon, Savidan, Funky Monkey, Blake-, RaCha'ar, 10shistory, Dreadstar, Eran of Arcadia, Salt Yeung, BullRangifer,
Iridescence, Jamaican g 89, Andrew c, Abbott75, EdGl, BryanG, DMacks, Ultraexactzz, Metamagician3000, Tehw1k1, ElizabethFong,
Pilotguy, Kukini, Ged UK, Ohconfucius, DrGi, The undertow, SashatoBot, Palmerston~enwiki, Yohan euan o4, Rory096, Krashlandon,
Srikeit, Scilla~enwiki, Kuru, Zooterkin, Rigadoun, Scientizzle, Heimstern, SilkTork, Calum Macisdean, NewTestLeper79, Crazytim77,
Bo99, Joelmills, Lemartin, Guat6, Secretaria, Shnimbob, Minna Sora no Shita, Elleinad, Mgiganteus1, Stefan2, Ben Jos, Goodnightmush,
Tlesher, IronGargoyle, Kakadinho2210, Dabanhfreak, Agathoclea, Hvn0413, Aiwendil42, Noah Salzman, Avs5221, Mr Stephen, Matthew
W, Optakeover, Czar Yah, Waggers, Mets501, Back2buk, Ryulong, Houshyar, EEPROM Eagle, Andrwsc, MTSbot~enwiki, Jose77,
KevinDM84, Stanley011, RevTarthpeigust, Politepunk, Ltawebmaster, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, Water reaction, StuHarris, Chaognosis,
Gholam, Jamesr@thesportbar.com, Casull, Cls14, Ryankv, SweetNeo85, CapitalR, Blehfu, Supertigerman, Kevdo, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, G-W, Konnetikut, Chetvorno, Zwart, Fritz28408, SkyWalker, JForget, Vargz714, Phillip J, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39,
WimbledonFan2, Bercg, Ale jrb, Wafulz, PorthosBot, Dycedarg, Van helsing, The ed17, Nat91, Aesalon, Picaroon, Carpenoctem, Iamcuriousblue, Jokes Free4Me, Dgw, DanielRigal, WeggeBot, Myasuda, Pewwer42, Funnyfarmofdoom, Jbitsman, Peripitus, Reywas92,
Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Bridgecross, JFreeman, Catalyst in Society, Llort, Eu.stefan, Julian Mendez, Synergy, Naudefj,
Christian75, Codetiger, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Benny Tong, Optimist on the run, JayW, After Midnight, Gonzo fan2007, Omicronpersei8, Zalgo, Lindsay658, Gimmetrow, Tewapack, Spyder Monkey, Edoroth, Thijs!bot, Tyman 101, Epbr123, Barticus88, Biruitorul, JrTiller, AznXbiker, Auror, Kablammo, Teh tennisman, N5iln, Andyjsmith, Leedeth, Toshisarobot, West-side, Mojo Hand, IXIA, Marek69,
Dalahst, West Brom 4ever, John254, Woody, Rahzel, Brett Dunbar, Keelm, Davidhorman, AgentPeppermint, Pltrgyst, FreeKresge,
MichaelMaggs, Midwestsports, Iritscen, HJensen, Dawnseeker2000, Nobar, Tennisuser123, Mentisto, Hires an editor, AntiVandalBot,
Majorly, Radimvice, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Rallysports, Jared Hunt, Derzsi Elekes Andor, Frenzy9, Keneke45, Shirt58, Rjtz1986, CobraWiki, Fyunck(click), Prolog, Gnixon, Tangerines, Punctured Bicycle, Jj137, Vanjagenije, Gdo01, Magerman09, Myanw, Richthespoof@googlemail.com, Canadian-Bacon, Dreaded Walrus, Darrenhusted, JAnDbot, Barek, MER-C, Juozas Rimas, Instinct, Hello32020,
Andonic, Reign of Toads, Smit90, Lemuel Caution, Poolboy8, Rothorpe, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Bencherlite, Hey girlz,
Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Shotput king, JNW, JamesBWatson, Appraiser, Kokin, Tennis expert, Thadocta, Twsx, Avicennasis,
Bubba hotep, Soleado, Catgut, Indon, Ken2849, Animum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Wrad, Allstarecho, Efgn, Madmanguruman, Spellmaster,
Avatar 06349, DerHexer, JaGa, Luciusandre, Esanchez7587, Wi-king, TheRanger, Patstuart, Gjd001, Greenguy1090, Eugenwpg, Atarr,
FisherQueen, Winner4600, MartinBot, Yasingam, B33R, Rettetast, Rob Lindsey, Anaxial, Carlo Colussi, Cholga, Jonabo, Captainamazing121, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Glennobrien, Lifebonzza, Brothejr, Azer Red, Lakataj, MacAuslan, Jared129, Tgeairn,
J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, DavidB601, Trusilver, EscapingLife, Whaatt, Mthibault, Wa3frp, 2012Olympian, RossCann, Un-

