Piling Handbook

Contents - Corus Piling Handbook
CORUS PILING HANDBOOK

Piling Handbook Internet
Edition (2001)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Product information
Durability
Earth and water pressure
Retaining walls
Axially loaded sheet piling
Cofferdams
Installation
Bearing piles
Sample specification
Formulae and tables
References
Contents
Cofferdams
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Product Information - Corus Piling Handbook
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Click on one of the brochures below for technical information about the illustrated range of products
For further information, visit the Corus Construction Centre website

Copyright 2001 Corus plc. All rights reserved. Legal disclaimer
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Corner and junctions
Interlocking options
BS Omega Rotation
BS20 BS7 BS22
180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70

LX8
LX12
LX16
LX20
LX25
LX32
LX38
L6-42
L6(131)
L6(138)
GSP2
GSP3
GSP4
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= possible
= contact Corus Construction Centre to discuss
or blank = not possible
BS Omega
BS 20
BS 7
BS 22
Mass = 17.3 kg/m
Mass = 15.4 kg/m
Mass = 6.3 kg/m
Mass = 10.3 kg/m
Examples of other types of LX and Larssen junction piles
Examples of other types of LX and Larssen corner piles (bent or welded)
Examples of other types of Frodingham junction piles
Examples of other types of Frodingham corner piles
Contents
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Corus Construction Centre

Corus Construction Centre
The Corus Construction Centre is a centre of excellence created to encourage
faster, more precise construction and develop an integrated approach to
construction design. Our team of experts' knowledge covers the use of carbon
steel, stainless steel and aluminium in construction, and includes professional
civil and structural engineers, architects and construction economists.
By providing a one-stop shop for designers, together we can help facilitate
innovation and speed up the design process.
Most of the advice that we offer you is free and can cover all aspects of steel
and aluminium in construction, from budgeting, design guidance and environmental
advice to product information and applications.
If you need advice, please contact us on our Technical Hotline +44 (0)1724
405060 or you can visit our website at www.corusconstruction.com. We will be
pleased to help you.
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Corus Piling Handbook

Landmarks in strength - steel piling products from Corus Construction and
Industrial
Piling Handbook Internet Edition (2001)
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Disclaimer - Corus Piling Handbook

Disclaimer
Your use of this website is subject to this Disclaimer and Copyright Statement. By
using this website you agree to the Disclaimer and Copyright Statement. If you do
not agree with them please do not use this website. The information contained in
this website is provided in good faith but no warranty, representation, statement or
undertaking is given either regarding such information or regarding any
information in (or any software at) any other website connected with this website
through any hypertext or other links (including any warranty, representation,
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either in this website or any other website complies with any local or national laws
or the requirements of any regulatory or statutory bodies) and any warranty,
representation, statement or undertaking whatsoever that may be expressed or
implied by statute, custom or otherwise is hereby expressly excluded. The use of
this website and any information on this website or any other website (or of any
software at any other site) is entirely at the risk of the user. Under no
circumstances shall Corus Group plc or any of its subsidiaries be liable for any
costs, losses, expenses or damages (whether direct or indirect, consequential,
special, economic or financial including any losses of profits) whatsoever that may
be incurred through the use of any information contained in the Corus Group plc
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right to change any information or any part of this website without notice.
Copyright Statement Copyright on all of the images on this web site are owned by
Corus Group plc, or by others and used under licence, in accordance with the terms
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
LX and Larssen Sections
Contents
LX and Larssen piles

Box piles
High modulus piles
Steel qualities
Tolerances for LX and
Larssen sections
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
LX and Larssen sections
LX and Larssen piles
section dimensions per
mm
LX8
m of
wall
sectional mass combined elastic

plastic
coating
area
moment
section section area*
of inertia modulus modulus
cm2
kg/
m
cm4
cm3
cm3
m2/m
116
91.0
12863
830
1017
2.54
54.6
2746
263
single
70
pile
1.52
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX12
m of
wall
136
single
81
pile
106.5 18727
1208
63.9
272
3239
1381
2.72
1.63
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX12d
m of
wall
139
single
83
pile
108.8 19217
1240
65.3
276
3302
1417
2.72
1.63
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Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX12d10
m of
wall
155
single
93
pile
121.5 19866
1282
72.9
342
3943
1493
2.74
1.64
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX16
m of
wall
157
single
94
pile
123.5 31184
1641
74.1
404
5620
1899
2.91
1.75
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX20
m of
wall
177
single
106
pile
138.7 43484
2023
83.2
531
8154
2357
3.00
1.80
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX20d
m of
wall
179
single
107
pile
140.5 45197
2009
84.3
601
9183
2380
3.07
1.84
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX25
m of
wall
202
single
121
pile
158.3 57656
2507
95.0
635
10485
2914
3.15
1.89
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX25d
m of
wall
212
166.7 57246
2544
single
127
pile
100.0 10241
636
2984
3.05
1.83
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX32
m of
wall
243
190.7 73802
3209
single
146
pile
114.4 11614
668
3703
3.11
1.86
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX32d
m of
wall
269
210.8 75325
3348
single
161
pile
126.5 12164
727
3920
3.03
1.82
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
LX38
m of
wall
298
234.0 87511
3805
single
179
pile
140.4 14075
814
4460
3.11
1.87
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
6W
m of
wall
109
single
57
pile
85.3
6508
614
44.8
1253
153
711
2.54
1.34
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
20Wd
m of
wall
196
single
103
pile
153.7 40574
2029
80.7
499
7060
2375
3.26
1.71
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
GSP2
m of
wall
157
single
63
pile
123.5 8756
876
49.4
140
1135
1020
2.85
1.14
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
GSP3
m of
wall
191
single
77
pile
150.3 16316
1305
60.1
226
2253
1520
3.08
1.23
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
GSP4
m of
wall
242
single
97
pile
190.3 38742
2279
76.1
355
4585
2652
3.53
1.41
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
L6-42
m of
wall
339
266.0 94755
4211
single
169
pile
133.0 13407
789
4933
3.64
1.82
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
6 (122)
m of
wall
371
291.7 92115
4187
single
156
pile
122.5 12545
781
4996
3.92
1.65
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
6 (131)
m of
wall
396
single
166
pile
311.2 101598
4618
130.7 12971
787
5481
3.90
1.64
Download AutoCAD
drawing
Instructions
m of
wall
6 (138)
419
single
176
pile
329.3 110109
5005
138.3 13285
791
5924
3.89
1.63
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drawing
Instructions
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LX8
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Sheet pile section downloads
The following AutoCAD R14 files are available for download from this website.
The files can be used in AutoCAD R14 and AutoCAD LT R14 and subsequent
releases. For further information about AutoCAD, visit the AutoDesk website.
Frodingham
Sections
Larssen Sections
LX Sections
Junctions
1BXN.dwg (25
kB)
20Wd.dwg (23
kB)
LX8.dwg (36 kB)
7.dwg (7 kB)
LX12.dwg (36
kB)
bs20.dwg (6 kB)
1N.dwg (24 kB)
6-122.dwg (35
kB)
2N.dwg (24 kB)

