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139

ChapterIX
POURINGCASTINGS

Pouringisacriticaloperationinthe
Aliningmixturewhichwillhavethedesired
productionofacastingandonewhichshould propertiescanbeobtainedbythoroughly
becarefullyconducted.Theladleequipment mixingthefollowingmaterialsinasand
shouldbedesignedforhighstructural
muller.
strengthand,inthecaseofgearedladles,for
foolproofmechanicaloperation.Becauseof
Usedsteelbacking
81.5percent
thehightemperaturesinvolved,areasonable sand(Allpurpose
factorofsafetyshouldbeusedwhenlininga backingsand
ladleorwhendecidingwhetheranoldlining chapterIV)
isfitforuse.
Silicaflour
15.0percent
Bentonite
2.0percent
Toavoidaccidents,frequentandcareful
1.5percent
inspectionshouldbemadeofallpartsofthe Dextrine
metalhandlingequipment(bowls,bails,
Water
5.0percentofthedry
trunnions,etc.)todetectbadlyscaledor
ingredients
crackedareas.Defectiveequipmentcauses
badcastings.Whengearedladlesareused,
Amixtureofsilicasandorganister,fireclay,
anyindicationoftroubleshouldbe
andwatercanalsobeusedwhenavailable.
immediatelycheckedbycarefullyexamining Thismixturecontains85to95percentof
allgearsforexcessivetoothwearorbroken silicasandorganistertherestisfireclay.The
teeth.Anyladleinadoubtfulcondition
exactpercentageofsilicasandorganisterand
shouldnotbeused.
fireclayaredeterminedbyhowworkablea
mixisdesired.Moreclaygivesamore
TYPESOFLADLES
workableandstickymixturebutincreasesthe
amountofshrinkagewhentheliningisdried.
Ladlesusedaboardrepairshipsareoftwo
Withalltypesofrefractorymixes,only
basictypes.Thelippouringladleisshownin enoughwatershouldbeaddedtomakethe
figure186andtheteapot,orbottompouring mixtureworkable.Anexcessofwater,
ladle,isshowninfigure187.Crucibles,such althoughmakingthemixtureeasiertohandle,
asshowninfigure188,areatypeoflip
causesmoreshrinkageandcracksinthe
pouringladle.Teapotcruciblesareshownin liningwhenitisdried.Forlowshrinkageand
figure189.
fewercracks,usesmallamountsofwaterand
clay.
Ladlebowlsareusuallyofweldedorpressed
steelconstruction.Trunnionsonthelarger
Beforerammingaliningintheladle,
ladlesareoftenattachedbybothrivetingand arrangementsmustbemadeforventingthe
weldingformaximumsafety.
liningduringdrying.Thisisdonebydrilling
3/16inchor1/4inchholesthroughthesides
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LADLELININGS

andbottomoftheladleshellon3to4inch
centers.Ifthisisnotdone,dryingwilltake
Ladleliningshaveanimportantbearingon
toolong.Numerousinjuriestopersonnelhave
thecleanlinessofcastingsproduced.Ifnot
resultedfromtheuseofimproperlydried
sufficientlyrefractory,liningswillmeltand ladles.Whenmoistureispocketedunder
formslag,whichisdifficulttokeepoutofthe moltenmetal,alargevolumeofwatervapor
casting.Becauseofthehightemperature
israpidlyformedandthemetalisblownout
involved,thisismostapttooccurinpouring oftheladlewithexplosiveforce.Inaddition
steel.Slaggingoftheladleliningislesswith tothis,evenslighttracesofmoistureinladle
grayironandbronze,andnegligiblewith
liningswillcauseporosityandcasting
aluminum.
unsoundness.Themostpracticalwayto
determinewhenaladleisdryistoapplyheat
Iftheliningmaterialhasinsufficientdry
untilsteamflowsfromtheventholes,and
strength,itwillcrumblearoundtheupper
thencontinuetoapplyheatuntilthisflow
partoftheladle.Theupperpartofthelining stopscompletely.
isnotincontactwiththemoltenmetaland
doesnotdevelopstrengthbyfusingor
Withaproperlyventedladleshell,thelining
fluxing.Whentheladleistiltedtoapouring isthenrammedinplace.Itisbesttousea
position,partsofthecrumbledrimwillfall
woodormetalcoretoformtheinsideofthe
intothestreamofmetalenteringthemoldor ladle.Theformcanbemadewithtaperand
intoopenrisers.
allowanceforliningthickness.Afterthe
bottomoftheladleisrammedintoplace,the
formiscenteredwithwedgesandthesidesof
theliningrammed.Aharderandmoredense
liningcanbemadeandthewaterkepttoa
minimumwhen

140

aformisused.Also,thejobisaloteasier
ANYONEWHOPOURSMETALFROMA
thantryingtoramaliningagainstvertical
LADLEWITHADAMPLININGOR
walls.Whenrammingalininginlayers,be
DAMPPATCHCANEXPECTTOFIND
suretoroughenthetopofeachlayerbefore UNPLANNEDHOLESINHISCASTING.
ramminginthenextlayer.Afterthelining
hasbeenrammed,theformisrappedlightly Pouringlipsofladlesareafrequentsourceof
toloosenitandthendrawnfromtheladle.To troublebecausetheyareoftenpatchedand
makedrawingoftheformeasier,andtokeep thenproperdryingofthepatchisoverlooked.
theformfromabsorbingwaterfromthemix, Awetpatchonapouringlipwillputgasin
themetalandcauseblowholesinthecastings.
itshouldbecoveredwithathinlayerof
greaseorwithaluminumfoil.Ifaluminum
foilisused,itispeeledfromtheliningafter Patchingofaladleisbestdonewhenthe
liningiscold.Alladheringslagandmetal
thecorehasbeenremoved.Careshouldbe
exercisedsothataluminumfoildoesnotfold mustberemovedintheareatobepatched.If
possible,undercuttheoldliningtohelphold
andcauseadeepcrackinthelining.The
rammingoftheliningmustbeveryhardand thepatch.Brushloosedirtfromtheoldlining
andwettheliningthoroughly.Patchlarge
uniform.Iftheliningshowsatendencyto
crackintolayerswhentheformiswithdrawn, holeswiththesamemixtureusedforlining.
eachlayerwasnotroughenedenoughbefore Patchsmallholesandcrackswithamixture
thenextwasrammedin.Suchaladlecanbe offourpartscleansandandonepartfireclay.
DRYAPATCHTHESAMEASANEW
dangeroustouse.
LINING.
Thethicknessoftheliningvarieswiththe
metaltobehandledandwiththesizeofthe Infigure190areshownthevariousstepsin
theliningofateapotladle.Part(a)isa
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ladle.Forexample,aladleforthepouringof
steelrequiresaheavierliningthanonefor
castiron,bronze,oraluminumbecausesteel,
atthehightemperaturesrequired,attacksthe
liningmaterialmuchmorerapidlythanany
oftheothermetals.

cutawayviewoftheladleshell.Thebottomis
rammed,theformssetinplace,andrefractory
rammedontheside.Manytimes,aheavy
dutyrefractorybrickisplacedinthebottom
ofanyladletotaketheforceofthemolten
metalstreamwhentheladleisfilled.This
reduceserosionoftheladlebottom.Part(b)
Aliningforaladletoholdandpour75
showsthesidespartlyrammedaftertheforms
poundsofsteelwillhaveathicknessofabout areset.Thecompletedliningwithformsstill
1inchonthebottomand1inchonthesides inplaceisshownin(c).Orderofwithdrawing
atthebottomandwilltapertoabout3/4inch theformsisshownin(d).
atthetopoftheladle.Thisthicknessisalso
satisfactoryforanyoftheothermetals.For
Ladlesforsteelarecommonlyusedonlyonce
thelowermeltingpointmetals,themain
perliningbecauseofthefluxingactionofthe
considerationindeterminingthethicknessof metalatthehightemperatures.Inan
liningisproperinsulationinordertoprevent emergency,ifgreatcareisusedinskimming
chillingofthemoltenmetalandtoavoid
slag,ladlesmaybeusedtwiceforsteel,butit
damagetotheladleshellsasaresultof
isnotgoodpractice.Thisdoesnotholdtrue
overheating.
fortheothermetals,however,andtheladles
maybeusedformanyheats.Careshouldbe
Dryingofaneworpatchedliningisan
takentoremoveallmetalandslagaftereach
operationthatcancausealotoftroubleifitis use,butitisimpossibletoremoveallofthe
notdoneproperly.Anewliningorpatch
debris.Therefore,ladlesshouldbeusedfor
shouldbeheatedgentlyatfirsttogetridof
onlyonemetal.Aseparateladleshouldbe
mostofthewaterwithoutblowingaholein usedforeachmetalorthemetalwillbecome
theliningorcrackingitbecauseofsteam
contaminatedandunfitforuse.
pressure.Aboardship,thiscanbestbedone
byfirstdryingtheladleinacoreovenand
POURINGTHEMOLD
thencompletingthedryingwithatorch.The
Theplacingofweightsandclampsonamold
torchshouldbepositioned,withrespectto
isonlyaminoroperationinthemakingofa
theladle,soastoinsurecomplete
castingbutonethatwillproducedefectsifnot
combustionofthegasanddeliveryof
maximumheattothelining.Ifanewliningis properlydone.Weightsareusedtoprevent
theforceofthemoltenmetalfromliftingthe
heatedtoofastatthestart,thewatertravels
copeasitfillsthemold,therebyproducinga
backtotheshellandmakesthatpartofthe
swelledcastingorarunout.Thepositionof
liningweakandsoggy.Aftertheliningor
theweightonthemoldshouldbedetermined
patchisthoroughlydriedslowly,the
temperaturecanbesafelyincreasedtoashigh andtheweightplacedonthemoldgently,
withoutanymovementoftheweightacross
asobtainable.Itisdesirabletomaintaina
newliningatredheatforseveralhoursbefore thetopofthecope.
usingit.Ifaslowlyheatednewliningcracks,
therammingmixturecontainedtoomuch
clayorwater.

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Anysuchmovementcancausethecopeto
SPEEDOFPOURING
breakorforcesandintothegatingsystemor
openrisers.
Thepouringbasinshouldbefilledquicklyto
preventnonmetallicsandslagfromentering
Clampsservethesamepurposeasweights
themoldcavityandmustbekeptfull.Inorder
andareusedtoclampthecopeanddrag
todothis,theladlestreammustbecontrolled
togetherwhenthecastingispouredinthe
carefully.Oncepouringhasstarted,itmust
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flask.Inplacingtheclamps,awoodwedgeis
usuallyusedtotightentheclampdownonthe
flask.Beforeplacingtheclamp,theareanext
totheclampshouldbecleanedofexcesssand
topreventmolddamagewhentheclampis
set.Thewedgeshouldbeplacedbetweenthe
clampandthetopedgeoftheflask,theclamp
broughtupsnug,andthentightenedby
drivingthewedge.Caremustbetakentohit
thewedgeandnottheclamporflask.

continuewithoutinterruptionuntilthemoldis
filled.Oneallowableexceptionistostop
pouringthroughthespruewhenthemetalhas
filled1/3ofatopriser.Theriseristhenfilled
lastwithhotmetaltoimprovefeeding.This
exceptionappliesonlytotoprisers.Withside
risers,themoldmightnotbefullwhenmetal
isseenintheriser.

Slagonthemetalshouldbeskimmed
carefullypriortoandduringpouring.Ifa
steelorironslagistoofluidtobeskimmed
properly,drysilicasandshouldbespread
acrossthesurfaceofthemoltenmetalto
thickentheslag.Drymetalrodsorspecial
metalskimmersshouldbeusedforskimming
orstirringmetal.Woodskimmersorstirrers
shouldneverbeusedbecausethewood
containsmoisturewhichoftenproduces
unsoundnessincastings.

Closecontrolofpouringtemperaturesis
essentialtotheconsistentproductionofgood
castings.Animmersionpyrometerandan
opticalpyrometerarefurnishedfor
temperaturedetermination.Becauseofthe
hightemperatureinvolved,theimmersion
pyrometerisnotusedforironorsteel.The
ChromelAlumelimmersionthermocouples
arelimitedtotemperaturesof2,500F.The
opticalinstrumentisimpracticalfor
nonferrousmetalsbecausetheirpouring

Theuseofapouringbasinandplugtoget
moreuniformpouringisshowninfigure193.
Althoughclampsandweightsareusedforthe Part(a)showsthebasinreadytoreceivethe
samepurpose,clampsaremuchmore
metal.In(b)thebasinispartiallyfilled.When
dependable.Itistooeasytounderestimate
thebasinisproperlyfilled,theplugis
theliftingpowerofthemetalandtousetoo withdrawnasin(c).Theuseofapouring
fewweights.Ontheotherhand,toomany
basinpermitsbettercontrolofthemetal
weightscancrushamold.
enteringthegatingsystem.Anothervariation
ofthismethodistoputathinsheetofthe
Withtheladlethoroughlydried,preheatedto metalbeingpouredoverthesprueopening.It
aredheat,andsecurelyinthebail,molten
willmeltoutwhenthebasinisfilledwithhot
metalfromthefurnaceistappedintoit.
metal.Keepthebasinfullofmetalatall
Fillingtheladletoitsbrimisunwisefromthe times.
standpointofsafetyandfortheproductionof
goodcastings.Fillingtheladletoitsbrim
Whenpouringametalthatformsdross
shouldbedoneonlywhenabsolutely
(especiallyaluminum,aluminumbronze,or
necessary,andthenextremecautionshould magnesium),everyeffortmustbemadeto
beexercisedinhandlingtheladleand
avoidturbulententryofthemetalintothe
pouring.
mold.Itisparticularlyimportantinsuchcases
thatthelipoftheladlebeasclosetothe
Iftheladleisfilledtoabout3/4ofits
pouringbasinaspossible.Thespruemustbe
capacity,metalwillnotflowoverthelipuntil filledquicklyandkeptfullsothatthe
theladleisinclinedtoanangleof
tendencyfordrossandentrappedairtoenter
approximately60fromthehorizontal.This themoldwillbeataminimum.Hereagain
permitsagoodcontrolofthestream,making thepouringbasinandplugcanbeusedto
itpossibletokeeptheladlequitelowand
advantage.Theuseofskimgatesor
thus,keeptheheightoffallofthemetallow. perforatedcoresplacedinthesprueor
Thislessensmolderosion,entrapmentofair, pouringbasin(asshowninfigures194and
formationofoxides,andmetalspills.
195)aidsinremovingdrossfromthemetal
andpreventingitsentranceintothecasting
Figure191showsthepropermethodof
cavity.Agitationofthemoltenmetalwhileit
pouring,whilefigure192showspoorpouring isbeingtransportedtothemoldalsoincreases
technique.Inthegoodpouringtechnique,
drossformationandgasabsorption.
noticethatthelipoftheladleisascloseas
possibletothemold.
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temperaturesaretoolow.

142

Theoperationofanimmersionpyrometerisa toresult.Properpouringtemperaturesfora
simplematter.Theinstrumentsareusuallyof givenmetalvarywiththecastingsize,design,
twotypesaselfcontainedunitortheunitin anddesiredrateofpouring.Forthisreason,
whichtheimmersionunitisconnectedby
thepouringrangesgivenbelowshouldbe
wirestothereadinginstrument.Beforeuse, takenasageneralguideonly:
thepyrometershouldbecheckedtomake
Metal
Pouring
surethattheimmersionpartoftheinstrument
Temperature
isclean.Leadwirepyrometersshouldbe
Range
checkedforanybreaksorlooseconnections Steel
2850F.to2950F.
inthewire.Whentakingareading,the
Grayiron
2300F.to2600F.
immersiontipshouldbesubmergedinthe
Aluminum
1250F.to1400F.
moltenmetaltoadepthofapproximately3
inchesandmovedslowlybackandforthorin Manganesebronze 1875F.to1975F.
acircle.Afterthetemperaturereachesafairly CompositionsG& 2000F.to2200F.
steadyreading,itshouldberecorded.The
M
immersiontipshouldthenbewithdrawnfrom
themelt.Immersionpyrometersshouldbe
Ingeneral,thinwalledcastingsarepouredon
handledwithcareandperiodicinspections
thehighsideoftherangeandthickwalled
madeforproperupkeep.Wheneverpossible, castingsonthelowside.
theinstrumentsshouldbecheckedand
calibratedforgoodoperation.
SUMMARY
Theopticalpyrometeroperatesbymatching
theintensityoflightfromthemoltenmetal
withthatofastandardlightsourcewithinthe
instrument.Exactoperatingproceduresare
availablewiththeinstruments.Generally,the
fieldofvisionwillbeuniform,asshownin
figure196a,whentheinstrumentissetatthe
propertemperature.Iftheinstrumentisset
toohigh,theinnercircleofthefieldwillbe
brighterasin(b).Iftheinnercircleisdarker,
theinstrumentissetattoolowareading.
Thisinstrumentshouldbehandledwithcare
andgivenperiodicchecksandcalibrationsfor
properoperation.
Excessivepouringtemperatures(thatis,
temperaturesabovethoserequiredforthe
properfillingofthemold)resultinexcessive
oxideordrossformation,segregation,rough
anddirtycastingsurface,unnecessarilyhigh
liquidshrinkage,coarsegrainmetalstructure,
andincreaseddangerofcavities,tearsand
porosity.Figure197showstheincreasein
grainsizethatresultedwithincreasedpouring
temperaturesforacopperbasealloy.Notice
thatthehighpouringtemperatureresultedin
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Theimportantfactorsinpouringacastingare
summarizedasfollows:
1.Ladleequipmentmustbekeptingood
repair.
2.Allladleliningsmustberammeduniformly
hardandbeoftheproperthickness.
3.Allladlesmustbethoroughlydriedandata
redheatforsometimebeforeusewiththe
highmeltingpointalloys.
4.Ladlesshouldnotbefilledtomorethan3/4
oftheircapacity.
5.Metalshouldbeskimmedfreeofallslagor
drossbeforepouring.
6.Inpouring,theladleshouldbeascloseto
thepouringcuporsprueaspossible.
7.Oncepouringhasstarted,thestreamshould
notbeinterrupted.Asteadyrateofpouring
shouldbeusedandthesprueshouldbekept
fullatalltimes.
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averycoarsegrainstructure.

