Applied Ocean Research 17 (1995) 11-11

0 1995 Elsevier Science Limited

ELSEVIER

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved

0141-I 187/95/$09.50

0141-1187(95)00007-0

New higher-order boundary element methods for

wave diffraction/radiation
B. Teng* & R. Eatock Taylor-t
Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OXI 3PJ, UK

(Received 2 February

1995; accepted 19 April 1995)

This paper describes some higher-order boundary element methods and presents a
novel integral equation for the calculation of the wave diffraction and radiation
problem. A higher-order element discretisation of the resulting integral equation
is used. An examination of the convergence and CPU time is carried out, and the
results demonstrate the advantages of the new method.

1 INTRODUCTION

problem by Stokes expansion techniques, accuracy is a

vital factor in a successful calculation, together with
minimum computer storage and CPU time. In a higherorder boundary element approach to this analysis,
the body surface is discretized by a set of curved
elements, and the velocity potentials at nodes on the
element sides and corners become the unknowns. The
velocity potential and its derivatives inside an element
are expressed in terms of the corresponding nodal values
and shape functions.
Thus higher-order
element
methods are convenient for the calculation of wave
run-up and second-order forces on structures, where the
potential at the water surface and its spatial derivatives
are needed.
In higher-order element methods, special attention
has to be paid to the specification of solid angles at
nodes on the body surface, and to some singular
integrals when field points are very close to a source
point. The integration of the singular values where the
slope of the surface is discontinuous only exists in the
Cauchy principal value (CPV) sense, so special techniques have to be used. Most researchers use indirect
methods to avoid computing them directly. A method of
cancelling the solid angle and CPV integrals was devised
by Eatock Taylor and Chau. It combines the integral
equation outside the body with another inside the body,
obtained using the same pulsating source Green function as outside. In this paper, we have derived another
novel integral equation, by using a simple Green
function inside the body, which satisfies a rigid lid
condition on the free surface, and a weakly rigid
condition on the sea bed. This equation appears to be an
improvement over that of Eatock Taylor and Chau.*
In the following, we describe the new formulation,

The analysis of wave diffraction and radiation by a body

at or near a free surface requires the solution of a
boundary value problem based on Laplaces equation.
Because the problem involves an unbounded domain,
the integral equation method brings certain advantages
to its solution. Based on this method, the constant panel
representation
introduced
by Hess and Smith is
widely used, for example by Faltinsen and Michelsen,
Garrison3 Inglis and Price,4 and Korsmeyer et al5
In this, the submerged body surface alone is discretised
by a set of quadrilateral or triangular flat panels.
Pulsating sources or sinks are placed at the centres of
all panels, the strengths of these sources being constant
in each panel. For a body with a curved surface,
however, such a representation allows leaks between
panels, with the result that large numbers of panels
are required to achieve computations with sulhcient
accuracy.
Recently, the use of higher-order element methods for
this problem has been investigated, for example by Liu
et CZI.,~*~
Eatock Taylor and Chat? and Eatock Taylor
and Teng. Higher-order element methods are believed,
in general, to give more accurate results than the
constant panel method for the same computational
effort, although there appear to be no direct comparisons for the water wave problem. For complex
structures and analysis of the non-linear diffraction
*Present address: Department of Civil Engineering, Dalian
University of Technology, Dalian 116024, Peoples Republic
of China.
tTo whom all correspondence should be addressed.
71

72

B. Teng, R. Eatock

and give results from some numerical experiments.

These were carried out to investigate the efficiency of the
method, and to study convergence in relation to meshes
both on the body surface and the inner sea bed. The
latter mesh is a feature of the new method, but is only
required for structures reaching to the seabed.
2 THE BASIC INTEGRAL

EQUATION

Taylor

coordinates. Substituting this representation into eqn

(1) we can write the integral equation in discrete form as

cm4(xo)
-

C(XO)~(XO)
- Js.
aG(;;
xo)
cb(x)ds
=-

J G(x, x01Vx)ds
SB

(1)

Here 4(x) is the unknown scattering potential associated

with a normal velocity V(x) prescribed on Ss. The
positive direction of the normal to the body surface is
defined as being out of the fluid. C(Q) has the value
unity if x0 lies strictly inside the fluid region, and zero if
x0 is outside the fluid. When x0 is on the body surface,
47rC is the solid angle over which the fluid is viewed
from x0 (2?rC at the water line where the body surface
intersects the free surface).
In the higher-order boundary element method, the
body surface can be discretized by Na isoparametric
elements. After introducing shape functions hk([, r]) in
each element, we can write the velocity potential and its
derivatives within an element in terms of nodal values in
the form