3NA.dwg (37 kB)
4N.dwg (37 kB)
5.dwg (24 kB)
6-131.dwg (33
kB)
6-138.dwg (34
kB)
6-42.dwg (34 kB)
6W.dwg (35 kB)
GSP2.dwg (44
kB)
GSP3.dwg (39
kB)
GSP4.dwg (34
kB)
bs22.dwg (6 kB)
LX12d.dwg (36
kB)
bsomega.dwg
(7 kB)
LX12d10.dwg
(36 kB)
LX16.dwg (38
kB)
LX20.dwg (36
kB)
LX20d.dwg (36
kB)
LX25.dwg (36
kB)
LX25d.dwg (36
kB)
LX32.dwg (36
kB)
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file:///C|/Documents%20and%20Settings/bantinone/My%20Documents/My%20Webs/myweb19/Downloads/Sections/index.html
LX32d.dwg (36
kB)
LX38.dwg (36
kB)
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LX12
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LX12d
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LX12d10
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LX16
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LX20
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LX20d
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LX25
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LX25d
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LX32
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LX32d
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LX38
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6W
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20Wd
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GSP2
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GSP3
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GSP4
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L6-42
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6(122)
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6(131)
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6(138)
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Box piles
section B
H
d
mass sectional
approx
least
nominal nominal nominal per
perimeter
area
radius
metre steel whole of
gyration
only pile
moment of
inertia
section
modulus
about
X-X
about
Y-Y
about about
X-X
Y-Y
mm
mm
mm
kg/m cm2
cm2/
m
cm
mm
cm4
cm4
cm3
cm3
LX8
600
350
8.2
109.2 139
1595
12.19
1881
20680
58849
1182
1851
LX12
600
350
9.7
127.8 163
1800
13.47
1993
29555
69745
1689
2193
LX12d
600
351
10.0
130.6 166
1803
13.53
1993
30442
70840
1735
2228
LX12d10 600
355
10.0
145.8 186
1833
13.24
2107
32523
84305
1832
2651
LX16
600
423
10.5
148.2 189
2140
15.91
2128
47791
82792
2260
2595
LX20
600
477
12.5
166.4 212
2326
17.68
2215
66233
89280
2777
2790
LX20d
600
497
11.2
168.6 215
2421
17.86
2252
68536
95805
2758
2996
LX25
600
508
13.5
190.0 242
2533
18.96
2383
86971
104396 3424
3257
LX25d
600
497
15.0
200.0 255
2423
18.44
2251
86582
104978 3484
3281
LX32
600
508
19.0
228.8 291
2520
19.53
2374
111184 113590 4377
3544
LX32d
600
498
21.5
253.0 322
2415
18.86
2239
114578 121564 4602
3793
LX38
600
513
22.5
280.8 358
2550
19.44
2298
135207 140173 5271
4374
6W
525
252
7.8
89.6
114
1132
9.40
1685
10090
39318
801
1402
20Wd
525
447
11.3
161.4 206
2013
16.37
2120
55090
74390
2465
2633
GSP2
400
239
10.5
98.8
848
9.13
1580
10492
25263
878
1159
GSP3
400
299
120.2 153
1041
11.3
1659
19556
30178
1308
1365
GSP4
400
386
15.5
152.2 194
1346
14.12
1912
41397
38664
2145
1761
6-42
500
506
20.5
266.0 339
2219
17.71
2426
124487 106305 4920
3902
6 (122)
420
502
22.0
245.0 312
1802
14.79
2114
105409 68240
4200
2935
6 (131)
420
502
25.4
261.4 333
1802
14.49
2114
116104 69880
4626
3005
6 (138)
420
502
28.6
276.6 352
1802
14.23
2114
125746 71366
5010
3069
Contents
13.5
126
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
High modulus piles
universal beam
serial size
mass
mass of
combined
moment of
inertia of
primary unit
about XX
primary complete per unit

unit
wall
section modulus
of primary unit
about XX
per
metre
per unit
per
metre
mm x mm kg/m
kg/m
kg/m2
cm4
cm4/m
cm3
cm3/m
686 x 254
125
208.4
243.0
240511
200426
4734
3945
762 X 267
147
230.1
261.1
321006
267505
5901
4918
838 X 292
176
259.1
285.3
435702
363085
7528
6273
914 X 305
201
284.1
306.1
549007
457506
9021
7518
914 X 305
253
336.6
349.8
669898
558248
11343
9453
914 X 305
289
372.3
379.6
748470
623725
12838
10698
1016 X
305
222
305.2
323.7
666589
555491
10407
8673
1016 X
305
349
432.2
429.5
1028148 856790
16341
13618
1016 X
305
487
570.2
544.5
1358548 1132123
20325
16938
LX20 High Modulus Piles are shown above. Other sections may be used - contact
Corus Construction Centre for details.
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Steel qualities
designation EN
10027
classification
EN 10020
minimum
yield
strength**
minimum
tensile
strength**
minimum
elongation
on a gauge
length of Lo
= 5.65 So
N/mm2
N/mm2
A%
steel
name
steel
number
EN
10248
S270GP
1.0023
Base Steel
270
410
24
EN
10248
S355GP
1.0083
Base Steel
355
480
22
S390 or S430 equivalent steel grades can be ordered upon request

