Traffic loading analysis and traffic volume

estimation
Atul Narayan, S. P.
IIT Madras

September 6, 2015

Outline

Introduction
Vehicle types, axle and tire configurations
Equivalence Factors
Traffic speed
Traffic volume estimation

Subordinate learning objectives

To analyze the stress-strain distribution in pavements for given

loading conditions. 3

To estimate pavement distresses based on stresses and

strains in pavement structure. 3

To explain the effect of mechanical properties on pavement

behavior and performance. 3

To analyze the stresses and distresses caused by vehicle

loading.

To estimate the expected volume of traffic in design life.

Outline

Introduction
Vehicle types, axle and tire configurations
Equivalence Factors
Traffic speed
Traffic volume estimation

Outline

Introduction
Vehicle types, axle and tire configurations
Equivalence Factors
Traffic speed
Traffic volume estimation

FHWA vehicle classification

IRC vehicle classification

Axle Configurations

Single Axle - Single Tire

Single Axle - Dual Tire

Axle Configurations (cont.)

Tandem Axle - Single Tire

Tandem Axle - Dual Tire

Tridem Axle - Dual Tire

Contact pressure and Tire pressure

Contact pressure is greater than tire

pressure for low pressure tires.

Contact pressure is lesser than tire

pressure for high pressure tires.

Tyre Pressure

If the tire walls are rigid,

Contact Pressure = Tire Pressure

Wall Tension

Contact Pressure

(1)

Contact area can be found by dividing

wheel load by contact pressure:
ac =

W
pc

High Pressure Tire

Wall Compression

(2)

where ac is the contact area, W is the

wheel load and pc is the contact pressure.

Tyre Pressure

Contact Pressure

Low Pressure Tire

Contact area for Flexible Pavements

In case of flexible pavements, contact area is assumed to be

circular. The contact radius is:

rc =

W
pc

(3)

Outline

Introduction
Vehicle types, axle and tire configurations
Equivalence Factors
Traffic speed
Traffic volume estimation

Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)

ESWL of a load on an axle configuration is the load on a

single wheel that would produce the same effect as the load
on the particular axle configuration.

Here, it is assumed that the contact area for the single wheel
load is the same as that of the axle configuration.
Different criteria have been used to find ESWL, depending on
the effect in question. Some of them are:

1. Equivalence of vertical stress

2. Equivalence of vertical deflection
3. Equivalence of tensile strain at the bottom of layer 1

Equivalent Axle Load Factor (EALF)

EALF of an axle-load configuration is defined as the ratio of

the damage per pass caused by the axle-load configuration to
the damage per pass caused by the standard axle-load
configuration.

Alternatively, EALF can be viewed as the number of passes

by the standard axle-load configuration that can cause the
same damage as the axle-load configuration in question.

Standard axle-load configuration

40 kN

40 kN

Single axle - dual tire configuration with 80 kN (18 kip) total load

EALF calculation

Fatigue model used by IRC:

Nf = a1 E a2 t a3

(4)

where
Nf is the number of repetitions to failure by fatigue
E is the elastic modulus of HMA layer

t is the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the

HMA layer
ai , i = 1, 2, 3 are constants; 3 a3 6

EALF calculation (cont.)

Rutting model used by IRC:

Nr = a4 c a5

(5)

where
Nr is the number of repetitions to failure by rutting

c is the vertical compressive strain at the top of the

subgrade
ai , i = 4, 5 are constants; 3.5 a5 4.5

EALF calculation (cont.)

EALF based on fatigue:

EALFx =

xt
Damagex 1/Nx a1 E a2 (st )a3
=
=
=
(
)
Damages 1/Ns a1 E a2 (xt )a3
st

a3

(6)

EALF based on rutting:

EALFx =

xc
Damagex 1/Nx a4 (sc )a5
=
=
=
(
)
Damages 1/Ns a4 (xc )a5
sc

a5

(7)

EALF calculation (cont.)

Suppose a3 a5 4, then
4

EALFx (

xt
xc
)
)

(
st
sc

(8)

Now, if the axle-load configuration in question is also a single axle

load, t L and c L, where L is the axle load. (Why?) Therefore
EALFx = (
Otherwise use equation (8).

Lx 4
)
Ls

(9)

Location of critical strains

t and c may not be maximum right underneath the center of

a tire for dual tires, and tandem and tridem axles.

The {x , y } coordinate where t is the maximum and the

coordinate where c is the maximum may not be the same.