8.Themetalshouldbepouredatthecorrect
temperature,neithertoohighnortoolow.

Ifthepouringtemperaturesaretoolow,
entrappedgasanddross,misruncastings,or
castingswithsurfacelaps(coldshuts)are
likely

143

Figure188.Lippouringcrucibles.

Figure186.Lippouringladle.

Figure189.Teapotcrucibles.

Figure187.Teapotladle.

Figure190.Liningateapotpouringladle.
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144

Figure191.Properpouringtechnique.
Figure194.Skimcoreindowngate.

Figure192.Poorpouringtechnique.

Figure195.Skimcoreinpouringbasin.

Figure193.Useofpouringbasinandplug.

Figure196.Pyrometerfieldwhenatcorrect
temperature,toohighasetting,andtoolowa
setting.

145

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Figure197.Effectofpouringtemperatureongrainsize.

146

Thispageisblank.

147

ChapterX
CLEANINGCASTINGS

Afterthecastinghassolidified,itshouldbe itisadvisabletopreheatto700F.orhigher.
allowedtocoolinthemolduntilithas
Thedesiredcuttingtemperaturemaybethat
reachedatemperaturewhichwillpermitsafe retainedduringcoolingoritmaybeobtained
handling.Thetimerequiredforthiswillvary byreheatingthecastinginafurnace.
withthemetal,typeofmold,andthesizeand
CastIron.Thegatesandrisersoncastiron
designofthecasting.Asageneralguide,
castingsshouldnotbeshakenoutuntilthey mayberemovedbyflogging,sawing,or
chipping.Theuseofcuttingtorchesisnot
havecooledtoatleastthefollowing
practical.Floggingisthesimplestmethodand
temperatures:
isentirelysatisfactory.Toflog,thegateor
Steel
1200F.
riserisfirstnotchedonallsidestokeepthe
Castiron
1000F.
breakfromleadingintothecastingoranotch
Manganesebronze
1000F.
iscastintothejunctionofriserorgateandthe
CompositionsGandM 1000F.
casting.Thegateorrisershouldbestruck
sharplysothattheblowisgoingawayfrom
Aluminum
500F.
thecasting,ratherthantowardit.Thiswill
Afterthecastingisshakenfromthemold,all helptokeepbreaksfromleadingintothe
adheringsandshouldberemovedwithwire casting,andwillpreventdamagetothe
castingifthehammermissesthegateorriser.
brushesorchippinghammersbeforethe
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castingiscleanedbywater,sand,orshot
blastingmethods.Thecastingshouldnot
havealotofexcesssandleftonitbeforeitis
shotblasted.Thesandcontaminatesthemetal
shot.Iftheexcesssandisremovedfromthe
casting,therewillalsobemuchlessdustto
beextractedbythedustarrestingequipment.

Abrasivecutoffwheelscanalsobeused.
Sawingwithahacksaworhandsawis
practicalifthecastingiseasytogrip.Stubs
remainingonthecastingareremovedby
grindingorchipping.
Brass,Bronze,andAluminum.Themost
commonmethodsforremovinggatesand
risersfromnonferrouscastingsarebyband
saw,highspeedhacksaw,abrasivecutoff
wheel,orbyshearing,dependingonthetype
ofequipmentavailableforthispurpose.

REMOVINGGATESANDRISERS
Thefollowingmethodsareusedtoremove
gatesandrisersfromcastings.
Steel.ForGradeBandforlowalloysteel,
flamecuttingwiththeoxyacetylene,
oxyhydrogen,oroxypropanetorchisthebest
methodtouse.Thoroughcleaningofthe
castingisimportanttomakeiteasiertostart
thecutandtoassureauniformcut.Thegates
andrisersshouldbecutaboutthreesixteenths
orthreeeighthsofaninchfromthecasting.
Theremainingstubisremovedbygrindingor
bychippinghammers.

GRINDINGANDFINISHING
Chippingfollowedbygrindingorfinishingis
usedtoremovetheroughmetalremainingon
acastingafterthegatesandrisershavebeen
removed.Manytimes,grindingcanbeusedto
salvageacastingwhichhassmallfinsor
localizedroughspotsonthesurface.

Whenusinganytypeofgrinder,thewheel
shouldbeprotectedandtheoperatorshould
Forstainlesssteelcastings,thegatesand
weargoggles.Glovesareahazardbecause
riserscannotberemovedbyflamecutting.
theymaybecomecaughtinthewheel.The
Theymustberemovedbymechanicalmeans operatorshouldalsoavoidlooseclothing.
suchassawing,chipping,orshearing,with
Beforeagrindingwheelisused,itshouldbe
anabrasivecutoffwheel,orbymeltingoff
strucklightlybutsharplywithahammer
withanelectricarcfromaweldingmachine. handletodeterminewhetherthewheelhasa
Inmeltingoff,caremustbetakentoleavea highpitchedring.Adullthudindicatesthat
stubof1/4to1/2inchonthecastingtoavoid thewheelmaybecrackedandmayflyapart
crackingormetallurgicalchangesinthe
duringuse.DONOTUSEAGRINDER
castingasaresultofthehightemperature
UNLESSYOUAREWEARINGGOGGLES.
wherethecutismade.
Grindersavailableaboardshipareoftwo
Ifcastingsshowatendencytocrackduring
types,standandportable.Theportable
cutting,risersshouldberemovedwhilethe
grindersareairorelectricdriven.Thestand
castingsareatatemperatureofatleast
grinderiselectricandisusedforcastings
400F.Forriserslargerthansixinchesin
whichcanbeeasilymanipulatedbyhandat
diameter,
thefaceofthe
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148

grinder.Grindingonlargecastingsmustbe heatingwithpossiblecrackingofthecasting,
donewiththeportablegrinders.
unnecessarywearonthegrindingwheel,and
dangertotheoperator.Thispracticeorthe
Manyofthegrindingoperationsdonewith
useofleverstodeliverhighpressuremay
thestandgrinderusebodilycontactwiththe causethewheeltobreakandinjurethe
castingtoprovidetherequiredpressureand operator.
stability.Suchbodilycontactcausesthe
operatortoreceivealotofvibrationduring
WELDING
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grinding.Reinforcedleatherapronsareuseful
forreducingthephysicalstrainonthe
operatorduringgrinding.Theyreducethe
vibrationtransmittedtotheoperator.For
grindingoperationsrequiringalongperiodof
time,areinforcedapronorasimilarpieceof
safetyequipmentisanecessity.Theapron
notonlyservesthepurposeofreducing
fatigueintheoperator,butalsomayprevent
seriousinjuryincasethecastingbecomes
snaggedbetweenthetoolrestandthe
grindingwheel.

Manydefectivecastingsmaybesalvagedby
welding.Whenrepairsbyweldingare
required,referenceshouldbemadetothe
"GeneralSpecificationsforShipsofthe
UnitedStatesNavy,"SectionS91,
"Welding,"forgeneralguidance.Theactual
weldingshouldbedonebytrainedpersonnel
andnotattemptedbyunqualifiedpersonnel.
Anotheruseforweldingisintheassemblyof
twoormoresimplecastingsintoa
complicatedpart.Quiteoften,anemergency
castingcanbemostsimplymadebymaking
twoormoresimplecastingsandthenwelding
themtogether.Anotherschemeistomake
somepartsofanassemblybycastingandto
completethestructurebyweldingwrought
metaltothecasting.

Theportablegrindersarenormallyusedfor
lightergrindingoperations,butaboardship
theymustbeusedforheaviergrindingon
largecastings.Smallportablegrindersare
usefulforcleaningupminorsurfacedefects
inacasting.

SUMMARY

Whenusingeithertypeofgrinder,anattempt
shouldalwaysbemadetousetheentireface
ofthegrindingwheel.Movingtheworkback
andforthacrossthefaceofastandgrinder,or
movingaportablegrinderbackandforth
acrossthecasting,willhelpinobtaining
uniformwearofthewheelface.Agrinding
wheelisdifficulttousewhentheface
becomesgroovedbecauseofimproperuse.It
ispoorpracticetosnagacastingbetweenthe
grinderrestandthewheelinanattemptto
applymorepressureandgetfastergrinding.
Thiscauseslocalizedover

Cleaningandgrindingofcastingsisa
relativelysimpleoperationcomparedwiththe
otheroperationsinvolvedinmakingacasting.
Itisasimportantasanyoftheother
operationsbecausecarelessnessinfinishing
mayruinanotherwiseacceptablecasting.The
productionofgoodcastingsdependsonthe
useofcorrecttechniquesinallofthe
operationsandnotinjustafewofthem.

149

ChapterXI
CAUSESANDCURESFORCOMMONCASTINGDEFECTS

Defectsincastingsdonotjusthappen.They whenpouringisinterruptedsothatthemetal
arecausedbyfaultyprocedure(1)inoneor doesnotfusetogetherproperly.
moreoftheoperationsinvolvedinthecasting
process,(2)intheequipmentused,or(3)by Metalpenetrationcausesroughcastings.
Themetalseepsinbetweenthesandgrains
thedesignofthepart.Acastingdefectis
andgivesaroughsurfaceonthecasting.Such
oftencausedbyacombinationoffactors
castingsaredifficulttocleanbecausesand
whichmakesrapidinterpretationand
grainsareheldbylittlefingersofmetal.
correctionofthedefectdifficult.
Castingdefectsarisefrommanycausesand
havemanynames.Oneofthemost
prominentcausesofdefectsdoesnotappear
onanyformallistofdefects,itis
CARELESSNESS.Itsremedyisobvious.
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Astickeroccurswhensandstickstothe
pattern,asthepatternisdrawnfromthemold.
Arunout,bleeder,orbreakthroughisa
castinginwhichthemoldhasfailedsothat
themetalrunsoutbeforethecastingissolid.
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NAMESOFDEFECTS

Acutorwashiserosionofthesandbythe
streamofmoltenmetal.Itoftenshowsupasa
Thetableinthesummaryofthischapterlists patternaroundthegatesandusuallycauses
themostcommontypesofcastingdefects,
dirtinsomepartofthecasting.
theircauses,andtheircures.Causesand
curesarediscussedinmoredetaillaterinthis Aswellisanenlargedpartofacasting
chapter.Thenamesofcommondefectsare
resultingfrequentlyfromsoftramming.Itis
explainedasfollows.
oftenfoundinconnectionwithmetal
penetration.
Abloworblowholeisasmoothcavity
causedbygasinthemoltenmetal.Apinhole Acrushordropoccurswhenpartofthesand
isatypeofblowthatisunusualbecauseofits moldiscrushedordropsintothemoldcavity.
smallsize.Itiscommontofindasinglelarge Itusuallycausesdirtinsomeotherpartofthe
gashole(orblow)inacasting,butpinholes casting.
usuallyoccuringroups.
Ashiftisamismatchingofcopeanddragor
Ashrinkorshrinkagecavityisarough
ofmoldandcores.
cavitycausedbycontractionofthemolten
Hotcracksorhottearsareusuallyirregular
metal.Itisquiteoftenimpossibletotell
andoxidizedsothatthefractureappearsdark.
whetheraparticularholeinacastingisa
shrinkorablow.Gaswillaggravateashrink Adarkfractureusuallyshowsthatthecrack
ortearoccurredwhilethecastingwasstillhot
defect,andshrinkagewillaggravateagas
andcontracting.Abrightfractureindicates
defect.Thedistinctioncanusuallybemade
thatgaspressuregivesacavitywithsmooth thatthebreakoccurredwhenthecastingwas
cold.
sides(blow)andcontractionorlackof
feedinggivesacavitywithroughsides
Afinisathinprojectionofmetalusually
(shrink).Wheneitherabloworshrink
occurs,itisagoodideatocorrectforbothif foundatcoreprintsorpartinglines.Finsare
commononcastingsandnottooharmfulif
thecausecannotbedeterminedforsure.
small.Iflarge,theycancausearunout,or
Arattail,buckle,andscaballoriginatein smallshrinkagecavitiesatthejunctionofthe
finwiththecasting.
thesamewayanddiffermainlyindegree.
Theyarecausedbyuncontrolledexpansionof
thesand.Iftheconditionisnottoobad,arat Inclusionsordirtarejustwhatthename
implies.Theyareoftenaccompaniedbyother
tailisformed.Thesurfaceofthesand
bucklesupinanirregularlinethatmakesthe defectswhichprovideloosesandinthemold.
castinglookasthougharathasdraggedhis
DESIGN
tailoverit.Ifsandexpansionisevengreater,
thedefectiscalledabuckle.Ifitisstillworse
Themostcommondefectscausedbycasting
sothatmoltenmetalcangetbehindthe
designarehottearsandhotcracks.Ahottear
buckledsand,itisascab.
isusuallyrecognizedbyitsjaggeddiscolored
Amisrunorcoldshutoccurswhenthemold fracture.Itoccurswhenthestresses
doesnotcompletelyfillwithmetal,or

150

inthecastingaregreaterthanthestrengthof
metalshortlyafterthecastinghassolidified.
Ahotcrackoccursbythesamemethod
exceptthatittakesplaceafterthecastinghas
cooledconsiderably.Ahotcrackisalso
recognizedbyadiscoloredfracture,butis
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coreprintandadequateventing,andtheuse
ofcorecoatings.
Sharpcornersinthecopeoronprotruding
sectionsmaybecomeweakenedduringthe
drawingofthepatternandcausedrops.This
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smooth,ascornparedwiththejagged
fractureofthehottear.
Hottearsandhotcracksbotharecausedby
improperdesignthatdoesnotprovide
adequatefilletsatthejunctionofsectionsor
thatjoinssectionsofdifferentthicknesses
withoutprovidingagradualchangeinsection
sizebytapering.Inadequatefillets(sharp
corners)produceplanesofweaknessatthe
junctionsofthesectionsandcausefailureat
thesepoints.Failurefromimproperjoiningof
heavyandthinsectionsiscausedbytheearly
solidificationofthethinsectionbeforethe
heavysectionhassolidified.Thecontraction
ofthethinsectionproducesastresswhichis
greaterthanthestrengthofthepartially
solidifiedheavysection.Somethinghasto
giveitisusuallytheheavysection.
Thecureforhotcracksandhottearscaused
bypoorcastingdesignistoprovideadequate
filletsatalljunctionsandtousetapered
sectionswheresectionsofdifferent
thicknessesmustbejoined.RefertoChapter
2,"DesigningaCasting."

iscorrectedbytheuseoffillets,increased
draftonthepattern,androundedcorners.
Deeppocketsoroverhangingsectionsinthe
copecausedropsbecauseoftheweightofthe
sand.Ifthesecannotbeovercomeby
changingthepositionofthepatterninthe
flask,reinforcementsmustbeusedtogivethe
sandadequatesupport.Sharpcornersalso
causescabsbecausetheyaggravatethe
conditionsinlargeflatsurfaces,whichcause
scabs.Theuseoffilletsandroundcorners
willminimizetheeffectofsharpcornerson
scabformation.Tominimizecastingdefects
causedbyimproperdesign,maintain(1)the
castingassimpleaspossible,(2)tapered
sectionstopromotedirectionalsolidification,
(3)cornersroundedorfilleted,and(4)plenty
ofdraftonthepattern.
PATTERNEQUIPMENT
Themostcommondefectwhichcanbetraced
topatternequipmentistheshift.Ashiftis
easilyrecognizedbythemismatchingofthe
copeanddragsectionsofthecastingatthe
parting.Thistypeofshiftiscausedbyworn
patternequipment.Looseorworndowelpins
inapatternwillpermitmovementofthe
patternpartsduringmoldingandcauseashift
inthecasting.Ashiftcausedbyadefective
patterncanonlybecorrectedbyrepairingthe
pattern.Goodpatternmaintenancewillgoa
longwaytowardminimizingtheoccurrence
ofshiftsduetowornpatterns.Therecognition
ofthisdefectisespeciallyimportantinrepair
shipworkbecausethegreatmajorityof
castingsaremadewithloosepatterns.

