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Overview
Introduction
Pressure
Viscosity
Visualising fluid flow
Real and ideal fluids
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layers
Flow classification
Re-cap
2
Introduction
definition of a fluid
Distinction between solid and fluid?
solid
- can resist an applied shear (may deform)
- deformation disappears once force removed
(assuming elastic limit not reached)
fluid
- deforms continuously under applied shear
- deformation permanent
Introduction
definition of a fluid
A fluid is a substance in gaseous or liquid form
Gas
expands until it encounters container walls
cannot form free surface
readily compressible
Liquid
takes shape of container
forms a free surface in
the presence of gravity
gas
liquid
difficult to compress
4
Introduction
definition of a fluid
We are not really interested in gases in this
module
When we talk about fluids, you can take it to
mean that we are talking about liquids
For the vast majority of civil engineering
problems, the liquid we deal with is water
Note that velocity is represented by the symbols
u, U, v, V
lower case usually indicates local velocity
upper case usually indicates mean velocity
5
Introduction
common properties
Mass
amount of matter in a body (kg)
Weight
force of gravity on a mass (kgm/s2 or N)
Density
ratio of mass to volume (kg/m3)
Specific weight
ratio of weight to volume (kg/m2s2 or N/m3)
Relative density
ratio of fluid density to density of water
6
Pressure
definition
Pressure is defined as force per unit area
what is the pressure exerted by a square box
of dimensions 0.5m2 and mass 100kg?
F
A
9.81 100
0.5
1962N/m2
Pressure
hydrostatic pressure
Pressure in a stationary fluid (hydrostatic
pressure) equal in any direction at a given depth
Hydrostatic pressure acts perpendicular to any
surface and is equal in all directions
otherwise shear forces would exist
water would move
Hydrostatic pressure varies linearly with depth
h
gh
8
Pressure
force on a plane horizontal surface
The force acting on a plane horizontal surface
due to hydrostatic pressure is:
F
P
F PA
ghA
A
i.e. pressure multiplied by
area pressure acts upon
Pressure
force on a plane vertical surface
The force acting on a plane vertical surface due
to hydrostatic pressure is:
F
Pmean A
h1 h2
g
A
2
h1
h2
10
Pressure
force on a plane vertical surface
The force again acts at the centre of pressure
but on a vertical surface this does not coincide
with the centroid of the surface
centre of pressure
is the centroid of the
pressure intensity
diagram
Text books give centroid
data for commonly
occurring geometries
11
Pressure
force on a plane surface: centroids
hc
D
hc
D
2
D
2
hc
D
3
hc
4R
3
12
Pressure
force on a plane surface general orientation
Generally, the hydrostatic force on a plane
surface of any orientation is given by:
pressure at centroid
area of surface
13
Pressure
units
Variety of different units:
atmospheric pressure:
1.013 bar
101.3 kN/m2
101.3 kPa
0.76 mHg
10.2
mH2O
14
Pressure
example 1
The lock below is installed in a section of canal. If
the lock gate is 3m wide, determine:
a. hydrostatic force on each side of gate
3.5m
2.0m
15
Pressure
solution 1
a. hydrostatic force given by:
ghc A
F1 1000 9.81
F2
1000 9.81
3 .5
3 .5 3
2
2 .0
2 .0 3
2
180kN
59kN
3.5m
F1
F2
2.0m
16
Pressure
solution 1
b. as both pressure intensity diagrams are
triangular:
3 .5
y1
1.17m
3
2 .0
y2
0.67m
3
180kN