**The values in the table apply to longitudinal test pieces for the tensile test
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Tolerances for LX and Larssen sections
width
thickness of
section
squareness
of cut
single interlocked 8.5mm >8.5mm weight length X-X

pile
piles
axis
2%
3% (2b)
Contents
(s or t)
0.5
mm
6%
5%
200
mm
2%
b
depth of
section (h)
Y-Y straightness h200 h>200

axis
2%
b
0.2% of
length
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4
mm
5
mm
PRODUCT INFORMATION
LX8 LX12 LX16 LX20 LX25 LX32 LX38 6W 20Wd GSP2 GSP3 GSP4
LX8
LX12
LX16
LX20
LX25
LX32
LX38
6W
20Wd
GSP2
66
42
GSP3
GSP4
6-42
Interlocking capability also applies to d versions of these sections
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Frodingham Sections
Frodingham piles
Straight web SW1A
Steel qualities
Tolerances for Frodingham
sections (including straight
web)
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Frodingham Sections
Frodingham Piles
section dimensions sectional mass mass combined elastic

plastic
coating coating
area
moment
section section area*
area*
of inertia modulus modulus per pile per m
wall
1BXN
mm
cm2/m
kg/
m
kg/
m2
see below
170
63.4
133.2 4947
cm4/m
cm3/m
cm3/m
m2/m
m2/m2
692
859
1.16
2.44
Download AutoCAD R14 file (25 kB)

Instructions
1N
see below
126
48.0
99.4
6072
714
831
1.22
2.53

Instructions
2N
see below
145
54.8
113.5 13641
1161
1333
1.34
2.78

Instructions
3NA
see below
166
62.7
129.8 25710
1687
1937
1.48
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3.06

Instructions
4N
see below
218
82.7
171.2 39869
2415
2787
1.52
3.16

Instructions
see below
302
101.0 237.1 49329
3171
3683
1.51
3.56

Instructions
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1BXN
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1N
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2N
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3NA
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4N
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5
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Frodingham Piles
Straight Web SW1A
section B
t
nominal
SW1A
area
mass mass
single per
per
pile
m of m2
pile
of
pile
mm
mm cm2
kg/m kg/
m2
414
12.7 81
63.5
ultimate
mass
interlock
per m
strength
of
junction
S270GP S355GP
coating
area
per
single
pile
coating max
deviation
area
angle
per m
wall
kg/m
153.4 95.2
t/m
t/m
m2/m
m2/m2
degrees
285
384
1.00
2.41

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SW1A
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Steel qualities
designation EN
10027
classification
EN 10020
minimum
yield
strength**
minimum
tensile
strength**
minimum
elongation
on a gauge
length of Lo
= 5.65 So
N/mm2
N/mm2
A%
steel
name
steel
number
EN
10248
S270GP
1.0023
Base Steel
270
410
24
EN
10248
S355GP
1.0083
Base Steel
355
480
22
S390 or S430 equivalent steel grades can be ordered upon request

**The values in the table apply to longitudinal test pieces for the tens
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PRODUCT INFORMATION
Frodingham Sections
Tolerances for Frodingham Sections (including Straight Web)
width
thickness of
section
squareness
of cut
single interlocked 8.5mm >8.5mm weight length X-X

pile
piles
axis
2%
3% (2b)
(s or t)
0.5
mm
Contents
6%
5%
200
mm
2%
b
depth of section (h)
Y-Y straightness h200 200<h<300 h300

axis
2%
b
0.2% of
length
5
mm
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6 mm
7
mm
Durability - Corus Piling Handbook
DURABILITY
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Corrosion of Steel Piling in Various Environments
1. Underground Condition
2. Atmospheric Condition
3. Fresh Water Environments
4. Marine Environments
5. Other Environments
3. Effective Life of Steel Sheet Piles
1. Mean Corrosion Rates and Calculations
2. Example Durability Calculations
1. Section Modulus against Loss of Thickness - LX Piles
2. Section Modulus against Loss of Thickness - U Piles
3. Section Modulus against Loss of Thickness - ZPiles
4. Example Calculation to Determine the Effective Life of a
Sheet Pile Structure
4. Methods of Increasing Effective Life
1. Use of a Heavier Section
2. Use of a High Yield Steel
3. Coatings
1. Tar Vinyl (PC1)
2. High Build Epoxy Pitch (PC2)
4. Coatings for Sheet Piling in Contact with Potable Water or Raw
Sewage
5. Concrete Encasement
6. Cathodic Protection
7. Resistance to Abrasion and Erosion
5. Recommendations for Various Environments
1. Underground Exposures
2. Sea Water Immersion Exposures
3. Fresh Water Immersion Exposures
4. Fresh Water Exposures at or Above the Water Level
5. Marine Low Water Zone
6. Marine Tidal Exposures
7. Marine Splash Zone Exposures
8. Atmospheric Exposure
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DURABILITY
Introduction
Steel piling is widely used in permanent earth retaining and structural foundation works, and in the
majority of cases it can be used in an unprotected condition. The degree of corrosion and whether
protection is required depends upon the working environment which can be variable, even within a
single installation. Characteristic corrosion rates have been established for most environments and
the following pages outline the performance of steel piling in various conditions and reviews the
measures that can be taken to increase effective life in aggressive situations.
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DURABILITY
Corrosion of Steel Piling in Various Environments
In determining the effective life of unprotected piles, the selection of pile section
and the need for protection, it is necessary to consider the corrosion performance
of bare steel in different environments. The corrosion rates given for the following
environments indicate the loss of steel where only one face is exposed to that
environment. In practice, opposite sides of a pile may be exposed to different
conditions. For example, one side of a harbour wall could be exposed to a marine
environment whilst the other side could be in contact with soil. Mean corrosion
rates for combinations of environments are given here.
Underground Condition
Atmospheric Condition
Fresh Water Environments
Marine Environments
Other Environments
Underground Condition
A review of published data and evaluations by Corus have concluded that the
corrosion of steel piles driven into undisturbed soils is negligible irrespective of soil
type and characteristics. This is attributed to the very low levels of oxygen present
in undisturbed soils. For the purposes of calculations, a maximum corrosion rate of
0.015 mm/side/year may be used. In the special case of recent fill or industrial
waste soils, where corrosion rates may be higher, protective systems may be
required, but these should be considered on an individual basis. Further assistance
with this condition can be obtained from the Corus Construction Centre.
Atmospheric Condition
Corus research indicates that the atmospheric corrosion of steel in the UK averages
approximately 0.035mm/side/year. This value can be used for most atmospheric
conditions, although specialist advice should be sought where localised conditions
and pollution produce very aggressive microclimates.
Fresh Water Environments
Corrosion losses in fresh water, the term fresh being used to distinguish it from sea
or estuarine brackish water, are generally lower than for sea water and, therefore,
the effective life of steel piles is proportionately longer. However, due to the
variability of fresh water no general advice can be given to quantify this increase in
life.
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Marine Environments
Marine environments normally en-compass several different exposure zones, and