Shrinkagecavities,misruns,coldshuts,
pinholes,blows,drops,scabs,andmetal
penetrationcanalsobecausedbypoor
castingdesignaswellasbyotherfactors.
Shrinkagecavitiesmaybecausedbyusing
filletslargeenoughtoproduceasectionthat
cannotbeproperlyfed,orbyheavysections
thataresolocatedinthecastingthatthey
cannotbeproperlyfed.Thelattercondition
shouldbecorrectedbyredesigningthe
casting,theuseofchillsonheavysections,or
bymakingthepartastwocastingswhichcan Anotherdefectfrequentlycausedbyapoor
beweldedtogether.
patternisthesticker.Astickerisduetoa
poorpatternsurface,whichcausesthesandto
Misrunsandcoldshutsarecausedbyalow sticktothepattern.Poorpatternsurfacecan
pouringtemperatureforthesections
beremediedbysmoothingtheroughspots
involved,inadequategating,orinadequate
andrefinishingthepattern.Astickerwhichis
ventingofthemold.Redesigningfortheuse notnoticedinthemoldingoperationwillhave
oftaperedsectionscanbeusedtoeliminate theappearanceofadropinthecompleted
thesedefects.Pinholescanbecausedby
casting.
nonuniformsectionsize.Ahighpouring
temperaturenecessarytoovercomecoldshuts Otherdefectsthatmaybecausedbypattern
andmisrunsinthinsectionsmayresultin
equipmentincludemisruns,coldshuts,drops,
pinholesintheheaviersections.This
andmetalpenetration.Wornpattern
situationrequiresredesignforuniform
equipment,whichcausessectionstobe
sectionthickness,regatingtopermitlower
thinnerthandesigned,mayproducemisruns
pouringtemperatures,ortheuseofchillson andcoldshutsinthecasting.Adropwillbe
heavysections.
causedbyapatternhavinginsufficientdraft.
Improperdraftwillcausethesandtocrack
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Glowsduetodesigncanoftenbetracedto
insufficientmeansfortheescapeofcoregas.
Thismaybeduetoacoreprintwhichistoos
mallorinadequatelyvented.Corrective
measurescallforanincreaseinthesizeofthe

whenthepatternisdrawn,andwillcausea
dropbecauseoftheweakenedconditionof
thesand.Increaseinthedraftofthepatternis
thecureforthisdefect.

151

Metalpenetrationmayoccurbecausean
Metalpenetration(roughsurfaceofthe
irregularpartinglinehaspreventedproper
casting)iscausedbyrammingthemoldtoo
rammingofthesand.Metalpenetrationof
soft,aswhenthereistoolittlespacebetween
thistypecanbecorrectedbyremakingthe
thepatternandtheflask.Alargerflaskwill
patternwithaflatterpartingline.
permitharderrammingbetweenthepattern
andtheflaskandreducepenetrationofthe
FLASKEQUIPMENTANDRIGGING metalbetweenthegrainsofsand.
Crushesandshiftsarethedefectsmost
commonlycausedbydefectiveflask
equipmentandrigging.Adisplacementof
sandinthemoldafterithasbeenmade
causesacrush.Improperlyalignedflask
equipment,warpedorunevenflaskjoints,
badfittingjackets,andbadbottomboardsall
resultinanunequalpressureonthemold,
withtheresultingdisplacementofsandwhich
producesthecrush.Properlymaintained
equipmentistheonlysolutiontocrushesof
thistype.
Shiftsarealsocausedbydefectiveflask
equipment.Wornpinsordefectivebushings
inaflaskallowmovementofthecopeto
occurwhenclosingthemold.Proper
maintenanceofequipmentagainisthe
solutionforthisdefect.
Stickersareoftencausedbyfaultyflask
equipment.Thedefectiveflaskpreventsa
cleanpatterndrawand,asaresult,somesand
stickstothepattern.Thestickershownin
figure198wascausedbyloosepinsand
bushings.

Hottearsandhotcrackscanoftenbetracedto
alackofcollapsibilityinsandwhichhasbeen
excessivelyreinforced.Excessive
reinforcementpreventsthesandfrom
collapsingandobstructsfreecontractionof
thecasting.Rememberthatmetalscontract
whentheysolidifyandthatthemoldmustbe
weakenoughtoallowthecastingtocontract.
Ifthemoldistoostrong,thecastingmay
crack.Reinforcementwhichisplacedtoonear
asprueorriserhasanevengreatereffectthan
thatmentionedabove.Thereinforcementin
thiscaserestrainsthesprueandriserfromany
freemovementwiththecastingandisalmost
suretocausehottearsorhotcracks.Ifhot
tearsorhotcracksoccurnearthepointwhere
risersorspruesareattachedtothecasting,the
reinforcementofthemoldshouldbechecked
asapossiblecause.
GATINGANDRISERING

Shrinkagecavities,inclusions,cuts,and
washesarethedefectsmostfrequentlycaused
bygatingandrisering.Ifariseristoosmall
forthesectiontobefed,therewillnotbe
enoughmetaltofeedthesectionandashrink
Swells,fins,runouts,bleeders,metal
willoccurinthecasting.Thegrossshrink
penetration,hottears,andhotcrackscan
showninfigure199wascausedby
oftenbetracedtofaultyequipmentand
inadequatefeeding.Surfaceshrinkscausedby
rigging.Swellsandfinsarelikelytooccur
improperfeedingareshowninfigures200
whenthemoldweightsarenotheavyenough and201.Improperlocationofgatesandrisers
forthecastingbeingpoured.Becauseofthe fordirectionalsolidificationcanalsoleadto
lightweightofsand,themoltenmetalisable shrinks.Figure202showsaninternalshrink
todisplacethesandandproduceaswellin
whichwasexposedwhentheriserwas
thecasting.Ifthisdisplacementoccursatthe removed.Thisdefectresultedfroman
partinglineoracoreprint,themoltenmetal impropergatingsystemwhichresultedincold
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isabletopenetratethejointandafinisthe
result.Swellsandfinscanberemediedby
usingenoughmoldweightsorclampsto
resisttheferrostaticforceofthemolten
metal.Rememberthatiron,steel,brass,and
bronzeareheavierthansand,sothecopewill
tendtofloatoffwhenthesemetalsareused.
Fordoublesecurity,usebothmoldweights
andclamps.

metalintheriser.Whenthecastingwasgated
soastoputhotmetalintheriser(asshownin
figure203),theshrinkdefectwaseliminated.

Connectionswhichfreezeofftooearly
betweenariserandcastingproduceashrink
bythesamemethodasasmallriserbecause
thereisnomoltenmetalavailabletofeedthe
casting.Insuchacase,theconnectionsshould
bemadelarger.Thelocationoftheriserwith
Runoutsandbleedersoccurwhenthemolten respecttothesectionitisfeedingcanalso
metalpenetratesthepartinglineandreaches causeashrinkasshowninfigure204.Inthis
theoutsideofthemold.Abreakoutmay
casting,thelocationoftheingateprevented
occuranywhereonthemoldandmaybe
properfeedingofthecastingeventhoughthe
causedbyinsufficientsandbetweenthe
risercontainedmoltenmetal.
patternandtheflask,orbysoftramming.
Inclusionsarecausedwhenthegatingsystem
Runoutsandbleedersatthepartinglineare
oftencausedbyunevenmatchingofthecope permitsdirt,slag,ordrosstobecarriedinto
thecasting.Themethodofeliminating
anddrag.Thismismatchmaybecausedby
badpinsandbushings,dirtintheflaskjoint,
badbottomboards,orunevenclamping.The
curesareselfevident.

152

inclusionsistoprovideachokingactionat Thelocationofgatesandriserscancausehot
thebaseofthespruebyusingataperedsprue tearsandhotcracks.Ifthegatesandrisers
ofcorrectcrosssectionalarea.Ifitis
restrictthecontractionofthecasting,hottears
impossibletoprovideproperchokingaction andcrackswilloccur.Ifthedefectsarenear
inthegatingsystem,askimcoreshouldbe
theingatesandrisers,thiscauseshouldbe
usedatthebaseofthespruetotrapdirtand investigatedasapossibletroublespot.
slag.Drossinclusionsinafractured
Swells,fins,runouts,andbleedersmayalso
aluminumcastingareshowninfigure205.
becausedbyimpropergating.Riserswhich
Cutsandwashesaredefectswhicharealso
aretoohighcauseanexcessiveferrostatic
causedbythegatingsystem.litheingatesofa forcetoactonthemold,withtheresultthat
moldarelocatedsothatthemetalentering
thesedefectsoccur.Areductionincope
themoldimpingesorstrikesdirectlyoncores heightwillcorrectdefectsofthistype.Run
oramoldsurface,thesandwillbewashed
outsandbleedersmayalsooccurifanypart
awaybytheerodingactionofthestreamof ofthegatingorriseringsystemistoocloseto
moltenmetal.Thedefectwillthenappearon theoutsideofthemold.Insuchasituation,
thecastingasaroughsection,usuallylarger thereisinsufficientsandbetweenthegates,
thanthedesignedsectionthickness.Sand
runners,risers,andflasktopermitproper
inclusionsareusuallyassociatedwithcuts
ramming.Thisresultsinweaksandwhich
andwashesasaresultofthesanderodedand cannotwithstandtheforceofthemolten
carriedtootherpartsofthecastingbythe
metal.Theselectionofflasksofpropersize
streamofmetal.
forthecastingbeingmadeisthemethodof
overcomingthesedefects.
Improperriseringandgatingcanalsocause
blows,scabs,metalpenetration,hottears,hot Misrunsandcoldshutsarecausedbyanypart
cracks,swells,fins,shifts,runouts,bleeders, ofthegatingandriseringsystemwhich
misruns,andcoldshuts.Blowsorgasholes preventsthemoldfromfillingrapidly.Gates
arecausedbyaccumulatedorgeneratedgas orrunnerswhicharetoosmallrestrictthe
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orairwhichistrappedbythemetal.Theyare
usuallysmoothwalledroundedcavitiesof
spherical,elongated,orflattenedshape.Ifthe
sprueisnothighenoughtoprovidethe
necessaryferrostaticheattoforcethegasor
airoutofthemold,thegasorairwillbe
trappedandablowwillresult.Anincreasein
theheightofthesprueorbetterventingofthe
moldarecuresforablowofthistype.A
similarblowmayalsooccuriftheriser
connectiontothecastingfreezesofftoosoon
andthemetalheadintheriserisprevented
fromfunctioningproperly.Tocurethis
situation,theconnectionsshouldbemade
larger,placedclosertothecasting,orthe
connectionareashouldbecheckedfor
possiblechillingfromgaggersorimproperly
placedchills.

flowofmoltenmetalandpermitittocool
beforefillingthemold.Improperlylocatedin
gateswillhavethesameresult.Ifthepressure
headofacastingistoolow,themoldwillnot
fillcompletelyandacoldshutwillresult.
Increasingthesizeofthegatingsystemand
relocationofingatesaremethodsusedto
correctdefectsduetothegatingsystem.
Increasingtheheightofthespruewill
produceagreaterpressureheadandhelpto
fillthemoldrapidly.
SAND
Byitself,themoldingsandcancauseallof
thecastingdefectsthatamolderwill
encounter.Thisisoneofthereasonsthatitis
difficulttodeterminethecauseofsome
defects.Blowscanbecausedbysandthatis
toofine,toowet,orbysandthathaslow
permeabilitysothatgascannotescape.Ifthe
sandcontainsclayballsbecauseofimproper
mixing,blowswillbeapttooccurbecausethe
clayballsarehighinmoisture.Ablowcaused
inanaluminumcastingbyhighmoisture
contentofthesandisshowninfigure206.To
remedythissituation,thesandshouldbe
mulledtobreakuptheclayballs.Ifthesand
containstoomanyfines,itwillhavealow
permeabilityandthemoistureorgaswillhave
adifficulttimeflowingthroughthesandaway
fromthecasting.Finesshouldbereducedby
addingnewsands.

Scabscanbecausedbythegatingsystemif
thegatingarrangementcausesanuneven
heatingofthemoldbythemoltenmetal.The
cureforascabfromthiscauseistoregatethe
castingtoobtainauniformdistributionof
metalenteringthemold.
Metalpenetration(roughsurfaceonthe
casting)occursifthesandisexposedtothe
radiantheatofthemoltenmetalfortoolonga
timesothatthebinderisburnedout.An
increaseinthenumberofingatestofillthe
moldmorerapidlywillcorrectthissituation.
Anygatingarrangementswhichcausethe
sandtobedriedoutbyexcessiveradiation
willresultinmetalpenetration.Asprue
whichistoohighwillcauseahighferrostatic
pressuretoactonthemoldsurfacesand
causemetalpenetration.Metalpenetrationof
thistypecanbecuredbydecreasingthe
heightofthecope.

Toohighamoisturecontentinthesand
makesitdifficulttocarrytheexcessive
volumesofwatervaporawayfromthe
casting.Useof

153

thecorrectmoisturecontentsandthecontrol greenstrengthandalowdrystrengthmay
ofmoisturecontentbyroutinetestswithsand alsoleadtocutsandwashes.Theseproperties
testingequipmentisthebestwaytocorrect
arecorrectedbyincreasingthebinder.A
thiscause.Whenthepermeabilityofsandis defectcloselyrelatedtocutsandwashesisthe
low,itisdifficultforevensmallamountsof erosionscab.Itisalsocausedbyamolding
moisturetoescapethroughthesand.The
sandhavingalowhotstrength.A
additionofnewsandsandareductioninclay combinationofotherfactorssuchashigh
contentserveto"openup"asandand
moistureandhardrammingcanalsocausean
increaseitspermeability.
erosionscabsuchasshowninfigure208.
Hardrammingmakestheescapeofmoisture
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Dropsareoftencausedbylowgreenstrength.
Suchsanddoesnothavethenecessary
strengthtomaintainitsshape,sopiecesfall
off.Correctivemeasurescallforanincrease
inbinder,increaseinmixingtime,oran
increaseinbothbinderandmixingtime.
Don'toverlookthepossibilityofreinforcinga
weaksectionofamoldwithwires,nails,or
gaggers.
Ascabwillbecausedonacastingwhenthe
sandmoldcannotexpanduniformlywhenit
isheatedbymoltenmetal.Theindividual
sandgrainshavetoexpand.Ifthemolddoes
not"give,"thesurfaceofthemoldhasto
buckleandcauseascab.Anexpansionscab
isshowninfigure207.Themaincauseofa
sandbeingunabletoexpandproperlyisthe
presenceoftoomanyfinesinthesand.These
finescausethesandtopackmuchharderso
thatitsexpansionisrestricted.Additionof
newsandstoproperlybalancethesandgrain
distributionandreducethepercentageof
finesisusedtoobtainbettersandproperties.
Anotherremedyistoaddsomethingtothe
sandtoactasacushion.Cerealflour,wood
flour,andseacoalareallusedforthis
purpose.
Amoldingsandmayyhaveacceptable
thermalexpansionproperties,butalowgreen
strengthmayalsocauseanexpansionscab.
Thecureinthissituationistoincreasethe
claycontent.Ahighdrystrengthandahigh
hotstrengthcanalsocauseexpansionscabs.
Thesandwillbetoorigidbecauseofthehigh
strengths,andproperexpansionofthesand
willberestricted.Areductionintheclayor
binderswhichcausethehighstrengthswill
correctscabsduetothesecauses.Ifascabis
presentonacastingsurfacewheresand
shakeoutandcleaningwasdifficult,highhot
strengthofthesandwasprobablythecause.
Thebindershouldbereduced,cushioning
materialsadded,orfinesreducedbyadding
coarsersand.

difficultwhenhotmetalispouredintothe
mold.Asaresult,theexpandingvapor
loosensthesandgrainsandtheyarewashed
awaybythemoltenmetal.Sandinclusionsin
somepartofacastingarealwaysfoundwhen
expansionscabsoccur.
Ametalpenetrationdefectoccurswhenthe
moltenmetalpenetratesintothesandand
producesanenlarged,roughsurfaceonthe
casting.Ifthemetalpenetrationisnottoo
deep,itmayhavetheappearanceofaswell.
Coarsesand,highpermeability,andlowmold
hardnessaretheprincipalsandproperties
whichcausemetalpenetration.Asandthatis
toocoarsewillhavelargeropeningsbetween
sandgrains(thisaccountsforthehigh
permeability).Becauseoftheopenings,the
moltenmetaldoesnothaveanydifficultyin
penetratingintothesand.Alowmold
hardnessiscausedbysoftrammingofthe
mold.Thisconditionoffersasoftsurfaceto
themoltenmetalwhich,again,caneasily
penetrateintothesand.Tocorrectpenetration
duetocoarsesandandhighpermeability,fine
sandmustbeaddedtothebasesandtogeta
finersanddistributionandreducethe
permeability.Harderandimprovedramming
techniqueisthecureformetalpenetration
causedbylowmoldhardness.Ifpermeability
ofthesandcannotbereduced,amoldwash
maybeusedtoeliminatepenetration.An
exampleofmetalpenetrationisshownin
figure209.Theleftsideofthecastinghasa
goodsurfacetheresultofusingamoldwash
topreventpenetration.
Veiningisshowninfigure209.Itiscaused
whenthesandcracksandthecrackisfilled
bythemoltenmetal.Asandthatcollapses
rapidlyundertheheatofmoltenmetalwill
produceveining.Thiscanbecorrectedbythe
additionofmorebinderorsilicaflourtothe
sand.