(2)
where K is the number of nodes in the element, 4k are
the nodal potentials, and (<, 7) are local intrinsic

J ~1,:

n=l

Gf'(C,
dI446
$1
d5dv
=-cJJ
!l=l
NE

In order to illustrate the various approaches, we

consider the first-order wave diffraction and radiation
problem. It should be noted, however, that the novel
formulation introduced here has also been applied to
the calculation of second-order diffraction problems,
where it is particularly effective. We assume here that
the first-order incident waves have frequency w, and
the time factor of the complex potentials is taken as
e iwf.We use the oscillating source G(x, x0) as Greens
function, which satisfies the linear free-surface boundary condition, the radiation condition at infinity and
the impermeable condition on the horizontal seabed at
depth d. Here x and x0 are the field and source points,
respectively. Use of Greens identity leads to the
following Fredholm integral equation over the body
surface Ss

2
1

-1

where J&,7)
is the Jacobian relating the global
coordinates and the local intrinsic coordinates in the
nth element. After assembling the equations for
each element, we obtain the following set of linear
equations
where No is the total number of nodes on the body
surface.
3 INTEGRAL

EQUATIONS

In the above integral equation there are two integrals.

One, sometimes called the single-layer integration,
involves the Green function itself, while the other, the
double-layer integration, involves the normal derivative
of G. The implementation
of these integrals over
generally curved elements requires a transformation to
local coordinates. The resulting integral over each
element must then be evaluated by numerical quadrature. When the source point x,, is not in the element,
the integral remains bounded. Gauss Legendre quadrature may, therefore, be employed. When the source
point is in the element, however, the Green function and
its derivatives approach infinity at the rates of l/r and
l/r*, where r is the distance between the source and field
points. The single-layer integration may be dealt with by
the method proposed by Li et al., which introduces a
series of transformations
to reduce the order of
singularity of the integral by one degree to allow
standard numerical integration to be used over the
unit square.
For the double-layer term, the singular integration
over one element does not usually exist, but the sum of
the integrations in all the elements adjacent to the source
point always exists in the Cauchy principal value (CPV)
sense. Some special technique has therefore to be used
for its evaluation. Furthermore,
the coefficient C,,,
(m= 1,. . ., ND) in eqn (3) is required when discretizing
the integral equation by higher-order panels. If the
surface is smooth at the boundary point ~0, this
coefficient takes the value 0.5. In general, however, the
point x0 may lie on an edge, or at a vertex. For a
complex surface, the calculation of C, is awkward. (This
term and the double-layer singular integration yield the

73

New higher-order boundary element methods

diagonal terms of the left-hand side matrix [A].) To

deal with these difficulties, a number of alternative
approaches have been developed and applied to the
wave diffraction problem.
Eatock Taylor and Chau applied Noblesses continuous integral equation to the higher-order boundary
element method, and obtained an indirect formulation,
For later comparison we call this method A. By
applying Greens theorem inside the body, they obtained
the following integral equation

(1=U

=--

where
2 1/2

r2,, = [R* + (z - z. - 2nd) ]

r3n =

c>+o>
+Is,aG;;
)#(x0) ds
s,

r5,, =

Wx, x0>
@(x0)- 4(x))ds
&

SB

SB

[R2+ (z +

We can then obtain another

follows

G2 = -f
7r

s 2
I

The auxiliary Green function Go, which corresponds to a

rigid free surface condition, is defined by

(8)

where

[R2+ (2 - zo)2]12,rl

[R+ (2 + zo)2]12,

and
R = [(x -

integral equation

as

xo)2+ (y - yo)2]12

in Cartesian axes with the z-axis measured vertically

upwards from the mean free surface. This equation
avoids the integral on the inner water plane, and the
singular kernel in the integral on the body surface is still
cancelled.
In the case of a body extending to the seabed, one can
use a Green function Gt, which corresponds to an
infinite sum of images of the foregoing sources and their

f,;+$+$
1

>

(13)

in the integral equation inside the body. We thereby

obtain the new integral equation
l+

Y =

(11)

This equation avoids the integration on the inner water

plane, but the calculation of G1 is time consuming. Since
eqns (12) and (7) have the same form, we designate the
solution based on these equations as method B.
We can avoid the drawbacks in the above methods, by
using the simple Green function

( JJ
-&-

z. - 2nd)2] 12

(6)

In this equation, the coefficient C has been eliminated

and the singular parts in the double-layer integration are
cancelled. Instead, attention has to be paid to the
calculation of an integral on the inner water plane.
For floating bodies, the following alternative integral
equation has been developed by Wu and Eatock
Taylor12