y1
y2
59kN
17
Pressure
solution 1
c. magnitude of resultant force given by:
Fr
F1 F2
180 59 121kN
121 y r
180 1.17
5 0.67
1.41m
Fr
yr 180kN
1.17m
59kN
0.67m
O
18
Viscosity
definition
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a
fluid which is being deformed by either shear
stress or tensile stress
Viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction"
Viscosity
definition
A property that represents the internal resistance
of a fluid to motion
viscosity
Viscosity
definition
Consider a fluid between two horizontal plates
If lower plate is fixed and upper plate can move
horizontally
shear stress acting on the fluid in contact with
upper plate is the force divided by the area
F
A
21
Viscosity
definition
The fluid in contact with the upper plate will
travel at the same velocity as the plate
The fluid in contact with the stationary lower
plate will be stationary
the fluid will deform (abcd
Also means that
there is a variation
in fluid velocity
with depth
d*
abc*d*)
F
c*
22
Viscosity
definition
The force (F) required to move the upper plate is
related to the plate area (A), plate velocity (V)
and distance between plates (d) thus:
VA
d
d*
c*
F
d
23
Viscosity
definition
We could rewrite this expression by introducing
a coefficient of viscosity ( ) to represent this
proportional relationship:
F
VA
d
VA
d
F
A
V
d
Recalling that:
F
A
F
A
V
d
V
d
24
Viscosity
definition
Taking an infinitely thin filament of fluid at height
y above the lower plate
u du u du
velocity gradient across filament
y dy y dy
du V
dy d
V
d d* F
c c*
V
As :
d
u + du
du
dy
d
u
dy
y
25
Viscosity
definition
If we draw a graph of against du/dy, the
gradient of the line is the coefficient of viscosity
Newtonian fluid
varies with temperature
constant with deformation
straight line
polymers,
toothpaste,
mayo
water, air
Non-Newtonian fluid
varies with temperature
and deformation
curved line
du
dy
26
Viscosity
definition
kg/m3)
27
Viscosity
typical values
Put these fluids in order of increasing viscosity
peanut
butter
blood
air
fresh
water
motor oil
28
Viscosity
typical values
Fluid
air
(kg/ms)
0.0000017
fresh water
0.001
blood
0.01
motor oil
0.05-2.0
peanut butter
150-250
Viscosity
example 2
Determine the force needed to maintain a
relative velocity of 2m/s between two plates
1.2m2 separated by a 1.5mm thick film of
lubricant with a dynamic viscosity of
1.55x10-3kg/ms
30
Viscosity
example 2
V
d
F
1 .2
F
A
V
d
V
F A
d
2
3
1.55 10
0.0015
2.48N
31
Viscosity
example 3
A 26mm wide vertical gap between two plates is
filled with a liquid of viscosity 1.49kg/ms.
A 2mm thick plate (0.75mx1.2m) is pulled
vertically through the gap at a speed of 0.15m/s.
Determine the force required to overcome the
viscous resistance provided the plate is in the
centre of the gap.
2mm
26mm
32
Viscosity
solution 3
We can isolate each side of the system and
treat separately:
V
F
V
V
F A
d
A
d
d
0.15
F 0.75 1.2 1.49
16.75N
0.012
The total force required is
thus 33.5N (i.e. 2 16.75N)
12mm
2mm
12mm
33
Viscosity
example 4
A cylinder 100mm diameter and 750mm long is
contained within a vertical tube 103mm
internal diameter.
The space between the cylinder and the tube is
filled with a lubricant with a kinematic viscosity
of 4.5 x 10-4m2/s and relative density of 0.92.
If the cylinder has a mass of 3.06kg, determine
its terminal velocity when it slides down the
tube ignoring all forces except gravity and
viscous friction.