16.1

Text

21

cle Dick, LouieR93, Washacked3, Odriscollryan, Eliz81, Mrhsj, Jo.jo, PC78, Benscripps, Publicroutes, 272727, Thepitch, Brightvette,
Aqwis, Smoutebolmetkrenten, Dispenser, Old man river jr, Katalaveno, FruitMonkey, Yromemtnatsisrep, DarkFalls, Uncompetence, Jayden54, Polomarco, Engunneer, HOUZI, RedClaw42, (jarbarf), Paulashkar, Worthadonkey, HiLo48, WarBaCoN, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Hennessey, Patrick, Duckingham, Gothgirlangel1981, SJP, Greeves, Chrisg21090, FJPB, Sumguy100640, Shoessss, Ionescuac, Wheneverdone, WJBscribe, Lilaznskater, Jamesontai, NiftyNetSkimmers, Joe Dick, Anwhite, Ayyhwang, Bonadea, Dorftrottel,
Useight, Ahtih, CardinalDan, DraxusD, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Squididdily, Slhtenns, Wikieditor06, ACSE, YuXing89, Lights, X!, Deor,
Kinglax, VolkovBot, Ajent, CWii, ABF, Jamcib~enwiki, Joeyzb, Steel Massimo, Scottng, Payson power, AlnoktaBOT, Xxtenisutanaxx,
Philip Trueman, Panah100, Varttik, TXiKiBoT, Albert Isaacs, Wallerstein, Vipinhari, Hqb, Easel3, Zurishaddai, Anonymous Dissident,
FreeT, Someguy1221, Vk96, Anna Lincoln, Hrothberht, Pcole147, Clarince63, Dendodge, Melsaran, Nat9981, Rocketj3, Kilburgp, Abdullais4u, Bayscribe, Labalius, Christopher Connor, Cremepu222, Re.lax.ing.27, NiallQuinn, Jakewill3, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Docski35,
Madhero88, Eubulides, Vladsinger, Haseo9999, Townlake, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Orlica, Laxerman2011, JWPJ, Brianga, Life, Liberty,
Property, Lily15, Chenzw, Wavehunter, AlleborgoBot, Creet, PGWG, EmxBot, Uncle Scrooge, ThinkerThoughts, Cjc13, Redishag, Darkieboy236, Thw1309, Ixjr, SieBot, Magickmonkey54, Eldereksoami, Dogman10, Ttony21, Frans Fowler, Tiddly Tom, Davichen, Caulde,
Work permit, Scarian, Citizen, James67dawg, Ellbeecee, Jonnysamleland, M31n1k0v, Ojingoh, Invisible Noise, Tbo 157, Dawn Bard,
Caltas, RJaguar3, Seanizzle123, Schenz, Salvader, Yintan, NBbeauty, Purbo T, Nelsondh, Flyer22 Reborn, Tiptoety, Exert, Oda Mari,
JetLover, Jonathanszwec, Mirfors, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Aumpire, Smaug123, Sc049432, Nuttycoconut, Pretty Green, Hello71,
Designed for me and me, AnonGuy, JDUB142, Lightmouse, Poindexter Propellerhead, Sjl0523, Manway, D.d.13, NicolasJz, Voltron,
Eaglesfan5936, That Dude 07, Hatmatbbat10, Barn1523, Glassbreaker5791, Bjbillow, Mojoworker, Stevenr123, Latics, Spazure, Wuhwuzdat, GregOdenFan20, Dajes13, Tony Webster, Ken123BOT, Runner5k, Dabomb87, Nn123645, Yo2345, Chico101, TubularWorld,
Wjemather, Joedoedoe, Jons63, DEFJAM2, Escape Orbit, Rb05jg, Rlest, Pure-intellect, Alonsornunez, Amazonien, Troy 07, VjShRi,
Squash Racket, ImageRemovalBot, IDGC, Lindsay123, Llywelyn2000, WikipedianMarlith, Henry Kaspar, Seaniemaster, Loren.wilton,
Martarius, Woodlands1000, Elassint, ClueBot, SirEditALot, Ambassador Dunlop, TaborL, Italiantennisqg, PipepBot, Lesmills, Djbrewer,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Keeper76, Lycas~enwiki, MadMarine3, Lalakers luvr, Zach4636, R000t, Agmcdonnell, Liss1994, Meekywiki, Ziadddd, Drmies, Cp111, Mild Bill Hiccup, TheOldJacobite, Trallw, SuperHamster, Boing! said Zebedee, Pipe80, Awood17, CounterVandalismBot, Henburylaughs, Make91, Miniparga, Scotwriter, Leowanok, Claudbutler, Blanchardb, Richerman, LizardJr8, Crystyano,