each one requires individual consideration.
Below Bed Level

Where piles are below the bed level, very little corrosion occurs and the
corrosion rate given for the underground condition is applicable, ie 0.015mm/
side/year.
Sea Water Immersion Zone
Where piles are continually under water the corrosion rate is normally low,
and a mean value of 0.035mm/side/year can be taken.
Low Water Zone
This is the zone between mean low water neap and mean low water spring
tides. In this zone a mean corrosion rate of 0.075mm/side/year can be
allowed for most structures. Occasionally, accelerated corrosion has been
encountered on the outpans of piles in this zone. In these cases reductions
in steel thickness of between 0.3mm and 0.8mm per year have been
experienced. Corus recommends the regular inspection of piles in this zone,
and suggest that all piles in marine environments are coated with a
protective system. There is considerable evidence indicating that accelerated
corrosion is microbially induced, and research is currently being carried out
on a pan-European basis to gain an under-standing of and a solution to the
problem. This topic is dealt with in more detail in a separate brochure.
(Accelerated Low Water Corrosion of Steel Sheet Piling)
Tidal Zone
In this zone the pile is immersed and exposed on a regular basis with each
tide. However marine growths give appreciable protection to the piles by
sheltering the steel from wave action and by limiting the oxygen supply to
the steel surface. Therefore the corrosion rate is similar to the immersion
zone with a mean value of 0.035mm/side/year.
Splash and Atmospheric Zones
This area above the normal tidal range is often wet as a result of splashing
by wave action and has a plentiful supply of oxygen. These two factors
combine to produce a relatively aggressive environment with a mean
corrosion rate of 0.075mm/side/year. In this zone, thick stratified rust layers
can develop and at thicknesses above about 10mm these tend to spall from
the steel especially on curved parts such as the shoulders and the clutches.
However, since rust has a much greater volume than the parent metal, steel
corrosion losses may amount to no more than 10% to 20% of the rust
thickness. The boundary between splash andatmospheric zones is not well
defined but corrosion rates reduce rapidly with distance above wave height,
and then the mean atmospheric rate of 0.035mm/side/year can be applied.
Other Environments
There is very little corrosion data available for industrial waste tips, land
reclamation schemes, or sites affected by man made pollution. Therefore, each
location of this type will require a separate assessment. The Corus Construction
Centre can provide assistance with this if required.
Contents
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Mean Corrosion Rates for Various Environments
Notes to Table
1. The corrosion rates quoted are based upon investigations carried out by Corus and others on
steel exposed in temperate climates. For most environments mean values are quoted since
they are considered to be most relevant to the design and performance of most sheet piling
structures. However, in some circumstances the designer may wish to take account of higher
values. It is suggested that in these circumstances a reasonable practical upper corrosion
rate limit would be that corresponding to a 95% probability value. (Values given in
parentheses)
2. All corrosion rates quoted in the table are measured as total loss of section thickness from
both sides, taking into account both environments.
3. For combinations of environments where low water corrosion is involved, in a small number
of locations, higher rates than those quoted have been observed at or just below the low
water level mark and Corus recommends that periodic inspection is undertaken. In the case
of uncertainty, please contact the Corus Construction Centre for advice.
4. A maximum value is quoted for soil corrosion and this applies to natural undisturbed soil or
well compacted and weathered fill ground where corrosion rates are very low. Recent fill
ground or waste tips will require special consideration.
5. Corrosion losses due to fresh water immersion are generally lower than for seawater,
however, fresh waters are very variable and no general advice can be given to quantify the
increase in life.
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DURABILITY
Effective Life of Steel Sheet Piles
The effective life of unprotected steel piling depends upon the combined effects of imposed stresses
and corrosion rates.
BS8002 and BS6349 consider the end of the effective life of steel sheet piles to occur when any part
of the pile reaches the maximum permissible working stress as a result of the loss of section due to
corrosion.
The opposite faces of a sheet pile may be exposed to different combinations of environments. These
are illustrated in the figures below and mean corrosion rates for these environments in temperate
climates are given below.
Guidance on determination of the effective life of a pile section is given below.
Atmospheric/Soil
Marine/Soil
Marine/Marine

Example Durability Calculations
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Example Durability Calculations
To establish the effective life of a pile section in a specific environment it is necessary to follow the
procedure below:1. Establish the corrosion zones that exist for the piles using Graph 1, Graph 2, and Graph 3,
and the mean corrosion rate for each zone using the table above.
2. Using the bending moment diagram establish the maximum bending moment in each
corrosion zone.
3. Calculate the minimum required section modulus for each corrosion zone.
4. Select a pile section which will provide the largest calculated minimum section modulus value.
5. Using Graph 1 or Graph 2 for Larssen sections or Graph 3 for Frodingham sections,
establish the thickness of sacrificial steel that is available within each corrosion zone for the
pile section selected in Step 4.
6. Using the mean corrosion rates established in Step 1, and the sacrificial steel thicknesses
established in Step 5, calculate the effective life for each corrosion zone.
7. The effective life of the pile is equal to the lowest value calculated in Step 5.
Example calculation to determine the effective life of a sheet pile structure
This figure below illustrates a typical marine wall constructed in steel sheet piling.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7
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Figure 3.2.1 Atmospheric/Soil
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Figure 3.2.2 Marine/Soil
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Figure 3.2.3 Marine/Marine
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Graph 1 - Section modulus against loss of thickness - LX piles
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Graph 2 - Section modulus against loss of thickness - U piles
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Graph 3 - Section modulus against loss of thickness - Z piles
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Typical marine wall constructed in steel sheet piling
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Step 1
Depth (m)
Face 1
Face 2
Zone
Total mean corrosion rate