Hottearsandhotcracksareusuallycausedby
poorsandproperties.Ahighpercentageof
Theprincipalcauseforcutsandwashesis
finesandahighhotstrengtharetheprincipal
lowhotstrength.Whenthesandisheatedby causes.Ahighpercentageoffinesandgrains
themoltenmetal,itdoesnothavethe
producesamorecloselypackedsand,withthe
necessarystrengthtoresisttheerodingaction resultthatitcannotcontractproperlywhen
oftheflowingmetalandiswashedaway.If thecastingitselfcontractsduringandafter
anincreaseintheamountofbinderdoesnot solidification.Thereductionoffinescanbe
curecutsandwashes,adifferenttypeof
accomplishedbyadditionsofcoarsesand.A
bindermayberequired.Anadditionofsilica highhotstrengthwillalsopreventthesand
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flourmayalsobeusedtocorrectlowhot
strength.Alow

fromcontractingorcollapsingproperly.A
reductioninthecontentoffinesisalsoa
correctivemeasure

154

forhotcracksandtearsduetoahighhot
leadstocutsandwashes),andhottears
strength.Areductioninthebindercontent
(whicharecausedbycoreshavinglow
mayberequiredtocorrectahighhot
collapsibility).Figure215showsacasting
strength.Aseverehottearisshowninfigure thatcrackedbecausethecorewastoohard.
210.
Thebakingofcorescanalsocausecasting
Pinholesarecausedbyahighmoisture
defects.Anunderbakedcorewillstillcontain
contentinthesand.Pinholesarerecognized alargeamountofcoreoil,whichmaycausea
bytheirsmallsizeandlocationonthecasting blowwhenthecastingispoured.Suchablow
surfaceasshowninfigure211.Thecurefor canbecuredbybakingthecoreproperlyand
pinholesistousethecorrectamountof
byusingthecorrectamountofbinder.
moisture.Thiscanbedeterminedbyproper
Overbakingofcorescausesdefectsbecauseit
sandtestingandcontrol.Thereareother
minorcausesofpinholes,buthighmoisture resultsinburnedoutbinders.Anoverbaked
corewillhaveaweakandsoftsurface.Cuts,
contentinthesandisbyfarthegreatest
washes,andmetalpenetrationresultfrom
sourceoftrouble.
overbaking.Correctbakingtimeforthetype
Anexpansionofthesandsothatapartofthe ofbinderusedandforthesizeofthecoreis
moldsurfaceisdisplacedinanirregularline themethodforcorrectingthesedefects.
producesarattaildefect.Thesedefectsare
showninfigures212and213.Rattailsdonot Anothercontributingfactortotheoccurrence
ofhottearsmaybeoverreinforcement.This
alwaysoccurasseverelyasshowninthese
isespeciallytrueoflargercoreswhere
twoexamples.Theymaybeasfineas
hairlinesonthesurfaceofacasting.Asand reinforcementisnecessary.Theuseof
ofimpropergrainsizedistribution,highhot reinforcingwiresandrodsonlywhentheyare
strength,andthathasbeenrammedhardare requiredandonlyinamountsnecessaryisthe
themajorcontributingcausestorattails.To waytoovercomehottearsfromover
curethissituation,greatercaremustbetaken reinforcement.
toramthemoldtomakeauniformmold
Coreshiftscauserunouts,bleeders,misruns,
surfaceofcorrecthardness.Thehighhot
coldshuts,andcastingsthataredimensionally
strengthcanbecorrectedbyreducingthe
inaccurate.Ifcoresareimproperlyfittedin
binder.Betterexpansionpropertiescanbe
obtainedbypropergrainsizedistributionin thecoreprint,moltenmetalcanrunin
thesand,orbyaddingcushioningmaterials. betweenthecoreandthemoldandcausea
bleederorrunout.Moltenmetalmayalsofill
theventandcauseablow.Incorrectlypasted
Bucklesaresimilartoexpansionscabsand
rattails.Whenanexpansionscabisremoved cores,coreswithventstooclosetothe
fromthesurfaceofacasting,anindentation surface,andcoreswithinertbackingmaterial
inthecastingsurfacewillberevealed.This tooclosetothesurfaceprovideaneasypath
indentationisabuckleandisshowninfigure forthemoltenmetaltorunoutofthemold.
Correctfittingandpastingofcores,relocation
214.Arattailissometimescalledaminor
buckle.Thecureforabuckleisthesameas ofventstowardthecenterofthecore,and
centrallocationofinertbackingmaterialare
foranexpansionscab.
thestepsrequiredtocorrectrunoutsand
Stickersduetosandarecausedbytoohigha bleedersfromthesecauses.Acoreshiftmay
moisturecontentorbyalowgreenstrength. reducethesectionthicknessofamoldwith
Ahighmoisturecontentwillcausethesand theresultthatthesectionwillnotbe
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tosticktothepattern.Areductioninthe
moisturecontentisnecessarytoovercome
stickersfromthiscause.Ifthegreenstrength
islow,thesandwillnothavethenecessary
strengthtopermitdrawingfromapocketor
alongaverticalsurface.Additionsofbinder
orimprovementofthemixingprocedureby
usingamullertoproduceamoreuniform
distributionofbinderarecorrectivemeasures
whichcanbetakentoeliminatestickersof
thistype.Properuseofpartingcompounds
willminimizesticking.

completelyfilled.Amisruncausedbyacore
shiftisshowninfigure216.Tocorrectsucha
defect,itisnecessarytoprovidebetter
supportforthecore,eitherbyabetter
designedcoreprintorbytheuseofchaplets.
MOLDINGPRACTICE
Moldingpractice,alongwiththeother
operationsinvolvedinfoundrywork,
contributestocastingdefectsifnotproperly
done.Blowsarecausedbyacombinationof
hotsandandcoldcoresandflasks.This
combinationcausesmoisturetocondenseand
togivealocalizedconcentrationofmoisture
whichcausesablow.Topreventthistypeof
blow,sandshouldbecoolbeforemakinga
mold.Donotusehotsand.

CORES
Themoldingsandconditionswhich
contributetocastingdefectsalsoapplyto
cores.Amongtheseconditionsarelow
permeability(whichcausesblows),low
bindercontent(which

155

Hardrammingofthesandcancauseblows morethanoneladleofmetalwillberequired
andexpansionscabsasshowninfigure217. topouramold.Insuchacase,pouringwith
Theblowsoccurbecausemoistureis
thesecondladleshouldstartbeforethefirst
preventedfromescapingbytheclosely
ladlehasbeenemptied.Otherwisetheshort
packedsand.Expansionscabsoccurbecause intervalallowedforthestartofpouringfrom
thehardrammedsandexpandsandbuckles. asecondladleissufficienttochillthemetal
Thecastingshowninfigure217wasofsuch inthemoldandtocauseacoldshut,orslag
adesignthathardrammingcouldnotbe
inclusions.
avoided.Inthiscase,woodflouradditions
weremadetoprovideacushionforthehard Slowpouringmayproduceunevenheatingof
rammedsandsothatitwouldexpandwithout amoldsurfacebytheradiantheatfromthe
moltenmetalandcauseascab.Fasterpouring
buckling.
willfillthemoldmorerapidlyandminimize
Figure218showsastickerthatwascaused
theradiantheatingeffectsinthemoldcavity.
byhardramminginthepockets.Improved
Pouringshouldalwaysbeasfastasthesprue
techniquecorrectedthisdefect.
willpermit.ifaslowerorfasterpouringrate
Metalpenetrationcantakeplacebecauseof isindicated,adifferentspruesizeshouldbe
softorunevenramming,whichproducesa
used.
softmoldsurface.Harderandmoreuniform
Pouringfromhighabovethemoldresultsin
rammingisthecureforthistypeofdefect.
anincreasedmetalvelocityinthemolduntil
Softrammingmayalsoresultinswellsor
fins.Thesandissoftatthemoldsurfaceand thesprueisfullandcanleadtowashing
cannotretainitsshapeagainstthepressureof defects.Also,pouringfromaladlewhichis
heldhighabovethemoldpermitseasypickup
themoltenmetal,withtheresultthatthe
ofgasesbythemoltenmetal,aswellas
moldcavityisforcedoutofshapeandthe
agitationinthestreamofmetal.
defectoccurs.
Poormoldingpracticeisprobablythemajor
causeforcrushes.Carelessclosingofamold
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willresultindisplacedsandorcores,which
inturnresultinthecrush.Ifthebottomboard
isnotproperlybedded,ahighspotofsandon
theboardwillcausepressureagainstthe
moldandadisplacementofsandinthemold
cavity.Thisagainwillcauseacrush.
Incorrectlyplacedchaplets,orchapletsof
incorrectsize,willalsoresultinpressure
beingexertedeitheronthemoldoronthe
coreandcauseacrush.Anydefectdueto
poormoldingpracticecanbecorrectedby
onlyonemethodimprovethemolding
technique.Careandattentiontothevarious
operationsinvolvedcangoalongway
towardminimizingdefectscausedby
moldingpractice.

Theuseofrustyordampchillsandchaplets
almostalwayscausesblows.Theruston
chillsandchapletsreactsreadilywiththe
moltenmetalandalargeamountofgasis
producedinthecastingatthispoint.The
localizedhighgascontentcannotescapeand
ablowisproduced.Asimilarsituationis
broughtaboutbytheuseofdampchillsor
chaplets.Themoistureonthechillsor
chapletsformssteamwhichresultsinablow.
Figure220showsablowwhichwascausedin
analuminumcastingbyusingabadchill.

Carelesshandlingofamoldcanresultin
wastedeffortonthepartofthemolder.Rough
treatmentmayresultindrops.Thecareless
placingofmoldweightscanalsoresultin
POURINGPRACTICE
dropsfromexcesspressureonthecope.A
dropduetoroughhandlingofthemoldis
Thedefectscausedmostoftenbypouring
showninfigure221.Theleftsideofthe
practiceareblows,misruns,coldshuts,and
figureshowsthecopesideofthecasting.The
slagordrossinclusions.Blowsarecausedby roughlumpofmetalwhichfilledthecavity
usinggreenladlesorladleswithwetpatches. bythedisplacedsandcaneasilybeseen.The
Severeblowscausedbyuseofagreenladle rightsideofthefigureshowsthedragsideof
areshowninfigure219.Adefectfromthis
thecastingwiththeholeatthecentercore
causeisremediedbyusingladleswhichare causedbythesandwhichdroppedfromthe
thoroughlydriedafterliningandafterany
cope.Thesandthatdroppedmayfloatin
patchingisdone.Misrunsandcoldshutsare heavymetalcastingsandcauseasecond
causedbypouringwhenthemetalistoocold defectinthecope.
orbyinterruptingthepouringofthemold.
Withimmersionandopticalpyrometersin
Cracksandtearscanbecausedbyshakingout
properoperatingcondition,misrunsand
thecastingtooearly.Thiscauseschillingof
coldshutsduetocoldmetalareminimized.If thecastingandhighstressesareproduced.
eitherofthesedefectsoccurwhen
Thecastingusuallyhasalowstrengthwhen
temperaturereadingsindicatehotmetal,a
hot.Dumpingofhotcastingsintowetsand
defectiveinstrumentisindicated.Sometimes canalsocausecracksandtears.Careless
grindingof

156

thecastingmaycauselocalizedoverheating,
SUMMARY
highstresses,andcracks.SeeChapter10,
"CleaningCastings,"forcorrectgrinding
Whendeterminingthecauseofcasting
techniques.
defects,itmustalwaysbekeptinmindthat
Theuseofmoist,dirty,orrustymeltingtools defectsaremoreoftenduetoacombination
maycausetheintroductionofmoistureinto ofcausesratherthantooneisolatedcause.
themelt.Thissourceofmoisturecanresultin Theuseofproperlykeptrecordsofprevious
castings,goodsandcontrol,anddevelopment
pinholesinthecompletedcasting.Every
ofagoodmoldingprocedurecangofarin
effortshouldbemadetomaintaingood
makingthejobofeliminatingcastingdefects
meltingpracticetopreventtherejectionof
castingbecauseofcarelessnessinthemelting aneasierone.Acharthasbeenincluded
whichindicatesthecausesofthevarious
operation.
defectsandpossiblecuresandshouldbeused
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asaconvenientreference.

Thefollowingoversizetablesareonseparatepages.
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage157
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage159
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage161
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage163
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage165
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage167
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage169missing
SummaryofCastingDefectsPage171

173

Figure198.Sticker.(Causedbyloosepinsandbushings)

Figure199.Grossshrink.
(Causedbyinadequatefeeding)

Figure200.Surfaceshrink.(Causedbyimproperfeeding)

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Figure201.Surfaceshrink.(Causedbyimproperfeeding.)
(Crackresultedfrombreakingthecastingforexamination.)

174

Figure202.Internalshrink.
(Causedbycoldmetalriserarrangement)

Figure205.Grossinclusions.
(Revealedbyfracturedaluminumcasting)

Figure203.Gatingandriseringthatcorrected
internalshrinkinfigure202.

Figure206.Blow.(Causedbyhighmoisture
content)

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Figure207.Expansionscab.(Causedbytoo
manyfinesinthesand)

Figure204.Grossshrink.
(Causedbyimproperlocationofingate.)

175

Figure208.Erosionscabandinclusions.

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Figure210.Hottear.(Causedbytoohighhot
strengthofthemoldingsand)

Figure211.Pinholes.(Causedbyhighmoisture
contentofthesand)
Figure209.Metalpenetrationandveining.
(Penetrationcausedbyanopensandveining
causedbymetalpenetrationintocracked
sand)

176

Figure214.Buckle.

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Figure215.Crackedcasting.(Causedbyahard
core)

Figure212.Rattails.(Sandlackedgood
expansionproperties)

Figure216.Misrun.(Causedbyacoreshift)

Figure213.Rattails.(CausesameasforFig.
207)

177

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Figure218.Sticker.(Causedbyhardramming
inpockets)
Figure217.Blowandexpansionscab.
(Causedbyhardrammingofthesand)

Figure219.Blows.(Causedbymoisturepickupfromadampladle)

178

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Figure220.Blow.(Causedbyabadchill)

Figure221.Drop.(Causedbyroughhandlingofthemold)

179

ChapterXII
HEATTREATMENTOFCASTINGS

Themostcommontypesofheattreatment
hardness.Temperatureandtimeoftreatment
appliedtocastingsareasfollows:
dependsontheparticularalloy.
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IRONANDSTEELCASTINGS

SOLUTIONHEATTREATMENT

STRESSRELIEFANNEAL

Hightemperaturetreatment.Usuallyfor
aluminumforprolongedperiods,generallyjust
Lowtemperaturetreatmenttoimprove
belowthesolidustemperaturetohomogenize
dimensionalstabilityandincreaseavailable thestructure,followedbyquenchinginwarm
strengthbydecreasingresidualstresses.Can water.Temperatureandtimeoftreatment
beappliedtoallcastings.Requiresslow
dependsontheparticularalloy.Thistreatment
coolinginthefurnace.Usuallyhaslittleeffect producesthesoftestmostductilecondition.Itis
onhardness.
generallyfollowedbyartificialaging.
FULLANNEAL

AGING

Hightemperaturetreatmenttohomogenize
thecaststructure.Improvesmechanical
propertiesormachinability.Requiredforsteel
castingsthatarenotnormalized.Desirablefor
castironwhere"chill"ispresentandcastings
mustbemachined.Requiresslowcoolingin
thefurnace.