Sgtlion, TypoBoy, Wct 123, Therealmoss89, 718 Bot, The Priyatyel, Excirial, Canzione, Robbie098, Wham bam mam, GoldenGoose100,
Leonard^Bloom, Sexysam984, Lartoven, Cburc, Maser Fletcher, Batista1220, Tyler, Calgaryames3, NuclearWarfare, Pyroshadow33,
Ice Cold Beer, Lunchscale, Jotterbot, Dennispage, Iohannes Animosus, Dkim27, Brushy30, Razorame, Emtown, Piratelvr4life, Vmhp,
Muro Bot, K33wud, Calor, Lilleekid, Curtbash, Idrivebig, Thingg, Aitias, Stimpyman, Hitendra.thakor, PCHS-NJROTC, Greenock125,
Wikiguy007, Apparition11, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Fizzy10101, DumZiBoT, Rustong141, Shaunl6, XLinkBot, Emmaho1, Fostennis, PokemontrainerNelly, Spitre, Gnowor, Azndragon98, BodhisattvaBot, Rror, Pimpmaster5, Sanjay517, Hilarydu2008~enwiki,
Matthewfriedman, Little Mountain 5, Lmfaoromfao, Seeratmast, Avoided, WikHead, Torms18, SilvonenBot, Supershirley, Amilosingit,
Pocketshepherd, Artaxerxes, Mm40, Vianello, Gotexas123, Susannahmn, Aznpr1d3555, Wrongandwrongagain, Thatguyint, Rasengan444, Imperial Star Destroyer, Butlerkid5, Tedying, Soccerplayer75, Addbot, ERK, Tard44, Bacon eggs12, Updarebs, Evetsllub, Paralax24, Hector10203040, Yoenit, Solmanic Knight, Boywhoisbeastatbball, Braden10118, Atethnekos, DougsTech, TheSui, Portlandhigh,
Xiainx, Jamessummers12, El lupi, 95mateusz, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, TPainRoxx, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, NjardarBot, Ka Faraq Gatri, Cst17, Download, A State Of Trance, Morning277, Chamal N, CarsracBot, Sillyfolkboy, Buster7, Glane23, Glass
Sword, AndersBot, Chzz, Debresser, Favonian, Nigunman, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Christopherwenjay, Arteyu, Tyw7, Wiznikardski,
Nanzilla, TarHippo, Ploobert, Sardur, Tassedethe, Wickfox, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Taketa, Mjquinn id, Teles, Gail, Zorrobot, Catch496909,
CrashTestSmartie, Mkroh913, LuK3, EJF (huggle), Life Adventure, Mangomocha13, Aaroncrick, Brendan Madley, Everyme, Legobot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Otwguy, Fraggle81, Lost Tennis Ball, Oriana Naso, Rob tenney, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Guydudeperson, QueenCake, Mrmcdonnell, TestEditBot, Stevenadamsisadeadman, AnomieBOT, Puertorico1, Asphaltjungle, Master of Pies, 1exec1, Wikitestor,
Svedishsven, Paralympic, Piano non troppo, Igorima, AdjustShift, Wikieditor20088, Ulric1313, , David242xx, Materialscientist, Danno uk, Korlzor, OMGIMAMAZING, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Timir2, S h i v a (Visnu), Bihco, 4twenty42o, Jerey Mall,
Nasnema, 205ywmpq, Sellyme, Tad Lincoln, , Espnlive3456, Gap9551, Almabot, Manitobamountie, RadiX, GrouchoBot,
Abce2, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, Amaury, CHJL, Themattmackle, Traord09, Burrowsari, Orrelly Man, DITWIN GRIM, Ardara, SchnitzelMannGreek, Myrmecophagous, Sesu Prime, A.amitkumar, Legobot III, Anirishwoman, FrescoBot, Lightning12, Liquidluck, Tobby72, Iwearshoess, Osloom, Ks9290, Zhukvita, Aubergine, Kzdragon1, Recognizance, KuroiShiroi, ProfHead, HJ Mitchell,
Tavernsenses, Eagle4000, Bo yaser, Newbie82, DivineAlpha, Cannolis, Davydoo, Genstorm555, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Pink Bull,