(mm/year)
0-1
Soil
Splash
0.09
1-5
Soil
Tidal
0.05
5-6
Soil
Low Water
0.09
6-12
Soil
Immersion
0.05
12-18
Soil
Soil
0.03
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Step 2
Zone
Maximum Bending
Moment
kNm/m
10
440
520
660
370
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Step 3
Zone
Minimum Section
Modulus
cm/m
10x10/180 = 56
440x10/180 = 2445
520x10/180 = 2889
660x10/180 = 3667
370x10/180 = 2056
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Step 4
From the minimum section modulus requirements calculate in Step 3 (Zmin =
3667cm/m), an appropriate pile section can be selected; in this case, Larssen 6
(122kg/m) in grade S270GP steel is to be adopted
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Step 5
Zone
Scrificial Steel
Thickness
mm
6.4
2.5
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Step 6
Zone
Effective Life
years
7/0.09 = 77
7/0.05 = 120+
6.4/0/09 = 71
2.5/0/05 = 50
7/0.03 = 120+
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Step 7
Effective life of Larssen 6 (122kg/m) piles in this location is 50 years.
NOTE: with application of PC2 coating (recommended for marine exposure
conditions), an additional 20+ years life can be anticipated.
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DURABILITY
Methods of Increasing Effective Life
In many circumstances steel corrosion rates are low and the use of protective
systems unnecessary. Where methods of increasing the effective life need to be
considered the measures that can be taken include the following:
Use of a Heavier Section
Effective life can be easily increased by the provision of an additional thickness of

steel. In many situations the most corrosive zones will not coincide with the most
highly stressed zone. Consequently the use of a sacrificial thickness is a cost
effective method of increasing effective life.
Use of a High Yield Steel
An alternative approach to using mild steel in a heavier section is to use a higher

yield steel and retain the same section. Although both types of steel have similar
corrosion rates, the use of grade S355GP (EN10248:1995) rather than grade
S270GP (EN10248:1995) will allow a 30% additional loss of section modulus
without exceeding the maximum allowable working stress. This method effectively
builds in a corrosion allowance and gives approximately a 30% increase in effective
life for an increase in steel cost of about 7%.
Coatings
Corus has developed two coatings specifically designed for application to steel
piling under workshop conditions. The characteristics of the coatings are
summarised as follows.
Tar Vinyl (PC1)

This coating is based on an aromatic pitch modified with suitable vinyl resins.
It can be applied to both manually cleaned and blast cleaned steel surfaces,
at up to 150 microns in a single coat, and is rapid drying. The durability of
the coating is dependent on the chosen method of surface preparation and
the coating thickness.
High Build, Epoxy Pitch (PC2)
This coating is based upon special coal-tar pitches modified with epoxy
resins and cured with isocyanate adducts. It can be applied to blast cleaned
surfaces, at up to 400 microns in a single coat. It has very rapid drying
properties and produces a thick, hard, durable coating with low water
permeability.
The protective coatings recommended for steel piling are given here. The cost and
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durability of the recommended systems depend upon steel surface preparation and
coating type and thickness.
For Coating Areas see 'Coating Areas'.
Coatings for Sheet Piling in Contact with Potable Water or Raw Sewage
Coatings for use in potable water in the UK must meet the requirements of the
Water Supply Bylaws and are approved by the Water Research Centre. Most are
based on either bitumen or on two pack epoxy resin systems. Coal-tar based
coatings are not suitable for potable water.
Coal-tar epoxy coatings are normally used for sheet piling in contact with raw
sewage and can be applied on a blast cleaned surface either on site or in the
shops. The Corus PC2 coating is suitable and should be used where shop
application is required.
Concrete Encasement
Concrete encasement can be used to protect steel piles in marine environments.

Often the use of concrete is restricted to the splash zone by extending the concrete
capping beam to below the mean high water level. However, both splash and tidal
zones can be protected by extending the capping beam to below the lowest water
level. Concrete for protecting steel in sea water must be of good quality, provide
adequate cover and be properly placed and cured.
Cathodic Protection
Coatings for use in potable water in the UK must meet the requirements of the
Water Supply Bylaws and are approved by the Water Research Centre. Most are
based on either bitumen or on two pack epoxy resin systems. Coal-tar based
coatings are not suitable for potable water.
Coal-tar epoxy coatings are normally used for sheet piling in contact with raw
sewage and can be applied on a blast cleaned surface either on site or in the
shops. The Corus PC2 coating is suitable and should be used where shop
application is required.
Resistance to Abrasion and Erosion
Abrasion or erosion can reduce piling life significantly and consideration should be
given at the design stage to structures which are likely to be subject to significant
levels of wear.
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Protective coatings recommended for steel piling
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*Minimum film thickness
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DURABILITY
Recommendations for Various Environments
The recommendations outlined below are based on the corrosion data given here
for the various environments and on Corus experience. It is not practical to apply a
variable thickness of coating to the face of a pile where more than one type of
exposure occurs along its length. Where local conditions are likely to impair life, for
example where the piling is subject to abrasion, erosion or localised pollution,
these circumstances should be considered separately.
Underground Exposures
Sea Water Immersion Exposures
Fresh Water Immersion Exposures
Fresh Water Exposures at or Above the Water Level
Marine Low Water Zone
Marine Tidal Exposures
Marine Splash Zone Exposures
Atmospheric Exposure
Underground exposures
Steel piles driven into undisturbed ground seldom require protection irrespective of
the soil type due to the very low corrosion rates. This also applies to piles driven in
below the bed level of harbours, rivers and the sea. When piles are driven into
recent fill soils and especially industrial fill materials some protection may be
required, though each case should be judged on its merits. Where protection is
required it is recommended that PC2 is applied to a minimum dry film thickness of
400 microns.
Sea Water Immersion Exposures
The corrosion rate of steel immersed in sea water is low enough to give acceptable
steel losses over the design life of a piling structure. Therefore, bare steel is
recommended for use in immersion conditions. Protective coatings can be used to
increase effective life but once degraded, maintenance is difficult. Special coatings
that can be maintained under water are available but are very expensive. Where
the costs can be justified, cathodic protection can also be effective.
Fresh Water Immersion Exposures
For practical purposes, the situation is the same as for sea water immersion and
corrosion is low enough to permit the use of bare steel. In fresh water immersion
conditions, protective coatings would be expected to last longer but again, once
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applied, they are difficult to maintain.