Alowtemperaturetreatmentfollowingsolution
heattreatmenttoproducemaximumhardness
andyieldstrength.

TEMPER

Asecondimportantreasonforheattreatmentis
fortheremovalofresidualstressesthatarethe
resultofcastingdesign,solidification,orlackof
freecontractionbecauseofsandproperties.See
Chapter1,"HowMetalsSolidify,"Chapter2,
"DesigningaCasting,"andChapter4,"Sandfor
MoldsandCores."Stressreliefheattreating
involvesheatingfollowedbyslowcooling.

REASONSFORHEATTREATMENT

Thereareseveralreasonsforheattreating
castings.Thepropertiesofsomealloyssuchas
NORMALIZE
heattreatablebronzes,heattreatablealuminum
alloys,varioussteels,andcastironscanbe
Hightemperaturetreatmentforsteel
improvedbyheattreatment.Improvementof
castingsthatarenotannealed.Improves
mechanicalpropertiesisthemainreasonforthe
structureandductility.Requirescoolinginair. heattreatmentofcastings.

Lowtemperaturetreatmentfollowing
normalizingorquenching.Similartostress
reliefannealbutinvolvescoolinginair.
Resultsinsofteningofnormalizedsteelor
ironcastings.
QUENCHING
Fastcoolingofcastingsfromhigh
temperaturesbyimmersingtheminquenching
oil,water,orbrine.Resultsinhardeningof
ironandsteelcastings.Involvesconsiderable
riskofcrackingthecasting.Detailsof
quenchingareoutsidethescopeofthis
manual.Quenchingmustalmostalwaysbe
followedbytempering.
NONFERROUSCASTINGS
STRESSRELIEFANNEAL
Lowtemperaturetreatmenttoimprove
dimensionalstabilityandincreasethe
availablestrengthbydecreasingresidual
stresses.Canbeappliedtoallcastings.May
increasethe

Anotherreasonforheattreatingistomake
ferrouscastingssofterthantheywereintheas
castcondition,sothattheywillbeeasierto
machine.Also,itmaybenecessarytoreduce
thehardnessthatmayhavebeencausedby
chilling,suchasmayoccurwithgrayirons.
Suchheattreatmentiscalledannealing.
Becauseoftheslowcoolinginsand,many
castingswillhaveacoarsegrainstructurethat
doesnotprovidethebestproperties.Thiscanbe
correctedbyaheattreatmentthatwillcausethe
solidifiedmetaltorecrystallizeandformsmaller
grains.Thisrecrystallizationwillproduce
improvedpropertiesinthecasting.
Inmanyalloys,itisdifficulttoproducea
uniformstructureinthecastingbecauseofthe
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180

alloyitself,orbecauseoftheconditions
Intheheattreatmentofmostalloys,a
controllingsolidificationofthecasting.In
preliminarystepknownassolutiontreatmentis
suchacase,heattreatmentcanbeusedto
necessary.Solutiontreatmentmeanstochange
obtainauniformhomogeneousstructure.
thestateofthealloyintothatofasolidsolution.
Asolidsolutionalloyisoneinwhichthealloys
Allofthechangesinpropertiesobtainedby aresolubleineachotherinthesolidstate.
heattreatingofmetalsoralloysdependonthe Underamicroscope,asolidsolutionalloy
movementoftheatomsofmetal.Whena
wouldhavetheappearanceofapuremetal.It
metaloralloysolidifies,itformsinadefinite wouldbeuniform,withoutanyindicationofthe
patternofatoms.Thispatterndeterminesits presenceofmorethanonemetal.Thiswouldbe
crystalstructure.Heattreatmentoften
incontrasttootheralloysinwhichthepresence
producesarearrangementoftheatomsto
ofmorethanonealloyisshownbytwoormore
producethedesiredproperties.Movementof characteristicphases.
theatomstoaccomplishthisrearrangementis
calleddiffusion.
BRASSANDBRONZE
Diffusiontakesplaceinametaloralloywhen Thereareonlyafewcopperbasealloysthatcan
itisheatedtoacertaincriticaltemperature
beheattreatedtoimprovetheirmechanical
whichpermitstheeasymovementofthe
properties.Formostcopperbasealloysonlya
variousatoms.Thiscriticaltemperatureat
stressreliefannealingtreatmentisusedto
whichrapiddiffusionstartsisknownasthe
removeresidualstresses.
activationtemperature.Belowthis
temperature,diffusiondoestakeplacebutis STRESSRELIEFANNEAL
soslowthatheattreatmentattheselower
temperatureswouldbeimpractical.Theold Tinbronzescanbestressrelievedbyheatingat
atemperaturebetween700F.and800F.forat
fashionedpracticeof"aging"castingsfor
monthsbystoringthematroomtemperature least1hour.Thecastingsarethencooledinair
fromthistemperature.Whereextreme
isanexampleofalowtemperatureheat
dimensionalstabilityisrequired,thecasting
treatmentwhichrequiresalongtime,but
whichcanbespeededuptoamatterofseveral shouldberoughmachinedbeforestress
relieving.
hoursbyproperheatingofthecasting.
Asimpleexampleofdiffusionandtheeffect
oftemperaturecanbeshownwithwateranda
dye.Ifthewaterisfrozenintoiceandadrop
ofdyeplacedonitssurface,thedyewill
maintainitsdropshapeandpossiblypenetrate
averyshortdistanceintotheice.Withthe
applicationofheat,theicewillreachits
meltingpoint.Asitmelts,thedyecanbeseen
movingthroughthewaterandtintingit.This
movementofthedyeisdiffusion.Themelting
temperatureoftheice(whichresultedin
water)istheactivationtemperature.
Theprocessbywhichtheatomsdiffuseto
producesmallergrainsisknownas
recrystallization.Theformationofthenew
crystaltakesplaceatnucleiwhichmaybe
centersofhighconcentrationofaparticular
element,impuritiesinthemetal,idealatom
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Manganesebronzecanbestressrelievedby
heatinginatemperaturerangeof600800F.(1
hourforeachinchofcastingthickness)andair
orfurnacecooling.
Copperbasecastingsingeneralcanbestress
relievedbyheatingat700F.to800F.(one
hourforeachinchofcastingthickness)andthen
cooledinair.
SOFTENINGANDHARDENING
Certainaluminumbronzealloyscanbeheat
treatedtoobtainhigherstrengthandhardness.
Thisheattreatmentconsistsofsofteningthe
alloybyasolutionheattreatment,followedby
anagingtreatmentthathardensittothedesired
strength.Classes2,3,and4aluminumbronze
alloysfallintothisgroup.Theexactheat
treatingcycleisdeterminedbythecomposition
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arrangements,orevencentersofhighstressin ofthealloyandthepropertiesdesired.Castings
thecasting.Whatevertheircause,theyserve shouldbeheatedtoatemperaturebetween
thesamepurposeasthenucleidescribedin
1,600F.and1,650F.,waterquenched,and
Chapter1,"HowMetalsSolidify."Theyactas agedbetween1,000F.and1,150F.Agood
centersofcrystalgrowth.Theonlydifference generalruleforholdingtimeattheheattreating
betweenrecrystallizationandsolidification,so temperatureistoholdfor1hourforeachinch
farascrystalgrowthisconcerned,isthat
ofsectionthickness.
duringsolidificationtheatomsformthe
crystalsfromaliquidstateandinre
crystallization,thenewcrystalsareformedby
thediffusionoftheatomsthroughthesolid
metal.

181

GENERALHEATTREATMENTS

ALUMINUM

Aluminumalloysinclasses1,3,4,7,and8can
beheattreated.Theheattreatmentinvolvesa
softeningofthealloysbyasolutionheat
Aluminumalloysarenotusuallyheattreated treatmentfollowedbyquenchinginwarmwater
forremovalofcastingstresses.Whenitis
followedbyanappropriateagingtreatmentto
desirabletoreducetheresidualstressesinan hardenit.
intricatecastingsoastomakeitstronger,less
susceptibletocracking,ormorestable
Exactinformationonheattreatingprocedures
dimensionally,heatthecastingtoabout
shouldbeobtainedfromtheBureauofShips.
600F.,holditfromtwotosevenhours,and
thenaircool.(T2).Additionaldataisgiven
Sometypicalheattreatmentsofaluminum
under"GeneralHeatTreatments."
castingalloysareasfollows:

STRESSRELIEFANNEAL

GENERALHEATTREATMENTOFALUMINUMALLOYS
AlloyType Condition
SolutionHeatTreatment
a
Desired Timeat Temp.b Quenching
Temp.
Media
F.
hours
Aluminum T2
(Notheattreatableandseldom
Silicon
used)
Aluminum T4
12
960
Boiling
Copper
water
(orAl
T6
12
960
Ditto
CuSi)

Aging

Annealing

Time, Temp.b Time, Temp.b

hours F.
hours F.

2to4 600

3to5 310

Aluminum T4
Magnesium
Aluminum T5
Magnesium T6
Silicon

12

810

Ditto

12

980

3to5 310

7to9 440

T7

12

980

Boiling
water
Ditto

7to9 440

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aT2Annealed.

T4Solutionheattreatedformaximumsoftnessandductility.
T5Stressrelieved.
T6Solutionheattreatedandagedformaximumstrengthandhardness.
T7Solutionheattreatedandoveragedformaximumdimensionalstabilitycombinedwithgood
strengthandhardness.
bFurnacesmustgenerallybeaircirculatingtypeandcontrolledto3F.

ClassAcastingsandClassBcastingsunder
IRONANDSTEEL
SpecificationMILS15083shallbeannealedor
heattreatedinaccordancewiththespecification
STEEL
requirements.Heattreatmentshouldbe
accomplishedwithadequateandcalibrated
Caststeelhasacoarsemicrostructure.
pyrometricequipment.Castingsshouldbe
Castingsplacedinserviceinthiscondition
chargedsothatthelightercastingswillbe
mayfailbecauseofthebrittlenatureofthe
shieldedfromtheheatofthefurnacebythe
material.Therefore,steelcastingsmustbe
heaviercastings,placingthecastinglooselyand,
heattreatedtorefinethegrainsby
ifpossible,afewinchesoffthefloorofthe
recrystallization,tohomogenizethestructure, furnace,sothatthehotgaseswillhavefree
andtoimprovethephysicalproperties.Two circulationthroughoutthecharge.Large
typesofheattreatmentare(1)annealing,and castingsmustbeproperlysupportedunder
(2)normalizingfollowedbytempering.Steel heavysectionstominimizedistortion.
castingsthathavebeenweldedorworked
shouldbestressrelievedbeforeuse.The
detailsofthesetreatmentsareasfollows:

182

Annealing.NavyspecificationsforClassB BendTest.Abendtestmaybeusedasashop
andlowalloysteelcastingsrequirethatthe
testforcheckingthequalityofasteelandthe
castingsshallbeplacedinafurnace,the
effectivenessofheattreatment.Bendtest
temperatureofwhichisnotmorethan500F. specimensaremachinedtoabout6incheslong
abovethatofthecastingsandshallbe
witharectangularcrosssectionof1by1/2
uniformlyheatedatacontrolledratetoa
inchesandwiththelongedgesroundedtoa
temperatureof1600F.orabove.Thecastings radiusofnotover1/16inch.
shallbeheldattheannealingtemperaturefor
aperiodofatleast1hourperinchofthickest Arectangularbarwhichhasbeenadequately
crosssection,butinnocaselessthan1hour. gatedandriseredtoensuresoundnessandwhich
issuitableformachiningtotheabove
Thetemperaturedifferencebetweenthe
hottestandcoldestpartofthechargeduring dimensionsshouldbepouredfromeachheatof
steel.Thebendtestbarshouldbegiventhe
theholdingperiodshallnotbegreaterthan
75F.Thecastingsshallbecooledslowlyin sameheattreatmentasthatusedforthecastings
andthenmachined.
thefurnacefromtheheattreating
temperature.Whenthetemperatureofthe
hottestpartofthechargehasfallento500F. Ifthesteelhasbeenproperlymadeandheat
abovetheambienttemperature,thecastings treated,thespecimenshouldwithstandcold
mayberemovedfromthefurnaceandcooled bendingarounda1inchdiameterpinthrough
instillair.Wheretimeisafactor,thecooling anangleofapproximately120F.withoutc
rateofsmallcastings,suchaspipefittingsor racking.Thisisanindicationofsatisfactory
ductility.
thosewheredimensionalstabilityisnota
controllingfactor,maybeacceleratedwhen
CASTIRON
thetemperatureofthecastinghasfallento
1000F.
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Normalizing."Thecastingsshallbeheated
andheldattemperature***"asdescribed
underannealing.Theyshallthenberemoved
fromthefurnaceandpermittedtocool
throughthecriticalrangeinstillair.The
differencebetweenannealingandnormalizing
shouldbemadeclear.Inannealing,the
castingiscooledslowlyinthefurnaceandis
softened.Innormalizing,thecastingiscooled
inairandmaybehardened.Normalizing
mustbefollowedbytempering.Annealed
castingsarenottempered.

StressReliefAnnealing.Whengrayiron
castingsareremovedfromthemold,they
containtemperaturegradientscausedby
nonuniformcoolingofunevensection
thicknesseswithinthecasting.Thisuneven
coolingcausesinternalstressesinthecastings.
Theseresidualstressesshouldberelievedby
heattreatment,particularlyforgrayiron
castingswhichrequiregooddimensional
stability.Aprovenpracticeistoheatslowlyand
uniformlyto800to950F.,holdattemperature
for1hourperinchofthickness(heaviest
section),andcoolslowlyinthefurnace.This
TemperingHeatTreatmentofNormalized treatment,ifcarriedoutproperly,willnot
Castings.Castingswhichhavebeen
appreciablyaffectthestrengthorhardnessof
normalizedshallbegivenatemperingheat
thecastings.Formachinerycastingswhere
treatmentbyheatinginaccordancewiththe dimensionalstabilityisimportant,itmaybe
requirementsgivenunderannealinguntilthe advisabletoroughmachinebeforestress
temperatureof1000to1250F.isreached. relieving.Then,theheattreatmentwillrelieve
Thetemperatureofthechargeshallremain
internalstresseswhichmayhavebeen
withinthisrangeforaperiodofnotlessthan introducedasaresultofsevereroughmachining
1hourforeachinchorfractionthereofof
operations.
maximumthicknessofsection.Thecastings
shallbecooledinairfromtheheattreating Annealing.Occasionally,an"offanalyses"heat
temperature.
orachilledcastingmaybeproducedwhichwill
bedifficulttomachine.Asanemergency
Certainsteelsdevelopabrittleness
measure,annealingmaybeusedtosoftenthe
characterizedbylossofductilityandimpact castingandimprovethemachinability.The
strengthwhenheldforexcessivetimesor
annealingtemperatureswillvary.Ifchilledor
slowcooledthroughtemperaturerangesof
whiteironinterfereswithmachinability,itmay
about400to700F.and850to1100F.The benecessarytoannealthecastingat1700F.
causesofthis"temperbrittleness"arenotwell andcoolitslowlyinthefurnacetorestore
understood.Finegrainedaluminumkilled
machinability.Ifchillisnotpresent,
steelsarelesssusceptibletotemperbrittleness machinabilitycanbeimprovedbyannealingat
thancoarsegrainedsiliconkilledsteels.
1400F.andcoolingslowlyinthefurnace.
StressReliefHeatTreatment.Castings
whichhavebeensubjectedtocold
straightening,welding,orformingshallbe
givenastressreliefheattreatmentidentical
withthetemperingheattreatmentof
normalizedcastingsdescribed.

CAUTION:Annealinggrayironcastingswill
causesoftnessandlowerphysicalproperties.

183

Aftermachining,thecastingcanbeage
MONEL
hardenedbyheatingatatemperatureof1100F.
for4to6hoursandcoolinginair.This
Itmaybenecessarytosoften"S"Monelto
treatmentproducesahardnessashigh,or
permiteasiermachining.Annealingconsists higher,thantheascastalloy.
ofheatingatatemperatureof1600F.for
approximately1hourandaircoolingto
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1300F.,inareducingatmospherefollowed
byeitherquenchinginwateroroil.The
castingsshouldbeheatedrapidlytothe
desiredtemperatureandheldforaminimum
timetopreventexcessivegraingrowth.
CAUTIONThefurnaceatmospheremustbe
reducingandfreeofsulfur,andquenchingoil
mustnotcontainover0.5percentsulfur.
Sulfurisveryeasilypickedupbythemonelat
thehightemperatures,anditisdetrimentalto
thephysicalproperties.Severeintercrystalline
attackwilloccurifthefurnaceatmosphere
fluctuatesbetweenreducingandoxidizing.
Veryintricatecastingsshouldbequenchedin
oil.
Waterquenchingproducesaslightlysofter
conditionthanoilquenching.Ifacastingis
simpleinshapeandmaximumsoftnessis
desired,itissometimespossibletoquench
directlyfromthe1600F.annealing
temperature.
Alloy

Copperbase
(general)
Tinbronze
Manganese
bronze

Intheheattreatmentofcastings,itmustbe
rememberedthatthesectionsizeofthecasting
hasanimportanteffectontheproperties
obtained.(RefertoChapter2,"Designinga
Casting.")Thebestmechanicalpropertiesare
usuallyobtainedinthinsections.Astepbar
castingisusefulfordeterminingtheeffectof
sectionsizeonthepropertiesobtainedbyheat
treatment.
Slowheating,holdingforthecorrectlengthof
timeattemperature,andcontroloftheheat
treatingtemperaturebytheuseofproperly
operatingpyrometersarethemostimportant
stepstowatchintheheattreatingofcastings.A
goodcastingcanberuinedbyslipshodheat
treatment.Forgeneralinformation,thevarious
temperaturesforheattreatmentaresummarized
intableform.