Go(x, x0) =

zo + 2nd)]j2
2 l/2

J G(X>%MXo)ds

JJ
Ux>
ds
JJW,xo>

[R2+ (z +

r4 = [R2 + (z - z. + 2nd) ]

where Sw is the inner water plane, and v = w*/g. Eatock

Taylor and Chau then combined eqn (5) with eqn (1)
to obtain the new integral equation

reflections about the horizontal seabed

dx dr

~(xo)~-~w~)

+(x0)
ds = - JJsBGvds

(14)

where St is the area of the structure resting on the seabed

(analogous to Sw, the area of the structure piercing the
water-plane). Since this Green function contains a term
corresponding to reflection about the seabed of the
source l/r, the integral on St is never singular: it can be
evaluated by direct numerical methods. Furthermore,
since the vertical derivative of the Green function is very
small at the sea bed, coarse meshes can be used for that
calculation. And for a floating body, St vanishes and the
calculation can be further simplified. In fact, eqn (14)
reduces to eqn (7) in that case, since there are no
singularities on S, due to r2r and r31. Hence

(15)
We describe this last approach as method C.

B. Teng, R. Eatock Taylor

74

Table 1. Convergence of new method (method C) with difiereot meshes on the bode

hIa

Mesh

Case

ka=0.5

ka= 1.0

ka= 1.5

ka=2.0

2.0

20
2.0
2.0

1Cl
2c2
4c4
Analytical

1
2
3

4.71794
4.79228
4.79817
4.79871

4.20143
4.15299
4.15394
4.15405

2.79375
2.39285
2.63219
2.63227

2.15075
1.75941
1.76064
1.76072

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

1Cl
2c2
4c4
Analytical

4
5
6

2.84447
2.90674
2.91140
2.91175

3.26350
3.27865
3.28154
3.28175

2.43544
2.39285
2.39433
2.39443

1.81624
1.69756
1.69847
1.69853

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

lC1
2c2
4c4
Analytical

7
8
9

1.50231
1.54077
1.54285
1.54321

1.96959
1.98940
1.99097
1.99129

1.68940
1.67907
1.68003
1.68019

1.38274
1.34109
1.34185
1.34186

Table 2. Convergence of new method (method C) with different meshes on the inner sea bed

h/a

Mesh

Case

ka=0.5

ka= 1.0

ka= 1.5

ka=2.0

2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

4Cl
4C2
4c4
Analytical

1
2
3

4.79630
4.79805
4.79817
4.79871

4.15323
4.15386
4.15394
4.15405

2.63208
2.63218
2.63219
2.63227

1.76066
1.76065
1.76064
1.76072

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

4Cl
4C2
4c4
Analytical

4
5
6

2.90859
2.91122
2.91140
2.91175

3.28012
3.28146
3.28154
3.28175

2.39405
2.39431
2.39433
2.39443

1.69847
1.69847
1.69847
1.69853

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

4Cl
4C2
4c4
Analytical

7
8
9

1.54158
1.54263
1.54285
1.54321

1.99007
1.99084
1.99097
1.99129

1.67945
1.68001
1.68003
1.68019

1.34113
1.34186
1.34185
1.34186

4 NUMERICAL

RESULTS

AND

DISCUSSION

Computer programs have been developed based on the

methods outlined in the preceding sections. The
programs allow the simplification of two planes of
geometric symmetry to be used where relevant. To
investigate the efficiency of these methods, we have
carried out some benchmark tests. Quadratic isoparametric elements were used (six-noded triangles and
eight-noded quadrilaterals). Thus for these tests, the
shape functions I?((, n) in eqn (2) were taken to be

parabolic, and the geometry was represented by a

parabolic variation between the nodes. Typical results
are given in the accompanying tables, where a factor
pgAa* is used for non-dimensionalisation.
Here A is the
amplitude of the incident waves and a is a characteristic
length of the structure.
To demonstrate the good convergence of the new
method (method C) based on eqn (14), the first-order
surge forces on a uniform cylinder of radius a, stretching
from the seabed to the free surface in water depths of 2a,
a and 0.5a,are presented in Table 1. Four dimensionless

Table 3. Convergence of method A with different meshes on the inner sea bed

h/a

Mesh

2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

4Al
4A2
4A4
Analytical
4Al
4A2
4A4
Analytical

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

4Al
4A2
4A4
Analvtical

Case

ka=0.5

ka= 1.0

ka= 1.5

ka= 2.0

4.80287
4.80222
4.79817
4.79871
2.91312
2.91233
2.91134
2.91175
1.54349
1.54316
1.54276
1.54321