34
Viscosity
solution 4
To determine the terminal velocity under the
action of gravity:
F
d
A
V
d
ma
F
V
Fd
V
A
d
A
3.06 9.81 30N
Dtube
Dcylinder
film thickness
2
wetted surface area
DL
0.92 1000
V
30 1.5 10 3
0.236 0.414
4.5 10
0.103 0.100
1.5 10 3 m
2
0.1 0.75 0.236m2
0.141kg/ms
0.461m/s
35
Recap
Fluids: we are concerned with water
Pressure
hydrostatic force on plane surface is
pressure at centroid
area of surface
Today
Visualising fluid flow
Real and ideal fluids
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layers
Flow classification
Re-cap
37
39
streamlines (
laminar
pathlines X streamlines
meaningless to draw
pathlines for all particles
streamlines used to represent
general flow patterns
turbulent
40
constant v, constant p
converging
v,
diverging
v,
41
viscous
compressible
surface tension effects
Turbulent
random fluid motion (velocity and direction)
Most flows we are concerned with are turbulent
45
laminar flow:
Re < 2000
transitional flow:
turbulent flow:
Re > 4000
47
kg
m
m
3
DV
m
s
Re
kg
ms
which all cancel
M
L
L
3
L
T
M
LT
48
49
Boundary layers
Imagine a flat plate in a uniform flow (velocity U)
Friction between fluid and plate
velocity of 1st fluid layer (surface) is zero
Velocity of 2nd layer should be U except for the
shearing action between 1st & 2nd layer
U
50
Boundary layers
This mechanism continues until shearing forces
become negligible
original uniform velocity (U)
u=U
u = 0.75U
u = 0.5 U
51
Boundary layers
As the fluid passes along plate, more of the flow
is affected by the shearing forces setup at the
fluid/plate boundary
BL thickness increases
Variation in layer thickness is not constant
3 regions occur
U
52
Boundary layers
laminar region
- fluid motion maintained by viscous shearing
action between layers
laminar
53
Boundary layers
turbulent region
- eddies form due to faster moving flow
passing over slower moving laminar region
laminar
54
Boundary layers
transitional region
- balance between viscous shear and
momentum transfer changing
transitional
laminar
laminar sublayer
55
Boundary layers
bounded flows
Most civil engineering flows are completely or
partially bounded
e.g. pipes, open channels
U
entry length
56
Boundary layers
bounded flows
Entry lengths typically short
e.g. 50 100 diameters
normally safe to assume that civil engineering
flows are fully developed
As velocity varies in the BL
velocity varies across whole pipe diameter
57
Boundary layers
relative roughness
The effect of pipe roughness depends on the
physical roughness of the pipe walls relative to the
depth of the laminar sub-layer (LSL)
Smooth turbulent
roughness
protrusions lie
within LSL
fluid trapped
in-between
protrusions
smooth flow
Transitional
roughness
protrusions just
penetrate LSL
transitional
turbulent flow
Turbulent
roughness
protrusions fully
penetrate LSL
rough, turbulent
flow
58
Boundary layers
relative roughness
Hydraulically smooth pipe
exhibits smooth turbulent flow
Hydraulically rough pipe
exhibits rough turbulent flow
Hence concept of relative roughness
(pipe roughness relative to flow conditions)
Smooth turbulent
Transitional
Turbulent
59
Boundary layers
flow separation
BL concept can be used to explain formation of
turbulent wakes downstream of an object in a real
fluid flow
60
Boundary layers
flow separation
Velocity will vary within the BL
As the fluid passes the centreline of the object
streamlines re-converge (flow deceleration)
As BL velocity is lower than flow
forms wake
energy loss
pressure
high
pressure
low
pressure
61
Boundary layers
drag
Total drag (profile drag) on an object in a flowing
fluid consists of two components
pressure drag (form drag)
- due to pressure difference front-back
high pressure
drag
62
Boundary layers
drag
Total drag determined using:
Cdr AV 2
Drag force
2
A = cross-sectional area of object presented to
flow
V = fluid velocity
= fluid density
Cdr = drag coefficient (empirically determined)
= f(shape, roughness, Re)
Boundary layers
velocity distribution
Velocity distribution depends on type of flow
Based on empirical data
Laminar:
u
U
u
Turbulent:
U
=
=
=
A, B, n =
U
u
1
n
Flow classification
temporal and spatial
Temporal variation
steady flow:
unsteady flow:
Spatial variation
uniform flow:
Flow classification
temporal and spatial
Steady, uniform flow
e.g. constant flow through pipe of constant
cross-section
Flow classification
dimensions
Most flows are 3-D (+ 1!)
parameters can vary in three directions (x, y, z)
parameters can vary with time
Analysis of such flows is very complex, even with
todays computing power
Normally appropriate to consider flows in 1-D
i.e. consider variations in 1 physical dimension
(general direction of flow) and with time
Recap
Fluid visualisation
pathlines represent the paths followed by
individual fluid particles
68
Recap
Flow classification
type (Reynolds number)
- laminar flow
- transitional
- turbulent
temporal/spatial
- steady or unsteady
- uniform or non-uniform
Boundary layers
lead to velocity variations and turbulence
69