Fresh Water Exposures at or Above the Water Level
In non-tidal situations, corrosion can occur at the water line of piled river
embankments and, more usually, canals where these support roughly a constant
water level. In such circumstances, it is recommended that PC2 protective coating
is applied to a depth of 1m above and below the water level to a dry film thickness
of 250 microns on the water side. Where the water level is variable and at areas
other than the water line, protection is unnecessary.
Marine Low Water Zone
For ports and structures where mean low water corrosion rates are about 0.075
mm/side/year, it is considered that the most effective method is to use bare steel
with a corrosion allowance where appropriate. Protective coatings can be used to
increase effective life but these will be difficult to maintain once degraded.
If a steel structure is to be repaired or constructed at a site where accelerated low
water corrosion has occurred, appropriate measures should be considered to obtain
the desired effective life. These measures are given in detail in a separate brochure
(Accelerated Low Water Corrosion of Steel Sheet Piles) and include the use of high
yield steels, use of increased steel thickness, including attachment of plates locally
at the low water level, use of protective coatings and application of cathodic
protection.
Marine Tidal Exposures
Tidal zones tend to accumulate marine fouling which affords considerable

protection to the underlying steel and acceptable corrosion rates occur over this
zone. Coatings can be used but maintenance is difficult. Therefore, it is considered
that the most cost effective method is to use bare steel with a corrosion allowance
where appropriate.
Marine Splash Zone Exposures
This zone presents relatively aggressive corrosive conditions for steel and several
options exist. In many circumstances, bare steel can be used with a corrosion
allowance where appropriate. Alter-natively, protection can be provided in the form
of coatings or concrete encasement. With the former it is recommended that PC2
be applied to a dry film thickness of 400 microns and that the coating should
extend to at least 1 metre below mean high water level.
It should be borne in mind that, in the absence of good borehole data, it is often
impossible to estimate beforehand the driven depth of piling. In such cases more of
the pile length may have to be coated to ensure that the piles in situ are protected
in the splash zone. The ease and effectiveness of maintenance will depend upon
local conditions, for instance the degree of shelter from wave action.
Where the tidal range is small, concrete encasement can also be used. With this
method the capping beam should be extended to a minimum of 1 metre below
mean high water level and the highest quality concrete used. Good coverage of the
encased steel should be ensured.
Atmospheric Exposures
Piling exposed to rural, urban or industrial atmospheres is usually painted for

aesthetic reasons. PC1 or PC2 can be used depending on requirements.
Where sheet piled bridge abutments or other piled land-sited structures are subject
to road salt spray, it is recommended that PC2 be used. This system is also
recommended for inaccessible structures, for example piled walls or bridge
abutments that are hidden by stand-off brick or stone facias.
For driven piling, the paint should be applied to about 0.5m below final ground
level, below which protection is not usually required.
The atmospheric zone of a marine piling structure is normally considered on the
same basis as the splash zone and if protection is used on the splash zone then it
is normally extended to protect the atmospheric zone.
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Earth and Water Pressures - Corus Piling Handbook
EARTH & WATER PRESSURES

Contents
1. Notation
2. Determination of Soil Properties
3. Types of Borehole Samples and Methods of Testing
1. Cohesionless Soils (Gravel, Sand etc)
2. Cohesive Soils (Clays and Silts)
3. Mixed Soils (Sand with Clay, Sand with Silt)
4. Rock
5. Geophysical Methods of Site Investigation
6. Chemical Analysis
7. Seepage Water
4. Information Required for the Design of Retaining Walls and
Cofferdams
5. Typical Soil Properties
6. Earth Pressure Calculation
7. Cohesionless Soils
8. Cohesive Soils
1. Permanent Structures
2. Temporary Structures
9. Cohesive and Mixed Soils
10. Wall Adhesion
11. Tension Crack
12. Superimposed Loading
13. Battered Walls
14. Pressure Calculations
15. Concentrated and Linear Surcharge
16. Sloping Ground Surface
17. Earth Pressure Calculation Example
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Notation
Units
Bulk weight density of soil
kN/m
'
Submerged weight density of soil
kN/m
Weight density of water
kN/m
Angle of internal friction of soil (total stress)
degrees
'
Angle of internal friction of soil (effective stress

parameter)
degrees
Angle of friction between soil and piles
degrees
Cohesion of soil (total stress)
kN/m
c'
Cohesion of soil (effective stress parameter)
kN/m
ca
Adhesion between soil and piles
kN/m
Height of soil above any level under consideration
Ka
Coefficient of active pressure for cohesionless soils
Kac
Coefficient of active pressure for cohesive soils
pa
Intensity of active pressure
Pa
Total load per metre run of wall due to active pressure
kN/m
kN
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Kp
Coefficient of passive pressure for cohesionless soils
Kpc
Coefficient of passive pressure for cohesive soils
Pp
Total load per metre run of wall due to passive pressure
pw
Intensity of water pressure
kN/m
pp
Intensity of passive pressure
kN/m
kN
"Weight Density" in kN/m can be readily converted to "Mass Density" in kg/m by