4.14502
4.15764
4.15398
4.15405

2.63127
2.63238
2.63220
2.63227

1.76840
1.75980
1.76063
1.76072

3.27392
3.28262
3.28148
3.28175
1.98590
1.99128
1.99080
1.99129

2.39340
2.39451
2.39432
2.39443
1.67947
1.68563
1.67997
1.68019

1.70610
1.69815
1.69848
1.69853

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1.34871
1.34171
1.34188
1.34186

75

New higher-order boundary element methods

Table 4. Convergence of method B with different tolerances for truncation of series
ka=OS

ka= 1.0

ka= 1.5

ka=2.0

1
2
3

4.78880
4.79724
4.79800
4.79871

2.63165
2.63213
2.63218
2.63227

1.76078

T20
T5
T2
Analytical

4
5
6

2.90012
2.91041
2.91121
2.91175

4.15025
4.15355
4.15384
4.15405
3.27586
3.28104
3.28144
3.28175

2.39337
2.39424
2.39431
2.39443

1.69869
1.69849
1.69847
1.69853

T20
T5
T2
Analytical

7
8
9

1.53371
1.54219
1.54278
1.54321

1.98572
1.99061
1.99095
1.99129

1.67901
1.67998
1.68004
1.68019

1.34210
1.34186
1.34184
1.34186

h/a

Tolerance

Case

2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

T20
T5
T2
Analytical

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

1.76066
1.76065
1.76072

Table 5. Comparison of relative CPU times of the various methods

hIa

Case

New

method (method C)

Method A

Method B

2.0

2.0
2.0

2
3

0.97
0.98
1.oo

0.93
0.95
1.07

1.32
1.61
2.20

1.0
1.0
1.0

4
5
6

0.95
0.96
1.oo

0.92
0.93
1.04

1.35
1.78
2.64

0.5
0.5
0.5

7
8
9

0.98
0.98
1.oo

0.97
1.oo
1.12

1.12
1.62
2.56

frequencies ka were considered, k being the wave

number. Results from the analytical solution given by
McCamy and Fuchs13 are compared with the boundary
element calculations. Three meshes were used for these
calculations. Mesh 1Cl is a mesh with one element on a
quadrant of the body surface. Mesh 2C2 has four
elements (2 depthwise x 2 circumferentially), and mesh
4C4 has sixteen elements (4 x 4). The numbers of
elements on the inner sea bed (surface S1) are the same as
those on the body surface. It can be seen that the
convergence of the method is very fast. The results from
mesh 4C4 have an accuracy to four significant figures for
all frequencies and water depths investigated. Tables 2
shows how the accuracy of the new method depends on
the mesh on the inner seabed St. Mesh 4Cl is a mesh
with one element on a quadrant of Si, mesh 4C2 has 4
elements (2 x 2), and mesh 4C4 has 16 elements (4 x 4)

on the inner sea bed. The body mesh has 16 elements on

a quadrant of the cylinder.
Table 3 shows how the convergence of method A,
based on eqn (6), depends on the mesh on the inner
water plane Sw. The meshes in this case are designated
mAn, where for method A the number n now indicates
the fineness of the mesh on the inner waterplane SW.
It can be seen that from results based on meshes 4C4
and 4A4, the new method and method A yield similar
values for the forces, and have almost the same accuracy
when compared with the analytical solution. With
meshes 4C1 and 4C2, the new method (method C)
seems to give slightly higher accuracy than the
equivalent results from method A (i.e. meshes 4Al and
4A2), since the Green function G2 and its derivative in
the z-direction are very small. This is more obvious at
the higher frequencies.

Table 6. Surge exciting force on a truncated cylinder

ka

Method
Method
Method
Method
Method
Method
Analytical

A, mesh 4Al
A, mesh 4A2
A, mesh 4A4
B
C

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

5.3814
5.3799
5.3753
5.3753
5.3753

4.2084
4.2219
4.2197
4.2197
4.2197

2.6361
2.6374
2.6375
2.6374
2.6374

1.7683
1.7604
1.7611
1.7611
1.7611

5.3714

4.2202

2.6376

1.7612

B. Teng, R. Eatock Taylor

76

Table 7. Heave exciting force on a truncated cylinder

ka
Method
Method A, mesh 4Al
Method A, mesh 4A2
Method A, mesh 4A4
Method B
Method C
Analytical