Acks-accy, Abductive, Dark51110, WaveRunner85, Jonesey95, The Arbiter, LinDrug, Supreme Deliciousness, Calmer Waters, Hamtechperson, MySuperiorInEveryWay, Hoo man, Gitter46, Rudisrudolfs, P1rvela, TennisGrandSlam, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Iran09, Fui in
terra aliena, Dno.dno, Joeyclovis, Lavenderx, Avmlab, Brisingr380, Stupid user blockers, Reconsider the static, Irbisgreif, Discounttenniswarehouse, Tim1357, Bqdemon, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, TobeBot, Darsura, PiRSquared17, Scythre, Yunshui, Sznax, Cowspaceboy80,
Lotje, Callanecc, Andrewrussell9879, Vrenator, Kennyroks111, Tapscotc, Jimhanks, Lucask656, January, Kirilmatt, Capt. James T.
Kirk, Diebee501,
, Duoduoduo, Parkere88, Numbersnow, Reaper Eternal, Toasteregg, Marley1134, Cabr0706, Gicmo, Diannaa, Fastilysock, Suusion of Yellow, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Bobby122, En1gm4996, MegaSloth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Whisky drinker,
Onel5969, Sjdsher, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Randomsquirrel, TjBot, RG104, Simanos, Weakopedia, DRAGON BOOSTER, Beyond My Ken, San66, Arpegium, NerdyScienceDude, Narutocaptor, Kiko4564, Kamran the Great, LcawteHuggle, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Siddhartha 90, WikitanvirBot, Eekerz, VoltamiJT121, Chazyb01, Surlydu50, Immunize, Dumahel, ZOHANOS,
Boudicca1998, Etarai, Jbk12385, Nossis62, Super48paul, Dewritech, Racerx11, Tennisgirl1214, RA0808, Marksdavid55, Chicken0099,
Ruhtard7777777, Iwanttoridemyunicyclebutikeepfallingo, Candycane707, Wb1234, Banuelos73, Sp33dyphil, Shakin2012, Tommy2010,
Bhathiya9999, Jadd09, Bnc44, K6ka, Thecheesykid, 30, Kkm010, ZroBot, John Cline, Prayerfortheworld, F, Bollyje, Nahado, Cipriano72795, Dalgrum123, Jplarkin, Kingsage5, Gdaym8, Dgd, Mike in Aus, Access Denied, H3llBot, Becky2705, Christina Silverman, Wayne Slam, Music Sorter, Thine Antique Pen, Rcsprinter123, TyA, Coasterlover1994, Ammar zah, L Kensington, Wonderwizard, Leagueoegendspro, Donner60, EnOMaNTR, Pantherzee, Brr5092, Ellabarker, Jad5606, Aaantav, Cpstewart81292, Atanakappp,
ChuispastonBot, SamathBear, Forever Dusk, Kongfucats, Maruzela, Kneestress, DASHBotAV, Kunnskap, Cincykid10, Ronalddlanor, Supersub2, JayaustinW, Unconstructivemojoman, ClueBot NG, Thehumbletrader, Imap0werpugirl, Lcp12, Darknsassasn, Ajoski, KirtZJ,
Sportmania, Natalia yusseem, Piast93, Vacation9, Loginnigol, Doobie11, Saxophone24, Pferg42, Snotbot, Jijishjose, Dudeyo211, Widr,
Famedard, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Regulov, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, MasterMind5991, Cwarrior, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, J991, Krispyandbays, AwamerT, Small bird13, Mark Arsten, Jessica.anne.manners, Bhhornor, Yeag989, Lilmikey29, Krivi94,
Atomician, Gumtree4444, Cncmaster, Gubbz11, Bebe18, Yeagyeah989, Enavatennis60, Felidofractals, Altar, Aranea Mortem, Marchfur, KYDDIE1983, Vannagirl12, Kup2011, KiwiRyan, Bkiller1201, Tully Slattery, Trayg3, Akkybakkycakky, Zoomoro, Bobobobob576,
Bla123454321, Zac72432, Jjsteller, Connorguy2, Alexandsam, Nakornban, HotHat, A2-33, Hansen Sebastian, Andybud, Tentotwo, Agus