HeatTreatment*
StressRelief
Anneal
Solution
(Torelieve
(Tohomogenize
Treatment
residualstresses)
andtosoften
(softens)
reducesstrength)

Hold(1)at700F.
to
800F.,air
cool.

Hold(1)at600
800F.airor
furnacecool.

Aging
Treatment
hardens)

Aluminum
bronze
class2and4

Hold(1)at
Hold(1)at1100F.
1600F.
to1150F.,
to1650F.,water waterquench.
quench.

class3

Hold(1)at
1600F.
to1650F.,water
quench.

Hold(1)at
1000F.,
aircool.

Nickel
bronze

500F.,to600F.
(5hours).

Aluminumbase 600F.to800F.
(general)
(1hour).
Class3,4,and
7
(Exact
treatment

1400F.oil
quench(2).

960F.to
1000F.,
quench(2).

310F.to475F.

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canbeobtained
fromBuShips)
"S"Monel

Hold(1)at
1600F.,
aircoolto
1200F.,water
oroilquench(2).

Hold(1)at
1100F.
4to6hours
aircooled.

184

Alloy

Castiron

Steel,
ClassRand
low
alloy.

HeatTreatment*
StressRelief
Anneal
Solution
(Torelieve
(Tohomogenize
Treatment
residualstresses)
andtosoften
(softens)
reducesstrength)
Hold(1)at800F. Hold(1)at1700F.,
to
furnacecool
950F.,furnace
(forchill
cool.
removal).

Hold(1)at1400F.,
furnacecool
(improve
machinability).
Hold(1)at1100F. Hold(1)at1600F. Hold(1)at
orhigher,
orhigher,
1650F.
furnacecool.
furnacecool.
to1750F,cool
instillair.

Aging
Treatment
hardens)

Hold(1)at
1100F.
to1250F.,
furnacecool.

*CAUTION:Thetemperatureslistedareonlyapproximateandintendedasaguide.

Hold1hourforeachinchthicknessofheaviestsection.Minimumtimeis1hour.
2ExactproceduresshouldbeobtainedfromtheBureauofShips.Poorpracticewillresultin
crackedcastings.Aluminumisgenerallyquenchedinboilingwatertominimizedangerof
cracking.

185

ChapterXIII
COMPOSITIONOFCASTINGS

Theselectionofthemetaloralloytobeused Bronzewasoriginallythetermappliedto
foracastingisusuallyspecifiedbytheship copperalloyshavingtinastheprincipal
requestingthework.Wheneverthereisany
alloyingelement.Purebronzeshavebeen
doubtaboutthemetaloralloytobeused,the modifiedwithotherelementstoobtainspecific
blueprintsofthepartfoundaboardtheship
properties,andpresentdaynamesofteninclude
originatingtheworkordershouldbereferred thesecondaryalloyingelementinthename
to.Theblueprintsspecifythemetaloralloy (suchasphosphorbronze).Insomecases,the
whichprovidesthebestcombinationof
tinhasbeenreplacedastheprincipalalloying
propertiesforthatparticularcasting.If
element,butthealloyisstillcalledabronze.
blueprintsorotherspecificationsarenot
Aluminumbronze,forexample,hasaluminum
available,andiftheselectionofthemetalfor astheprincipalalloyingelement,andsilicon
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acastingmustbemadelocally,themetal
bronzehassiliconastheprincipalalloying
shouldbeselectedonthebasisofinformation element.
giveninthischapterandinthedetailedtable
SPECIFICATIONS
givenattheendofthischapter.
Ifthecompositionofthealloydesiredina
castingisnotspecifiedbytheshiprequesting
thepart,themoldermayhaveadifficultchoice
tomakeinselectingtheproperalloyforanew
casting.Abrokencastingoranothercastingof
thesametypemaygivevaluableinformation
suggestingthealloytobeused.Aluminumis
readilydistinguishedfrombrass,bronze,iron,
andsteelbyitsweightandcolor.Mostbrasses
andbronzeshaveadistinctivecolor.Mostirons
andsteels,exceptsomestainlesssteels,are
Manytimesanalloywillbereferredtoasa
magnetic,whilenonferrousalloys(andsome
copperbasealloy,nickelbasealloy,etc.Such stainlesssteels)arenonmagnetic.(Mostirons
areferencemeansthattheparticularmetal
andsteels)rust,nonferrouscastingsand
mentionedistheprincipalmetalinthealloy. stainlesssteelsdonot.Analertobserverwill
Forexample,brassisacopperbasealloy
distinguishotherdifferencesthatwillbehelpful
steelisanironbasealloy.Throughusagein inidentifyinganalloyinanemergency.After
thefoundrytrade,somenameshavedeviated thegeneraltypeofalloy(castiron,steel,
fromtheirintendedmeanings.Thisis
bronze,oraluminum),hasbeenestablished,
particularlytruewiththebrassandbronze
refertotheappropriatechapters(14to18)on
alloys.Somealloyscalledbrasses,suchasred theselectionoftheproperalloy.Theonly
brass,willhaveacompositionwhichshould properselectioncanbemadefromblueprint
fallintoabronzeclassification,andsome
information.
otheralloyscalledbronzes,suchas
Helpinselectingtheproperalloyfora
manganesebronze,areactuallybrasses.
particularcastingmaybeobtainedfromtables
Definitionsofthealloyscommonlyusedin
AandB,inwhicharelistedthecommonalloys
brassandcopperfoundryworkareasfollows: thattherepairshipmightbecalledontocast.
Analloyisametallicmixtureoftwoormore
elements(ofwhichatleastoneisametal).
Thedefinitionofanalloymustbebroadand
generalsothatitwillincludemany
nonmetallicelementsusedinalloys.
Examplesofnonmetallicelementsinironand
steelthatmaybeaddedtoobtaindesired
properties(orwhichmaybepresentas
impurities)arecarbon,sulfur,phosphorus,
oxygen,andhydrogen.

Copperisacommerciallypuremetalorone
whichisalloyedwithnotmorethan
approximately1percentofotherelements.

TableA.CompiledChartofSelectedMilitary
andNavySpecificationsforCastNonferrous
Alloys.

Brassisacopperalloyinwhichzincisthe
principalalloyingelement.Brassusually
containssmallquantitiesofotheralloying
elements.Becauseoftheirappearanceor
someotherproperty,somebrasseshave
becomeknownasbronzes.Examplesare
leadedbronzeandmanganesebronzebothof
whichareactuallybrasses.Nickelsilveris
alsoabrassalloywhichhasbeenrenamed
becauseofitssilveryappearance.Anickel
silverisabrassinwhichnickelhasbeen
substitutedforpartofthezinc.

TableB.CompiledChartofSelectedMilitary
andNavySpecificationsforCastFerrous
Alloys.
SELECTIONOFMETALMIXTURES
Whenthefoundrymanhasachoiceofthealloy
tobeusedforacasting,heshouldconsider

186

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usingthesimplestandmosteasilycastalloy Yellowbrassisparticularlyusefulintorpedo
thatwilldothejobadequately.Asageneral tubecastings(MILB17512).
rule,thealloythathasthelowesttensile
strengthofagroupwillbetheeasiesttocast. CommercialBrasscanbeusedwherestrength
Forexample,hydraulicbronze(ouncemetal) andcorrosionresistancearenotimportant(asin
withatensilestrengthof30,000p.s.i.iseasier handrailfittings,instrumentcases,nameplates,
tocastthanmanganesebronzewithatensile oilcups,andtrim).Thisalloyisessentiallya
strengthof65,000p.s.i.Ordinarycastironis leadedyellowbrasstowhichtinhasbeenadded
easiertocastthanhighstrengthcastiron.The toimprovethephysicalpropertiesandlead
addedtoimprovethemachinability(MILB
moresimplealloyshouldberejectedonly
whenitisinadequatebecauseofrequirements 17668).
forstrength,corrosionresistance,orspecial
NavalBrasshasacompositionsimilartothatof
service.
thecommercialbrassbutthetinandlead
contentsmaybelower.Itisusedasageneral
COPPERBASEALLOYS
purposebrassforapplicationssuchasdoor
Thecopperbasealloysthatwillbeofmost
fittingsandframes,pipeflanges,railandladder
universaluseonshipboardarehydraulic
stanchions,andtarpaulinhooks.Ithasa
bronze(alsoknownasredbrassandounce
corrosionresistanceslightlyhigherthanthatof
metal),gunmetal(atinbronzeknownas
commercialbrass(MILB17511).
CompositionG),andvalvebronze(aleaded
OrnamentalBronzeisactuallyaleadedsemi
tinbronzeknownasCompositionM).The
redbrass,whichbecauseofitscolorhasbecome
followingdescriptionwillillustratethe
commonapplicationsforthesematerialsand knownasabronze.Ithasexcellent
machinabilityandisusedforthreadedpipe,
willshowwheresomeoftheothercopper
ornamentalandhardwarefittingsrequiringa
basealloysmayberequired.
highfinish,andelectricalfittings,andmaybe
RedBrass,alsocalledhydraulicbronzeor usedforlowpressurevalvebodies(MIL
ouncemetal,issuitableforgeneralservice
B18343).
andeasytocast.Itcanbeusedforvalves,
smallgears,ornamentalwork,machineparts, PhosphorBronzeisusedforcastingsthat
andanyotherpartsthatdonotinvolveuseas requireamediumstrengthandaresubjectto
abearing.Itcanbeusedforpressurecastings saltwatercorrosion.Typicalapplicationsarefor
gears,bushings,bearings,expansionjoints,
upto350p.s.i.(MILB16444).
pumppistons,andspecialpipefittings(MILB
Gunmetal,alsocalledCompositionG,isa 16540).
tinbronzeusedforpartsrequiringmedium
strengthandresistancetosaltwatercorrosion. TinNickelBronzeisusedwherethereisa
Ithasfairmachinability.Typicalusesarefor needforanalloyhavingalowertincontentbut
acorrosionresistancecomparabletohydraulic
valveboxes,expansionjoints,flangedpipe
fittings,gearwheels,condenserheads,water bronze(MILB17528).
chests,struts,safetyvalves,andstopvalves.It
TinlessBronze,formerlyknownasX1Metal,
alsomaybeusedforbearingsandbushings
hasgoodcastingpropertiesandexcellent
forhighdutywork(MILM16576).
machinability.Itcanbeusedwheregood
ValveBronze,alsocalledCompositionM,is corrosionresistanceorgoodbearingproperties
aleadedtinbronze.Thelead,asforallleaded areneededbuttheuseoftinmustbeminimized
(MILB16358).
brassesandbronzes,isaddedtoimprove
machinability.Thisalloyissimilarto
CompositionGexceptthatthetincontenthas ManganeseBronzeisapopularanduseful
beenreducedandleadincreased.Thisresults alloythatcanbeproducedintwolevelsof
strength.Lowtensilemanganesebronzehasa
instrengthslightlylowerthanGmetal.
CompositionMmaybeusedinplaceofGif goodcombinationofhighstrengthandgood
thephysicalpropertiespermit.Itisageneral corrosionresistanceinsaltwater.The
purposebronzeusedwheremediumstrength designation"lowtensile"referstoitsminimum
tensilestrengthof65,000p.s.i.,whichislow
andresistancetosaltwatercorrosionis
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necessary.Itisusedfordraftgauges,hose
couplings,hosefittings,propellershaft
sleeves,stuffingboxes,andlowandmedium
pressurevalves(MILB16541).

whencomparedwithothermanganesebronzes.
Typicalapplicationsareforcrossheadslipper
shoes,engineframing,gypsiesandcapstansfor
submarines,nonmagneticstructures,periscope
supports,propellerblades,hubs,andworm
YellowBrassisasimplehighstrengthalloy wheels(MILB16443).
ofabout60percentcopperand40percent
zinc.Ithasgoodstrength,istough,andhas
moderatelygoodresistancetocorrosion.

187

Hightensilemanganesebronzecontains
GradeIIIbearingbronzeisahardbearing
morealuminumtogiveitgreaterstrength.
bronze(tinbronze)alsoknownashardgear
Alloysofthistypehavestrengthscomparable bronze.Examplesofitsuseareforbushingsin
tothoseofmildsteels.Theyareusedwhere ammunitionhoists,turretturninggear,winches,
strength,toughness,andresistanceto
andrudderbearingrings(MILB16261).
corrosionbysaltwaterisrequired.Typical
applicationsareinframing,gears,andworm GradeIVbearingbronzehasaleadcontentof
13to16percent,atincontentof6.25to8
wheels(MILB16522).
percent,andazinccontentof0.0to0.75
AluminumBronzehasthehigheststrength, percent.Examplesofitsuseareinlowpressure
wearresistance,andtoughnessofanycopper valvesandfittings,generalhardware,and
basealloy.Byproperattentiontocasting
plumbingsupplies(MILB16261).
proceduresandheattreatment,tensile
strengthsofmorethan100,000p.s.i.canbe GradeVbearingbronzehasaleadcontentof
23to26percentandatincontentof4.5to6
produced.Aluminumandironarethe
percent.Examplesofitsusearebearingsunder
principalalloyingelements.Aluminum
bronzecanbeusedinapplicationssimilarto lightloadsandhighspeeds(MILB16261).
manganesebronze.Itsusesincludegears,
GradeVIbearingbronzeisahighleadedtin
pinions,propellerblades,andwormwheels
bronzethatcontainsupto0.5percentnickel.It
(MILB16033).
isusedwhereverhighstrength,hardness,or
shockresistanceisrequired.Bearingsmade
SiliconBronze(coppersilveralloy)hasa
fromthisalloyarefinelyfinishedand
combinationofgoodcastingpropertiesand
homogeneousstructure.Itisusedwherehigh installationmustbetruerunningfortheheavy
loadscarried.Lubricationisnecessary(MIL
strength,toughness,andresistanceto
B16261).
corrosionarerequired.Itmaybeusedfor
pumpbodies,marinehardware,andmachine
parts,andmakesexcellentbells(QQC593). GradeVIIbearingbronzehasaleadcontent
of14to16percentandatincontentof12to14
NickelSilver(alsoknownascoppernickel percent.Examplesofitsuseareforgeneral
zincalloy)isacopperbasealloywithnickel purpose,lowspeed,moderatepressure,bearings
(MILB16261).
astheprincipalalloyingelement.Italso
containsadditionsoftin,zinc,andlead.This
COPPERCASTINGS
alloyhasawhitecolor,goodcorrosion
resistance,goodmechanicalproperties,and
goodtarnishresistance.Atypicalapplication Coppercastingsareusedonlyforspecialparts
wherehighelectricalorhighheatconductivity
isingraduatedsightdrumsforfirecontrol
arerequired.Castingsrequiringanelectrical
instruments.Itisalsousedforhospital
conductivitygreaterthan85percentmustbe
equipment(MILC17112).
madefromahighpuritycopperandonlysmall
amountsofdeoxidizersmaybeused.Electrical
CopperNickelisa70copper30nickel
alloythatprovidesahighgradematerialfor conductivityisgreatlyreducedbyevensmall
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pipeandtubefittings(MILC20159).
BearingBronzesaregenerallyspecialhigh
leadedtinbronzes.GradeIbearingbronze
contains18to21percentlead.Itissortandis
usedprincipallyforbearinglinersunder
conditionswherethebearingmetalisrequired
todeformlocallytoconformtoirregularities
ofmotionorimperfectioninfitting.Italso
suppliesreasonableservicewhereitis
difficulttolubricate.Typicalapplicationsare
inbearingsforwinchesandconveyors(MIL
B16261).

amountsoftin,silicon,magnesium,or
aluminum.Coppercastingsmustbeheavily
riseredbecausetheyaresubjecttohigh
shrinkageduringsolidification.
NICKELBASEALLOYS
Monelisanickelbasealloywithcopperasthe
principalalloyingelement.Ithasveryhigh
corrosionresistanceandhighstrength.Itis
particularlyusefulwherehighcorrosion
resistanceandhighstrengthareneededat
elevatedtemperatures.Typicalapplicationsare
shaftnuts,shaftcaps,highpressurevalves,
valvetrim,andfittings(QQN00288).