0.5
0.29181
0.29177
0.29178
0.29178
0.29178
0.29036

1.0
2.796x
2.793x
2.796x
2.796x
2.796x
2.768x

Table 4 shows results from method B, based on eqns

(7) and (12). In the calculation of the Green function G1,
tolerances of 0.2, 0.05 and 0.02 were specified for the
truncation of the infinite series (corresponding to cases
T20, T5 and T2 in Table 4). On the body surface, the
mesh of 16 elements per quadrant of the cylinder was
adopted. It can be seen that with these tolerances, less
accurate results are obtained compared with the
corresponding results in Tables 2 and 3.
It is evident that these tolerances are somewhat
coarse, but they were selected on the basis of attempting
to achieve similar computational effort with the different
methods. Table 5 shows the comparison of CPU times
for the three approaches used for the assembly of the
left-hand side matrix [A] in eqn (4). The numbers given
in the table are the ratios of CPU times relative to those
achieved with the new method (method C) and mesh
4C4. The nine cases listed correspond to the nine cases
in Tables 2-4, associated with different meshes on the
waterplane and the inner sea bed, and different
tolerances in the summations. For the cases indicated
in these tables, the relative CPU times are insensitive to
wave frequency. It can be seen from case 1 that with
mesh 4A1, method A requires less CPU time, since
method C has to spend more time on the body integral.
But with an increase in the number of elements on the
auxiliary horizontal plane (the inner sea bed for method
C and the water plane for method A), our new method
will use less CPU time. It can also be seen that method B
uses more time than methods A and C, since the
calculation of the Green function G, is time consuming,
even with the large tolerances specified.
Tables 6 and 7, respectively, compare the heave and
surge wave exciting forces on a truncated cylinder,
calculated by the three methods. Results are also given
for a semi-analytical solution based on the approach
described by Yeung.r4 The cylinder has a radius a and a
draft h =4a, and is in water of depth d= 10a. In the
calculations, a mesh of 40 elements (4 circumferentially
x 8 depthwise x 2 radially) was used to discretise one
quadrant of the body surface for all three numerical
methods. In the case of method C, the inner sea bed
vanishes, so no auxiliary surface domain is needed in the
discretised integral equation. For method A, three
meshes were used on the water plane, identified as in

1.5

lo-O2
lo-O2
10m02
lo-O2
10-O*
10m02

2.926x
2.895x
2.892x
2.892x
2.892x
2.845x

lo-O3
lo-O3
10m03
lo-O3
lo-O3
lo-O3

2.0
3.530x lo-O4
3.406x10-O4
3.19ox1o-o4
3.190x lo-O4
3.190x lo-O4
3.079x lo-O4

the case of the vertical cylinder. It can be seen from these

tables that the results from methods B and C are exactly
the same as expected from the discussion after eqn (14).
With method A, the results from mesh 4A4 employing
the finest mesh on the water plane have the same
accuracy as methods B and C, but the results from
meshes 4Al and 4A2 differ from those based on
methods B and C.

5 SUMMARY

AND CONCLUSIONS

We have proposed here a novel boundary element

method, which is derived by applying a simple Green
function in an integral equation written for points inside
the body. The method replaces the integration on the
water plane in Eatock Taylor and Chaus method* by an
integration on the inner sea bed. The latter vanishes in
the case of a body which does not touch the sea bed.
Because the proposed Green function can be very easily
calculated, and its value is in any case small at large
depths, the method can use coarse meshes on the inner
sea bed without losing much accuracy, especially at high
wave frequencies. When very accurate calculations are
required, using a fine mesh on an auxiliary plane, the
new method (method C) uses less CPU time than the
other methods (A and B). In the specific case of floating
bodies, the new method is equivalent to method B.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the National Natural

Science Foundation of China, and the UK Behaviour
of Fixed and Compliant Offshore Structures research
programme sponsored by SERC through MTD Ltd and
jointly funded with the Admiralty Research Establishment; Aker Engineering, A. S.; Amoco Production
Company; Brown and Root; BP Exploration; HSE; Elf
UK; and Statoil.

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of non-lifting

New higher-order

boundary

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2. Faltinsen, 0. M. and Michelsen, F. C., Motions of large
structures in waves at zero Froude number. Proc.
Dynamics of Marine

Vehicles and Structures in Waves,

London, 1974, pp. 99-l 14.

3. Garrison, C. J., Hydrodynamic loading of large volume
offshore structures: three dimensional source distribution
methods. Numerical Methoa!s in Ofshore Engineering, ed.
0. C. Zienkiewicz et al. Wiley, Chichester, 1979.
4. Inglis, R. B. and Price, W. G., Comparison of calculated
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