multiplying by 102.
Types of Soil
1. Cohesionless soils: granular materials such as sand, gravel, hardcore, rock filling
etc.
2. Cohesive soils: clays and silts. Under certain conditions chalk and other similar
materials can be treated as cohesive soils.
3. Mixed soils: combinations of groups 1 and 2 such as sand with clay, or sand with
silt.
4. Rock.
Note: There are certain qualifications to the information contained in this chapter
which are dependent upon the type of structure under consideration, ie a
temporary cofferdam, permanent retaining wall, etc. These are given in the
appropriate place.
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Determination of Soil Properties
Site Investigation, Boreholes, Soil Sampling and Testing
The precise and adequate determination of site conditions prior to the

commencement of any form of civil engineering con-struction work is necessarily
regarded as standard practice.
Work of this nature should be carried out in accordance with BS 5930:1981 Code
of Practice for Site Investigations. Where piled foundations, cofferdams, retaining
walls etc are to be driven it is essential that as much information as possible be
obtained regarding strata, ground water, tidal water, embankments, existing
foundations, buried services and the like in order to design the most suitable piling
in terms of strength, stability and economy.
Full use should therefore be made of all available information, no matter how old,
in regard to previous investigation of the proposed site and its surroundings. Such
information should be supplemented with data obtainable from borehole sampling
and testing, the number of boreholes depending upon the size and nature of the
site
For piling work, it is customary to sink boreholes at intervals of 30 to 60m centres
and to carry them well below the anticipated depth of the proposed piling.
Cofferdam boreholes should be sunk within the proposed enclosure area. To assess
the precise nature of the ground, samples should be taken at regular intervals of a
depth or whenever the change in stratum occurs.
Samples obtained by the borehole method must be correctly labelled to avoid
possible error. Duplicate records of all boreholes giving depth and location, should
also be maintained.
Field Identification of Soils
Very Soft
Exudes between fingers when squeezed in fist.
Soft
Can be readily excavated with a spade and can be easily moulded

with the fingers.
Firm
Can be excavated with a spade and can be moulded by substantial

pressure in the fingers.
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Stiff
Requires a pick or pneumatic spade for its removal and cannot be

moulded with the fingers.
Very Stiff
Requires a pick or pneumatic spade for its removal and will be

hard and brittle or very tough.
Many stiff clays exist in their natural state with a network of joints or fissures. A
large piece of such clay, when dropped, will break into polyhedral fragments. If
possible, it should be determined whether the clay is fissured or intact, as this
could be a criterion in the design of steel sheet structures.
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Types of Borehole Samples and Methods of Testing
Cohesionless Soils (Gravel, Sand etc)
Air tight jar or bag samples (disturbed). Normally forwarded to the laboratory for
scientific analysis. When examined on site, this should be carried out by a qualified
engineer or geologist.
Relationship of In-situ Tests to Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils
Relative Density
Standard Penetration
Test 'N' Value
Cone Penetration
Test qs (MN/m)
' (Degrees)
0-4
2.5
25
4-10
2.5-7.5
28
Med Dense
10-30
7.5-15.0
30
Dense
30-50
15.0-25.0
36
Over 50
Over 25.0
41
Very Loose
Loose
Very Dense
(see M J Tomlinson - Foundation Design and Construction and TESPA - Installation

of Steel Sheet Piles)
Standard Penetration Test (in-situ density)
The resistance offered by a cohesionless soil to a 50mm external diameter thickwalled sample tube when driven into the bottom of a borehole can be
approximated to the relative density of the soil encountered. It is usual to neglect
the disturbance. The force applied is equated to a free-falling load of 64kg
travelling 760mm before impact, the number of blows (N) per 300mm of
penetration being recorded. See table above for interpretation of results.
Shear Box Test
Used to determine the angle of internal friction. Because granular soils are
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relatively free draining, any excess pore water pressures developed, even under
rapid loading, will dissipate readily. Hence the results of this test will always give
effective stress values ().
Mechanical Analysis
This comprises two stages involving the separation of coarser particles by means of
BS sieves and determination of the size of finer particles by a special sedimentation
process known as wet analysis. The subject of mechanical analysis exceeds the
scope of this type of handbook. Reference should be made to appropriate literature
for methods of procedure.
Cohesive Soils (Clays & Silts)
Shear strength
Two distinct methods of testing are given as the correct procedure, ie direct
shear tests and indirect shear tests.
Direct shear testing involves the use of the Vane Test in which a metal vane is
pushedinto the soil in the borehole and torque applied. Measurement of the
resultant angle-of- twist in the transmitting rod or spring indicates the magnitude
of the torque, hence, the strength of the sample material.
Indirect shear tests are carried out on undisturbed samples in two forms:
1. Triaxial Compression Test wherein a cylindrical specimen (undrained) is
subjected to a constant lateral hydrostatic pressure whilst the axial pressure is
steadily increased to the yield point of the material.
This test will give the total stress parameters of and c for all types of clay.
When effective stress parameters are required ( and c), a drained triaxial test
should be performed, with the strain rate sufficiently low to ensure the dissipation
of pore water pressures.
If no effective stress parameters are available from drained triaxial tests, the
following table may be used for initial design studies and would tend to give
conservative results.
Relationship of moisture content and plasticity index to the strength of cohesive
soils (see BS8002)
Description
Plasticity Index
(%)
Undrained
Cohesion c
(kN/m)
Drained
Cohesion c'
(kN/m)
'
Degrees
Very Soft
>80
<20
15
Soft
80
20-40
15
Firm
50
50-75
20
Stiff
30
100-150
25
Very Stiff
15
>150
30
2. Unconfined Compression Test which measures the shear strength of undrained

cohesive soils under zero lateral pressure by means of a special test apparatus,
normally portable.
Natural Moisture Content. Determination of the natural or in-situ moisture content
of a soil sample by weighing before and after drying the sample in a ventilated
oven at 105C. The loss of weight is expressed as a percentage of the final or dry
weight.
Bulk Density, Liquid and Plastics Limits. Moisture content is similarly involved in
these tests which are best described in BS 1377, to which the reader should refer.
Mixed Soils (Sand with Clay, Sand with Silt)
The method referred to in Cohesive Soils may be applied to the testing of

mixed or combined soils.
Rock
The resistance to drilling is a good indication of strata material strength. Where