GradeIIbearingbronze,whichisstronger
thanGradeI,hasaleadcontentof7to9
percentandatincontentof7to9percent.Itis Monelmodifiedbyadditionsofsiliconisuseful
goodforgeneralbearingsurfacesandfairly wherenongallingandantiseizingpropertiesare
required.Itisalsousedforpropellers(QQN
goodforstructuralpurposes.Itissuitable
wherebearingsarecastasapartofsupporting 00288).
orenclosingstructures(MILB16261).

188

ALUMINUMBASEALLOYS
keepthecarboncontentlowunlessthereare
specialrequirementsforstrengthorhardness.
Aluminumbasecastingalloysarewidely
Lowcarbonalloysteelcanbeoneofthemost
usedbecauseoftheirlightweight.Thealloys difficultalloysforthefoundrymantocastand
usedforcastingaboardshipareoftwo
heattreat.
generalgroups:(1)thoseusedintheascast
condition,and(2)thosewhichmustbeheat ClassBSteelisageneralpurposecaststeel
treatedtoobtainthebestproperties.
havingamediumtensilestrengthandhigh
ductility.Ithasgoodmachinabilityandgood
Class2andClass5alloysareusedintheas resistancetovibrationandshock.Typical
castcondition.TheClass2alloyisforgeneral applicationsareformotorbedplates,turbine
usewheremaximumcorrosionresistanceis castings,hoistdrums,pipefittings,strutsfor
required,orwhereanintricateleakproof
shafting,andsafetyvalves.Thissteelshouldnot
castingisnecessary.Class5alloyisused
beusedfortemperaturesexceeding650F
wheregoodtensilestrengthandcorrosion
(MILS15083).
resistanceisrequired.Thecorrosion
resistanceisobtainedatasacrificeoftensile ClassASteelismadeinfourgradesofhigher
strength(MILA17129).
strengthandqualitythanClassB.Theimproved
strengthisobtainedbyaslightincreaseinthe
AluminumalloysinClasses1,3,4,6,7,and carboncontent,byheattreatment,andincertain
9,requireheattreatmenttoobtainthebest
casesbyalloying.Properheattreatmentand
properties.Seechapter12forinformationon tensiletestingarerequirementsforthe
theheattreatmentofthesealloys.TheClass1 productionofClassAsteel.AswithClassB
alloyisforgeneralusewherehighstrength, steel,theClassAsteelsareusuallynotalloyed
ductility,andresistancetoshockare
unlessnecessary.Ifthecastingsaretobe
necessary.Forcastingsrequiringhighquality welded,hardeningalloyssuchasmolybdenum
andexcellentfluidity,theClass3alloyis
andchromiumshouldbeavoided.ClassA70
used.Itspropertiesincludepressuretightness steelisusedforgeneralstructuralparts.Class
incomplexcastings,strength,andresistance A80steelisusedforcastingswhicharesubject
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tocorrosion.TheClass4alloyhashigher
tensilestrengthatasacrificeincorrosion
resistance.Typicalapplicationsarefor
ammunitionstowages,laddertreads,
nonmagneticstructures,andsprocketguards.
Castingsrequiringhighstrengthatelevated
temperaturescanbemadefromtheClass7
alloy(MILA17129).

tocompressivestressesorsurfacewear(suchas
maybefoundinchainpipes,fairleadsfor
anchorcable,followersforpistonvalves,
guides,hawsepipes,andstrongbacks).Where
greaterstrengthandfairductilityarerequired,
ClassA90steelshouldbeused.Sometypical
applicationsarebearingsforturretturning
pinions,carriagesforammunitionhoists,rudder
crossheadsforsurfaceships,andthrustblocks
LEADANDTINBASEALLOYS
forturretwormgears.ClassA100steelsare
usedwheremaximumstrength,hardness,
Babbittorantifrictionmetalisaleadortin abrasion,andwearresistancearerequired.The
basealloywithantimonyorcopperasthe
ductilityislow(MILS15083).
mainalloyingelement.Therearefourgrades
ofantifrictionalloysgenerallyusedin
ALLOYSTEELS
shipboardfoundries.Grade1isamedium
hardbabbittmetalintendedforuseinaircraft Alloysteelisusedforspecialpurposeswhere
enginebearings.Grade2isatruebabbitt
somespecialpropertyisdesired.Itshouldnot
metalintendedforgeneraluseforallbearing beusedexceptwherespecifiedorwhereitis
surfacesrequiringahardductilewhitemetal knownthataspecialpropertymustbe
alloy.Grade3isintendedfordieselengine
developed.Thesesteelsaretrickytocastandto
bearingswhenspecificallyrequired.For
heattreat.Improperpracticecaneasilyproduce
dieselenginebearingswhereloadsare
analloysteelwhichislesssatisfactorythana
excessiveandimpactisnotsevere,Grade4is commonunalloyedsteel.
used(QQT390).
Molybdenumalloysteelisaspeciallow
STEEL
carbonsteelforcertainhighpressurehydraulic
servicesasspecificallyapproved.Itisusefulin
Steelisanironbasealloycontainingasmall steamapplicationsattemperaturesupto850F.,
amountofcarbon.Controlofthecarbon
butisnotintendedforgeneralservice(MILS
contentisvitallyimportant.Lowcarbon
870).
steels(forexample,0.20percentcarbon)
developlittlestrengthbutarehighlyductile Chromiummolybdenumalloysteelismadein
whenproperlyannealed(seechapter12).
twoclassesforsteamserviceupto1,050F.
Highcarbonsteels(forexample,0.70percent
carbon)develophigherstrengthbutcanbe
verybrittleanddifficulttoweldifnot
properlyhandled.Itisbestto

Itisaspecialtysteelandisnotintendedfor
generaluse(MILS15464).
Hadfieldmanganesesteelisaspecial
purposehighcarbonsteelinwhich
manganeseisusedasanalloytoobtainhigh
abrasionresistingpropertieswithouttheuse
ofnickelorchromium.Intheascast
condition,itisextremelybrittleandcastings
requireasolutionheattreatmentfollowedby
waterquenchingtodevelopgoodductility.
Thehighmanganesecontentalsomakesthe
steelvirtuallynonmagnetic.Thissteelhasa
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189

Ordinarygrayironhasalowtensilestrength,
aboutthesameasbearingbronzeorsomeas
castaluminumbasealloys.Thetensilestrength
isgreatlydependentonthesectionthicknessof
thecasting.Thinnersectionshaveahigher
tensilestrengththanthickersections.Ordinary
castironhaslittleimpactstrengthandshould
notbeusedwhereshockisencountered.Itis
stiffandhashighrigidity,butisbrittle.Gray
ironisoneoftheeasiestmetalstocastandcan
beusedforintricateshapes,whichcannotbe
castinothermetals.Itisoneoftheeasiest
metalstomachine.Ithasgoodheatresistance,
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uniquepropertyinthatitbecomesveryhear
andwearresistantasitisworked(thatis,it
workhardens).Ifthesteelisseverelycold
worked,itbecomesmagnetic.Ithasgood
resistancetocorrosion.Typicalusesinclude
anchors,aircraftarrestinghooks,andgypsy
heads.Itisadifficultsteeltocast,
exceedinglydifficulttomachine,andshould
beusedonlywherecalledfor(MILS17249).

butshouldnotbeusedabove425F.Grayiron
hasgoodbearingqualitiesandtheabilityto
absorbvibrations.Grayirondiffersfromsteel
mainlyinitscarboncontent(about3.0percent
carbonincastironand0.30percentcarbonin
steel).Ordinarycastironisusedincrankcases,
cylinderblocks,pistonrings,pistonsfor
reciprocatingpumps,androtorsforrotary
pumps(QQI652).

STAINLESSSTEELS

Hightestgrayironissimilartoordinarygray
ironexceptthathigherstrengthsaredeveloped
bycontrollingthestructure.Itismorerigidand
harderthanordinarygrayiron(QQI652).

Stainlesssteelsaremadeupoftheclass300
andclass400steels.The300stainlesssteels
arecalledausteniticsteels,andthe400class
arecalledferriticsteels.

Scaleresistinggrayironisacarefully
controlledalloyusedforresistancetoscaling,
Austeniticalloysteelsarethesocalled188 warpage,andgrowthathightemperatures.A
stainlesssteels.Theyarehighlyalloyedwith typicaluseisforgalleyrangetopsandfurnace
about18percentchromiumand8percent
parts.Itisalsousedforresistancetoacid,
nickel.Theircarboncontentislow.Higher
caustic,andsaltsolutions(MILG858).
carboncontentsthanspecifiedwillruintheir
properties.Themainfeaturesofthesesteels
RAWMATERIALSANDCALCULATION
aretheirhighresistancetocorrosionand
oxidation(rusting)andthefactthattheyare OFCHARGES
generallynonmagneticintheannealed
condition.Theyarealsoknownascorrosion Oneofthemajorproblemsinproducingaheat
ofmetalforcastingisthenecessityofmaking
resistantsteels.Theyarespecifiedinthree
thedesiredcomposition.Thissituationhasbeen
gradesofMILS867andthreegradesof
madeeasierbycommercialsmelterswhosupply
MILS17509.Allsixgradesarerather
variouscopperbaseandaluminumalloysin
difficulttomachine.
ingotform.Agoodmeltdownpracticeisallthat
Ferriticalloysteelsarechromiumalloysteels isnecessarytoproduceaheatveryclosetothe
desiredanalysis.Forthisreason,itisadvisable
thataregenerallymagnetic.Thetype
forrepairshipfoundriestostockalloyssuchas
specifiedforshipboardusecontains12
Gmetal,Mmetal,andvalvebronzeintheingot
percentchromium.Itisaspecialcorrosion
resistantsteel.Propertiesofthissteelcanbe form.Anyotheralloyswhichareused
improvedbyheattreatment(MILS16993). extensivelyshouldalsobestockediningot
form.Somemeltinglosseswilloccurand
CASTIRON
shouldbecompensatedforinthechargeor
duringmelting.
Therearethreetypesofgraycastironusedin
makingcastingsforshipboarduse.Theyare: CALCULATIONOFCHARGESFOR
(1)ordinarycastiron,(2)hightestcastiron, NONFERROUSMELTS
and(3)scaleresistingalloyedcastiron.As
withallmetals,thesimplest(loweststrength) Thecalculationofachargeforanalloyisa
matterofsimplearithmetic.Itisusually
alloyshouldbeusedunlessthereisareal
needforanothermaterial.Asthestrengthor desirabletousesomescrapmetal.Hence,the
weightofeachelementinthescrapmustbe
alloycontentincreases,theironbecomes
consideredindividually.Astandardformfor
moredifficulttocastandmoredifficultto
control.

190

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calculationofchargesisrecommendedsothat 0.25poundforthemeltingloss.Thezinc
recordsmaybekeptofallheats.Thisformis additionisthe2.3poundsrequiredtogetthe
basedonthefollowingcalculationswhichare analysis,plusthe0.5poundsforthemelting
illustratedlaterintwoexamples:
loss,andis2.8pounds.Theadditionsaremade
inthepropercolumns,added,andenteredinthe
1.(Weightofmetaldesired)times(desired
Totalasline10.Thetotaloftheweightcolumn
percentofelementinmetal)equals(the
(vertical)shouldequalthetotalofthevarious
weightofelementrequiredtoproducemetal elementsinthetotal(horizontal)column.If
ofproperanalysis).
theseweightsarenotthesame,anerrorhas
beenmadeincomputingthecharge.
2.(Weightofelementrequiredinmetal)times
(percentlossofelement)equals(weightloss THEUSEOFSCRAPMETALS
ofelement).
Oneofthemostdifficultproblemsofthe
3.(Weightlossofelement)plus(thedesired emergencyfoundrywillbetheclassificationof
weightofelementinmetal)equals(theweight scrapalloys.Thereisnoeasywaytodistinguish
ofelementwhichmustbeaddedasscrap,new betweenG,M,orleadedbronzesbyanymeans
element,ormasteralloy).
otherthanchemicalanalyses.Thisisnotserious
fortheseparticularbronzesiflowermechanical
4.(Weightofelementwhichmustbeadded) propertiesfromleadcontaminationcanbe
minus(weightofelementpresentinscrap)
tolerated.If,however,siliconbronzeor
equals(weightofelementwhichmustbe
manganesebronzeshouldbealloyedwitha
addedasnewmetalormasteralloy).
leadedbronzeforpressurecastings,orif
aluminumbronzeisalloyedwithComposition
Theformshowninfigure222containsallof G,M,orhydraulicbronze,thepressure
thenecessaryinformationincompactform
tightnessandmechanicalpropertieswould
andmakesiteasytocheckanyerrorsin
probablysuffertoaconsiderableextent.
calculatingacharge.
Aluminuminanyformmustbecarefully
avoidedwhenmeltingthetinbronzes,asitis
Achargeforouncemetaliscomputedasan harmfultothequalityofthecasting.
example.Thedesiredcompositionis85.0
percentcopper,5.0percenttin,5.0percent
Inordertoclassifyscrapwithoutchemical
zinc,and5.0percentlead.Theweightsof
analyses,itisagoodplantosegregateit
eachelementneededinthemeltare
accordingtoitscolor,weight,anduse.Oxide
determinedbyusingCalculation1aslisted
films,paint,ordirtmustberemovedbyfiling.
aboveandareenteredasline2oftheform.
Bronzesareusuallyreddishincolorandbrasses
Rememberthat85percentmeans85/100or yellowish.Segregationcanbeeffectively
0.85,and5percentmeans5/100or0.05.
accomplishedbyputtingallthetinbronzevalve
bodiesinonebin,manganesebronzepropellers
Theanalysisofthescrapisusedtodetermine andruddersinasecond,leadbronzebushingsin
theweightsofthevariouselementsavailable athird,sheetcopper,busbars,andothercopper
fromthescrap.Ifanalysesarenotavailable, ofelectricalconductivitygradeinafourth.
anestimateofthecompositionwillhavetobe Copperforelectricalpurposesisusuallyaspure
made.Theseweightsaredeterminedbyusing asvirginingot.Thissamegeneralplancanbe
Calculation1andenteringtheresultsonline followedforallscrapmaterial.Inmaking
3.Weightsofthevariouselementsavailable charges,itissafetoassumethatoldbushings
intheingotaredeterminedinthesameway arereasonablygoodscrapfornewbushings,old
andenteredonline4.Theweightsofthe
valvebodiesfornewones,etc.Gates,risers,and
variouselementsavailableinthechargeare excessmetalwhichhasbeenpouredintopigs
thenaddedintheirrespectivecolumnsand
arealsousuallyofknowncomposition.Ifvirgin
enteredintheSubTotalasline6.Reference metalsarescarce,theyshouldbeusedonlyfor
tothesefiguresshowsthat0.7poundoftin
makingminoradjustmentsincomposition.
and2.3poundsofzincarerequiredtoraise
theseelementstothedesiredcomposition.
Itmustberememberedthatmanyofthe
However,becausetherewillprobablybea1 nominalcompositionsrecommendedinthis
percentmeltinglossforleadanda2percent chapteraretheproductofseveraldecadesof
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meltinglossforzinc,theselossesmustalsobe experimentationbyanumberofinvestigators.
addedin.Because25poundsofleadare
Thebronzeshavebeenusedforhundredsof
requiredinthefinalmelt,themeltinglosswill years.Changesincompositionofanyofthe
be0.01x25=0.25pound.Thezinclosswill alloysshouldneverbeattemptedonthespurof
be0.02x25=0.5pound.Onehalfpoundof themoment.
zincisrequiredtomakeuptheestimated
meltingloss.Thetotalleadadditionwillbe
the0.7poundrequiredtogettheanalysis,plus
the

191

Thecorrectcompositionobtainedbyproper
segregationofscrapisamajorfactorinthe
productionofsoundcastingshavinggood
mechanicalproperties.