22

16

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

puryanto, Cyberbot II, Kartikvenkat, ChrisGualtieri, 22dragon22burn, Happychickenland, 23 editor, JYBot, Dexbot, Kolega2357, CountRushmore, Webclient101, HunterSilver, 331dot, Dukenjg8, Lugia2453, Harry Zelfer, DJB3.14, Faizan, Epicgenius, Bettyboop330, Ruby
Murray, RubyCuby 001, Ryenocerous, Jodosma, Tentinator, Flat Out, DavidLeighEllis, Inabluemn, Ugog Nizdast, J6tru, Glaisher, BrownPurpleOrange, Hidso222, Karthu1, The Herald, Natsjay, Cooptoon, Kdhhjcgfhjcvdjfk, Jnanesh Marathe, RealDealBillMcNeal, Sam Sailor,
Jotoe999, Homesforheroes02, Matteussayshi, Manul, Kind Tennis Fan, Chinkmaster, Antonio123456789~enwiki, Palmerbrasher, Lizia7,
1l2i3l4y, AUBURN SOUTH SUCKS, Anarcham, Haydenis theman, ItsCaptainObvious, Trunksandt, Sntennis, Word ynopeau, Manki20,
GEORGEV2000, Epic Failure, Hejhej99, Arim1974, Unicorncandy2002, Chippadum, JackD42, Uhp Herass, AT-Walkerman, ClayClay123, Butter0051, Carlos Rojas77, CyHack, Adog537, Pcswaga, Broski98789, Im awsomelolwow, Horseless Headman, Markpeg,
Buscus 3, Bitnllto, Bill7068, EternalFloette, William Tlberg, Vancinisar, DSCrowned, Charmaine tan, KH-1, Pro436, Mdoshi1999,
MiaChristine, Tlemi764, Kassyvaughantennis, Supersexydog, Creamcheesefrostinglover, DrewCCa, DanBalance, Yousif2005, Fran43klin
Doy44le, Blackhat999, The user of name, KasparBot, XExotic Neater, Iheartthestrals, Qburker, Amberfromatl, LGebeau, Fghkkjypoifty,
Qburker1727aaaa, Ishaangrewal2001702, Yashika1705, Tash6123, V15SMokhtar, Zanter771, Rfhjejrvnfevenjfnvjjrrvjjfvnbdjvdvfdbn
and Anonymous: 2386