Critical locations
Y-axis locations

Y 1 = 0.0
1 Tspacing
(
Tradius )
2
2
Tspacing
Tradius
Y3 =
2
Tspacing
Y4 =
2
Tspacing
Y5 =
+ Tradius
2
Tspacing
Y6 =
+ Tradius + h; h = 4, 8, 16, 24, 32 in
2
Y2 =

where Tspacing is the tire spacing and Tradius is the tire contact
radius

Critical Locations
X-axis locations

X 1 = 0.0
X 2 = Standem
Standem
2
Standem
X3 =
2
X 4 = Stridem
X3 =

Stridem
2
3Stridem
X6 =
2
4Stridem
X7 =
2
X5 =

where S refers to axle spacing along the x-direction

EALF as per IRC 37

IRC uses Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) in place of EALF to

compute the design traffic.

It prescribes the following equations to compute VDF: (one for

each type of axle configuration)

Single axle Singlewheel (

axle load in kN

Single axle Dualwheel (

axle load in kN

Tandem axle Dualwheel (

axle load in kN

Tridem axle Dualwheel (

axle load in kN

65
80
148
224

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)
(14)

EALF as per AASHTO

The equation is fully empirical:

log(EALF ) = 4.79 log

(Ls + 1)
1
1
+ 4.33 log L2 + Gt ( )
(Lx + L2 )
x s
(15)

(4.2 pt )
(4.2 1.5)
0.081(Lx + L2 )3.23
x = 0.40 +
(SN + 1)5.19 L32.23

Gt = log

(16)
(17)

where
Lx is the axle-load in question; subscript s depicts
standard axle-load configuration
L2 is an axle code: 1 for single, 2 for tandem and 3
for tridem
pt is a pavement serviceability index
SN is the structural number of the pavement

Typical EALF for FHWA vehicle classes

Outline

Introduction
Vehicle types, axle and tire configurations
Equivalence Factors
Traffic speed
Traffic volume estimation

Stress pulse due to vehicle loading

The pulse is approximated by

L(t ) = q sin2 (

t
d

Stress pulse due to vehicle loading (cont.)

Effect of traffic speed

Modulus of HMA layer is lower when the stress pulse duration

is higher.

Rutting is more severe when the traffic speed is lower.

Fatigue damage is also higher per loading if the traffic speed

is lower.

Outline

Introduction
Vehicle types, axle and tire configurations
Equivalence Factors
Traffic speed
Traffic volume estimation

Estimation of Design Traffic

Relevant Parameters

ADT0 Average Daily Traffic at the start of the design period

(also known as AADT)

Y Design period

D Directional distribution factor describing the percentage of

traffic moving in the design direction

L Lane distribution factor describing the percentage of traffic

in the design direction using the design lane.

r Annual growth rate of traffic

Estimation of Design Traffic

Equation

Design Volume = DV = ADT0 G D L 365 Y

where
ADT0 Average Daily Traffic at the start of the
design period (also known as AADT)
G Growth factor
D Directional distribution factor
L Lane distribution factor
Y Design period
How do we consider traffic distribution by vehicle type?

(18)

Growth Factor

Traffic does not remain constant over the design period.

Yearly growth of traffic r will help determine total number of

vehicles in the design period.
Growth factor G is related to r :

1. Approximate growth factor:

G=

1
[1 + (1 + r )Y ]
2

(19)

2. Asphalt Institute and AASHTO:

G=

(1 + r )Y 1
rY

(20)

3. Portland Cement Association:

G = (1 + r )0.5Y

(21)

Directional distribution factor

Usually 0.5

Different if the traffic in the two directions are different.

Higher value if to and fro lanes are not separated.

Lane distribution factor

Equal to 1 in two-lane highways.

In multiple lane highways, trucks usually occupy outer lanes.

L depends on density of traffic.

Grouped Design Traffic

Vehicles can be classified into different groups

Design Volume in Group = DVi = pi ADT0 G D L365Y (22)

where pi is the percentage of total repetitions of ith load group

Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL)

ESAL is defined as the total number of passes of the standard

axle-load that is equivalent to the loading due to the design
traffic

Truck factor (Tf ) is the number of equivalent standard

axle-load per one passage of a vehicle. (the total equivalent
axle load factor per truck.)
Tf = EALFi

(23)

i =Axle

ESAL for design is given by

ESAL = ( pi Tfi ) ADT0 G D L 365 Y

(24)

The equation can be appropriately modified if more data were

available.