Theweightinpoundscontributedbyeach
elementshouldbeaddedandenteredastheSub
Total(line6).Itwillbenotedinfigure223,that
carbon,silicon,andmanganesearenowbelow
thedesiredanalysis,andthatnickelismissing
CALCULATIONOFACASTIRON
entirely.Additionsmustbemadetomeetthe
CHARGE
desiredanalysisandtocompensateformelting
losses.Table21showstheaveragemelting
Thecalculationofachargeforcastironor
losseswhichcanbeexpectedinanindirectarc
steelfollowsthesameprocedureasthat
furnace.Themanganesemeltinglossis10
previouslydescribedfornonferrousheats.The percent.Themanganeseadditionmustbe0.10x
propertiesofcastironandsteelareaffected 0.84=0.084pound,plusthe0.106pound
byverysmallchangesinthevariouselements. requiredtomeettheanalysis.Themanganeseis
Itisnecessary,therefore,toknowtheanalysis addedasan80percentferromanganese,which
ofmaterialsmakingupachargeinorderto
meansthatthealloycontains80percent
producemetalhavingthedesiredproperties. manganese,withthebalanceiron.Theamount
ofalloyrequiredisobtainedbydividingthe
Shoulditbenecessarytoproduce100pounds requiredweightoftheelementbythepercentof
ofgrayironforacastingofthefollowing
thealloy,whichinthiscaseis0.190/0.80equals
chemicalspecifications,acalculationshould 0.24poundofferromanganese.Thesilicon,
bemadeasshowninfigure223.
carbon,andnickeladditionsarecalculatedina
similarmanner.

Percent
TABLE21.AVERAGEMELTINGLOSSES
T.C. 3.153.25
INTHEINDIRECTARCFURNACE
Mn 0.800.90
Si 1.701.90

Percent
P
Lessthan0.20
T.C.
Nil
S
Lessthan0.12
Mn
10
Ni

1.001.10

Theproportionsofrawmaterialstobeused
shouldbeestimatedandenteredinthe
appropriatecolumns.Thisisdeterminedby
trialanderrorandsometimestwoorthree
estimationsarenecessarybeforethedesired
analysisisachieved.(Rememberthat3.20
percentmeans3.20/100=0.032.)
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Si
P
S

3
Nil
Nil

Ni
Cr
Mo

Nil
Nil
Nil

Graphite 20
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Thesiliconcontentoftherawmaterialsin
lines3,4,5,and6shouldbecalculatedatless
thanthedesiredanalysis,topermita
ferrosilicon(line8)additiontothemolten
bath.Additionsofferronickel,
ferrochromium,andferromolybdenummaybe
madewiththecoldcharge.Itispreferredto
addtheferromanganese(line7)withthe
ferrosilicontothemoltenbath.Forexample
purposes,graphiteadditionsaremade(line
10)toadjustthecarboncontenttoshowthe
mechanismofhandlingthismaterial.
Theweightinpoundscontributedbyeach
elementofeachrawmaterialinthe
proportionsusedshouldbecalculated.For
example,thepercentageofcarboninsteel
scrapis0.20percent.Thus,0.20/100times15
equals0.03poundofcarboncontributedby
thesteelscrapcharge.Themanganese
contributedwouldbe0.40/100times15
equals0.06pound.Thesecalculationsshould
bemadeforalltheconstituentsofthecharge
andthefiguresenteredintheappropriate
columns.Itwillonlybenecessarytocarry
calculationsouttothethirddecimalplace.

CALCULATIONOFASTEELCHARGE
Themechanismforcalculatingthefinal
compositionforasteelchargeisexactlythe
sameasoutlinedforcastiron.However,very
accuratepredeterminedcarbonanalysescannot
becalculatedfromtheaverageanalyses
specifiedinthecastironsection,asitis
necessarytoconsiderthecarboncontentofthe
alloyadditions.Therefore,insomeinstances,it
mightappearasthoughtherewereaslightgain
incarboncontentwhenactuallythisisnotthe
case.
Losses.Themeltinglosseswillvaryandare
functionsofthephysicalcharacteristicsofthe
charge,tappingtemperature,andthelengthof
timeheldatthesuperheatingtemperatureprior
totapping.Thelossesforeachelementwillbe
consideredseparatelyasfollows:
(a)Carbon.whenthedeadmeltingmethodor
producingsteelisused,thereisanaverageloss
of0.02percentcarbonfromthesteelwhen
considerationisgiventothecarbonpresentin
theferroalloysadded.Whentheboilingmethod
isused,thereshouldbealossof0.10percent
carbon,iffreedomfromporosityistobe
obtained.

192

(b)Manganese.Thelossesformanganese
(d)Phosphorus,Sulfur,Molybdenum,and
rangefrom0.30to0.40percentwiththedead Nickel.Thereispracticallynolossofthese
meltingpracticeandfrom0.40to0.50percent elements.
withtheboilingmethod.
Toassistinestimatingcompositionsofraw
(c)Silicon.Theremaybeaconsiderablepick materials,sometypicalcompositionsofvarious
upofsiliconwhenthesteelismeltedinafire rawmaterialsarelistedintable22.Whenever
clayorsillimanitelining(asinthedirectarc analysesareavailable,eitherfromsupply
electricrockingfurnace).Therefore,the
sourcesorfromactualanalyses,theyshould
maximumcalculatedsilicon(including
definitelybeusedinpreferencetotheanalyses
additions)shouldbe0.43percentfortheClass intable22.
Bcastingsand0.38percentforthecarbon
(ForthemeltingofRemeltNo.1andRemelt
molybdenumcastingstokeepthesilicon
No.2,seeChapter17,"CastIron.")Also,to
withintherangesindicatedbyeach
simplifythecalculationofferrouscharges,
specification.
weightchartsforvariouschargematerialsare
listedintables23and24.

TABLE22.AVERAGECOMPOSITIONSOFRAWMATERIALS
Composition,percent
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PigIron,
GradeA
Low
Phosphorus
PigIron
Structural
SteelScrap
RemeltNo.
1(soft)
RemeltNo.
2(hard)
FeSi(50%)
(lump)
FeSi(95%)
(granular)
FeMn
FeNi
FeCr
FeMo

Total Manganese Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Nickel Chromium Molybdenum

Carbon
3.63
0.84
2.75 0.55
0.027

4.26

0.78

1.40

.026

.016

0.20

0.40

.04

.02

.03

3.30
3.40
3.05
3.15

0.80

2.00

0.10

.02

0.80

1.60

0.10

.02

50.00

95.00

80.00

94.00

70.00

60.00

TABLE23.WEIGHTCHARTSFORUSEINCALCULATIONOFCASTIRONHEATS
Percent
StructuralSteelScrap
Percent
ofTotal WeightinPoundsper100Pounds ofTotal
Charge
Charge
TC Mn Si
P
S
5
0.010 0.02 0.002 0.001 0.0015 5
10
.020 .04 .004 .002 .0030 10
15
.030 .06 .006 .003 .0045 15
20
.040 .08 .008 .004 .0060 20

"A"FoundryPig
WeightinPoundsper100Pounds
TC
Mn Si
P
S
0.182 0.042 0.138 0.0275 0.00135
.364 .084 .276 .0550 .00270
.546 .126 .414 .0825 .00405
.728 .168 .552 .1100 .00540

25
30

.00675
.00810

.007
.008
.009
.010
.011
.012
.013

.0075 25
.0090 30

5
10
15

.050 .10 .010 .005

.060 .12 .012 .006
LowPhosphorusPigIron
0.213 0.039 0.070 0.0013
.426 .078 .140 .0016
.639 .117 .210 .0039

0.0008 20
.0016 25
.0024 30

.910 .210 .690 .1375

1.092 .252 .828 .1650
RemeltNo.1
0.6700 0.160 0.40 0.020
.8375 .200 .50 .025
1.0050 .240 .60 .030

20
25
30
35
40
45
50

.852
1.065
1.278
1.491
1.704
1.917
2.130

.0032
.0040
.0048
.0056
.0064
.0072
.0080

1.1725
1.3400
1.5075
1.6750
1.8425
2.0100
2.1775

.156
.195
.234
.273
.312
.351
.390

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.280
.350
.420
.490
.560
.630
.700

.0052
.0065
.0078
.0091
.0104
.0117
.0130

35
40
45
50
55
60
65

.280
.320
.360
.400
.440
.480
.520

.70
.80
.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30

.035
.040
.045
.050
.055
.060
.065

0.004
.005
.006

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55
60
65
70
75

2.343
2.556
2.769
2.982
3.195

.429
.468
.507
.546
.585

.770
.840
.910
.980
1.050

.0143
.0156
.0169
.0182
.0195

.0088
.0096
.0104
.0112
.0120

70
75
80
85
90

2.3450
2.5125
2.6800
2.8475
3.0150

.560
.600
.640
.680
.720

1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.80

.070
.075
.080
.085
.090

.014
.015
.016
.017
.018

193

TABLE23.WEIGHTCHARTSFORUSEINCALCULATIONOFCASTIRONHEATS
Continued
Percent
StructuralSteelScrap
Percent
"A"FoundryPig
ofTotal WeightinPoundsper100Pounds ofTotal WeightinPoundsper100Pounds
Charge
Charge
TC
Mn Si
P
S
TC
Mn Si
P
S
20
25
30
35
40
45
50

0.620
.775
.930
1.085
1.240
1.395
1.550

0.160
.200
.240
.280
.320
.360
.400

0.320
.400
.480
.560
.640
.720
.800

0.020
.025
.030
.035
.040
.045
.050

0.004
.005
.006
.007
.008
.009
.010

60
65
70
75
80
85
90

1.860
2.015
2.170
2.325
2.480
2.635
2.790

0.480
.520
.560
.600
.640
.680
.720

0.960
1.040
1.120
1.200
1.280
1.360
1.440

0.060
.065
.070
.075
.080
.085
.090

0.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017
.018

55
1.705 .440 .880 .055 .011 95
2.945 .760 1.520 .095 .019
TABLE24.WEIGHTCHARTSFORUSEINCALCULATIONOFFERROUSHEATS
Percent WeightofElementContributedper100PoundsofCharge
ofAlloy FeMn FeSi FeSi
FeNi FeCr FeMo FeVa
Additions (80%) (50%) (95%) (94%) (70%) (60%) (35%)
0.20
0.160 0.100 0.1900 0.1880 0.1400 0.120 0.0700
.25
.200 .125 .2375 .2350 .1750 .150 .0875
.30
.35
.40
.45
.50
.55
.60

.240
.280
.320
.360
.400
.440
.480

.150
.175
.200
.225
.250
.275
.300

.2850
.3325
.3800
.4275
.4750
.5225
.5700

.2820
.3290
.3760
.4230
.4700
.5170
.5640

.2100
.2450
.2800
.3150
.3500
.3850
.4200

.180
.210
.240
.270
.300
.330
.360

.1050
.1225
.1400
.1575
.1750
.1925
.2100

.65
.70
.75
.80
.85
.90

.520
.560
.600
.640
.680
.720

.325
.350
.375
.400
.425
.450

.6175
.6650
.7125
.7600
.8075
.8550

.6110
.6580
.7050
.7520
.7990
.8460

.4550
.4900
.5250
.5600
.5950
.6300

.390
.420
.450
.480
.510
.540

.2275
.2450
.2625
.2800
.2975
.3150

.95
1.00

.760
.800

.475
.500

.9025
.9500

.8930
.9400

.6650
.7000

.570
.600

.3325
.3500

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1.05
1.10
1.15

.840
.880
.920

.525
.550
.575

.9975 .9870 .7350

1.0450 1.0340 .7700
1.0925 1.0810 .8050

.630
.660
.690

.3675
.3850
.4025

1.20
1.25
1.50
1.55
1.60
1.65
1.70

.960
1.000
..
..
..
..
..

.600
.625
.750
.775
.800
.825
.850

1.1400
1.1875
1.4250
1.4725
1.5200
1.5675
1.6150

1.1280
1.1750
1.4100
1.4570
1.5040
1.5510
1.5980

.8400
.8750
1.0500
1.0850
1.1200
1.1550
1.1900

.720
.750
.900
.930
.960
.990
1.020

.4200
.4375
.5250
.5425
.5600
.5775
.5950

1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00

..
..
..
..
..
..

.875
1.000
1.125
1.250
1.375
1.500

1.6625
1.9000
..
..
..
..

1.6450
1.8800
2.1150
2.3500
2.5850
2.8200

1.2250
1.4000
..
..
..
..

1.050
1.200
1.350
1.500
1.650
1.800

.6125
.7000
.7875
.8750
.9675
1.0500

194

meltingpracticesisinvaluableindetermining
SUMMARY
propercharges.Wheneverpossible,chemical
analysesshouldbeobtainedatNavyYardsor
Theselectionoftheproperalloytobeused
fromothersources.Recordsshouldbe
foraparticularcastingrequiresconsiderable maintainedonallmaterialspurchasedand
knowhow.Theonlyrecommendedmethod analysesshouldbeobtainedfromthesupply
forselectionistorefertoblueprintsofthepart source.
tobecast.Ifthisisimpossible,makethepart
fromanalloyusedforsimilarparts.
Scrapwillsometimesaccumulateuntilthe
Rememberthatthesimplestalloy(oralloyof estimatedanalysisisverymuchindoubt.In
loweststrength)willusuallygivethebest
suchcases,itisbesttomeltthescrapandpigit.
castingwiththeleastdangerofrejects.Use
Chemicalanalysesshouldthenbeobtainedfor
specialmaterialsorunfamiliaralloysonly
thepiggedmetalbeforeusingitforcasting
whentheyarespecifiedonblueprintsor
production.
requiredforsomespecialapplicationwhereit
isknownthatthedifficultiesinvolvedinusing Comparisonofmeltingpracticewithactual
aspecialalloyarejustified.
chemicalanalysesisthebestsourceof
informationwhenmakinganestimatedanalysis
Thesuccessofmakingaheatthatwill
onscrapmaterial.
produceacastingofthedesiredstrengthand
otherpropertiesdependsonhowaccurately
Anotherpointthatcannotbeoverlookedinthe
thechargesarecalculated.Aboardrepair
preparationofchargesisthatofproper
ships,itisimpossibletohavechemical
segregationofscrapandpropermarkingofall
analysisoneveryheat,asaremadein
meltingstock.Mixedscrapshouldbediscarded
commercialfoundries.Theuseofmelting
orusedformakingpracticecastings.
recordsforobtainingestimatedmeltinglosses
basedonvarious

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COMPILEDCHARTSOFSELECTEDMILITARYANDNAVYSPECIFICATIONSFOR
CASTNONFERROUSALLOYS
Thefollowingoversizetablesareonseparatepages.
ChemicalandMechanicalRequirementsandUsesPage195
ChemicalandMechanicalRequirementsandUsesPage197
ChemicalandMechanicalRequirementsandUsesPage199
ChemicalandMechanicalRequirementsandUsesPage201
ChemicalandMechanicalRequirementsandUsesPage203
ChemicalandMechanicalRequirementsandUsesPage205
ChemicalandMechanicalRequirementsandUsesPage207

209

NOTE:Recommendinsertionoftransversetestproperties.SeeTableIofspecifications.
(1)Foreachreductionof0.01percentcarbonunderthemaximumspecified,anincreaseof
either0.04percentmanganeseor0.04percentchromiumabovethemaximumspecifiedwillbe
permittedbutinnocaseshallthemanganesecontentexceed1.00percentorthechromium
contentexceed0.40percent.
(2)DeterminationofmechanicalpropertieswillnotordinarilyberequiredofClassCWsteels.
Fordesignpurposes,thefollowingpropertiesmaybeconsideredtobetheminimumforthis
class:
TensileStrength 55,000p.s.i.
YieldPoint
27,000p.s.i.
Elongation
15percentin2inches
Reductioninarea 25percentin2inches
(3)Unlessotherwisenoted,thelimitsshownformolybdenum,copper,nickel,andchromium,
arepermissibleresidualelementsandshallnotbeadded.
(4)Minimumsilicon0.20percent.
(5)ForOrdnancecastingsamaximumof1.00percentnickelispermitted.
(6)Notrequiredifreductioninareais40percentorhigher.
(7)ClassA70isaplaincarbonsteel,however,forOrdnancecastings,amaximumof1.50
percentnickelispermitted.
(8)Vanadiumcontent0.150.25percent.
(9)Ifchromiumisover20percentandnickelisover10percent,amaximumcarboncontentof
0.12percentwillbepermitted.
(10)Columbium,tantalum,ortitaniumcontent.Columbiumorcolumbiumplustantalumshall
benotlessthan10timesthecarboncontentandnotmorethan1.10percent(tantalumshallnot
exceed0.4timesthesumofthecolumbiumandtantalumcontent),ortitaniumcontentshallbe
notlessthan6timesthecarboncontentandnotmorethan0.75percent.
(11)ColumbiumortantalumcontentColumbiumorcolumbiumplustantalumshallbenot
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lessthan10timesthecarboncontentandnotmorethan1.20percent(tantalumshallnotexceed
0.4timesthesumofthecolumbiumandtantalumcontent).
(12)Unlessotherwisespecified,thesulphurandphosphoruslimitsforgalleyrangetopcastings
shallbe0.20and0.70percentrespectively.
(13)Maximum.
(14)Asspecified.
45260505813

210

Figure222.Exampleofchargecalculationforouncemetal.

211

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Figure223.Exampleofchargecalculationforgrayiron.

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