16.2

Images

File:Bill_Tilden_in_color.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Bill_Tilden_in_color.jpg License: Public

domain Contributors:
Bill_Tilden.jpg Original artist: Bill_Tilden.jpg: Unknown
File:Canada_2010_Andy_Murray_Backhand.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Canada_2010_
Andy_Murray_Backhand.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: DSC_1465.jpg Original artist: johnwnguyen
File:Centre_Court.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Centre_Court.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sevela.p using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was
Razzle-dazzle at English Wikipedia
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Final_Score_Andy_Roddick_vs_Saulnier.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Final_Score_
Andy_Roddick_vs_Saulnier.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Luiz Eduardo
File:Jeu_de_paume002.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Jeu_de_paume002.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
[1] Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Lawn-tennis-Prang-1887.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Lawn-tennis-Prang-1887.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, LC-USZC4-1180 (color lm copy transparency),
uncompressed archival TIFF version (5 MB) Original artist: Prang (L.) & Co.
File:Margaret_Court_backhand_1970.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Margaret_Court_
backhand_1970.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 nl Contributors: http://www.gahetna.nl/over-ons/open-data Nationaal Archief Fotocollectie
Anefo Original artist: Verhoe, Bert / Anefo neg. stroken, 1945-1989, 2.24.01.05, item number 923-7130
File:Newport_Casino.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Newport_Casino.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daniel Case
File:Paraguay_stamp_-_Martina_Navrtilov.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Paraguay_stamp_
-_Martina_Navr%C3%A1tilov%C3%A1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Peer_Vs_Chakvetadze.JPG License:
GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alexisrael
File:Roger_Federer_(26_June_2009,_Wimbledon)_2_new.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/
Roger_Federer_%2826_June_2009%2C_Wimbledon%29_2_new.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
Roger_Federer_(26_June_2009,_Wimbledon)_2.jpg Original artist: Roger_Federer_(26_June_2009,_Wimbledon)_2.jpg: Squeaky Knees
from Cornwall, UK
File:South_End_Lawn_Tennis_Club,_Halifax,_Nova_Scotia,_Canada,_ca._1900_-_cropped.jpg
Source:
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/South_End_Lawn_Tennis_Club%2C_Halifax%2C_Nova_Scotia%2C_Canada%2C_ca.
_1900_-_cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NSARM Photo Drawer - Sports - Tennis, ca. 1900 / neg. no.: N-5544 [1]
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Teniszt.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Tenisz%C3%BCt%C5%91.JPG License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Derzsi Elekes Andor
File:Tennis_Racket_and_Balls.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Tennis_Racket_and_Balls.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Vladsinger at English Wikipedia
File:Tennis_ball.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Tennis_ball.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: own work created in Inkscape, based on image by Aranel Original artist: MesserWoland
File:Tennis_birthplace_Edgbaston.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Tennis_birthplace_Edgbaston.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: JimmyGuano at English Wikipedia

16.3

Content license

23

File:Tennis_court_imperial.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Tennis_court_imperial.svg License:

CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:Tennis.png by ed g2s Original artist: NielsF
File:Tennis_shake_hands_after_match.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Tennis_shake_hands_
after_match.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentmercurio/59629166/ Original artist: kance
File:Tennis_umpire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Tennis_umpire.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/thomaschung/2579764837/in/set-72157605624093001/ Original artist: Spicks & Specks
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

16.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0