possible, especially during the exploration of virgin territory, samples of rock
should be obtained for analysis.
Geophysical Methods of Site Investigation
Information produced as a result of this type of survey should be used only to

supplement borehole sampling. It should not be regarded as an alternative method
of site investigation.
Chemical Analysis
The destructive influence of natural deposits and buried waste of industrial effluent
should be fully investigated during soil sampling and testing. Examination will
reveal the suitability of the anti-corrosion measures referred to in Chapter 3, or
the need for special precautionary measures.
Seepage Water
The effect which water has on the engineering properties of a soil must be clearly
understood and carefully considered during the site investigation period. In
addition to the tests on individual soil samples, the direction of seepage, upwards
and downwards, should be determined before any decision is reached on the
design of a piling system.
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Cohesive Soils
The strength parameters of cohesive soils may change significantly over a period of
time due to the pore water pressure changes induced following construction of a
retaining structure. The change of strength is caused by equalisation of negative
pore water pressure in the soil and results in reduced values of cohesion (c) but
increased values of angle of internal friction (). The initial parameters are referred
to as total stress values (which are derived from undrained triaxial tests) and the
modified condition is referred to as effective stress values (which are derived
from drained triaxial tests 4/3).
Whilst all cohesive soils are subject to these changes, the effective stress condition
is not usually critical when fine silts and naturally consolidated and slightly overconsolidated clays, ie those with undrained cohesion values of less than 40kN/m2 ,
are involved, since the change from total to effective parameters gives an overall
increase in soil strength. However, the reverse is true for over-consolidated clays,
ie those with undrained cohesion values in excess of 40 kN/m2 . The overall
strength will, in most cases, be reduced as the stress condition changes from total
to effective because the loss of substantial cohesive strength is not compensated
adequately by the increasing angle of internal friction.
Permanent Structures
The critical design condition for permanent structures in fine silts, normally and
slightly over consolidated clays, will usually be that using total stress parameters,
although a check with the alternative effective values may be advisable.
The critical design condition for permanent structures in over consolidated clays
will usually be with effective stress parameters, but a check using total values may
be advisable.
Temporary Structures
When the anticipated life of the structure is less than three months and subject to
the degree of permeability of the strata and protection it receives from weathering,
the design need only be executed with total stress parameters. In these cases it is
wise to assume that where cohesive soils are exposed at the passive soil surface,
there will be a total loss of cohesion at the passive surface with a progressive
recovery to full cohesion at a depth of one metre below the surface. This is to
make an allowance for the effects of softening due to the relief of overburden
pressures during excavation and the resulting heave, and the remoulding induced
by the passage of excavating equipment.
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Temporary structures of greater than three months anticipated life should be

treated as permanent structures.
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Information Required for the Design of Retaining Walls and
Cofferdams
Having determined the precise nature of the ground within the site and ascertained
the individual soil properties, it is desirable to release certain basic information to
the piling designer to ensure the best possible arrangement in terms of strength
and economy.
The minimum details should include the following:
Copies of relevant site drawings showing the projected retaining wall/

cofferdam areas and the proximity of the roads, rail or crane tracks,
buildings, embankments, viaducts and waterways.
Information regarding any under-ground workings, surface traffic loadings,
capital plant or heavy machinery which could be affected by piling operations
or in turn, affect ground stability by vibration.
Copies of actual borehole logs, soil analyses and test reports.
Details of any faults or fissures encountered during drilling.
Details of seasonal rainfalls, standing water levels, tidal waters and the
depths of off-shore reaches. Stream and river velocities, currents etc, should
be given where possible.
<scri
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Typical Soil Properties
Note: Soil properties should normally be obtained from ground investigation.
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Earth Pressure Calculation
Calculation of Earth Pressures for Limit State Design
The method of calculation of design earth and water pressures will be subject to
some change in the future as designers adopt the limit-state approach given in
Eurocodes 1 - Basis of Design and Actions and Structures, 3 Design of Steel
Structures and 7 Geotechnical Design Rules. Using this approach, the value of
earth pressures (which are classed as actions on the wall) due to both permanent
and transient actions eg weights of soil, water pressure and traffic loads and the
characteristic strength parameters of the soils, will be modified by the application
of partial factors. The value of these factors will depend on the limit state and
design case under consideration and whether the action is permanent or variable,
favourable or unfavourable.
Until these new codes are widely adopted by designers this chapter will focus on
the traditional methods of earth and water pressure calculation.
Throughout this chapter formulae and tables are shown in terms of and c
wherever appropriate (see Cohesionless Soils and Cohesive Soils).
The pressures applied to a vertical wall when the ground surfaces are horizontal
are calculated as follows:
Active pressure = pa = .h.tan (45 - /2) - 2.c.tan (45 - /2)
Passive Pressure = pp = .h.tan (45 + /2) + 2.c.tan(45 + /2)
The terms tan (45 - /2) and tan (45 + /2) can be more conveniently referred
to as Ka coefficient of active pressure and Kp coefficient of passive pressure
respectively.
Hence pa = .h.Ka - 2.c. Ka
and pp = .h.Kp + 2.c. Kp
The above expressions do not allow for the effects of friction and adhesion between
the earth and the wall. They are based on the extensions to the Rankine Equation
(by the addition of cohesion), from Earth Pressures - A.L. Bell: Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 199 -1915.
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P = (wh / 2) (1 - sin ) / (1 + sin ) - 2c (1 - sin ) / (1 + sin )
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Cohesionless Soils
Cohesionless soils are free draining, therefore excess pore water pressures,
created during construction, will dissipate so rapidly that effective stress
condition exists in both the short and long term. Hence is used throughout.
The effect of wall friction on active pressures is small and usually ignored. Values
of Ka are given in the table below.
Values of Ka
25
30
Values of
35
40
45
0.41
0.33
0.27
0.22
0.17
10
0.37
0.31
0.25
0.20
0.16
20
0.34
0.28
0.23
0.19
0.15
30
0.26
0.21
0.17
0.15
Values of
The value of the coefficient of wall friction, tan , for passive pressures is usually
assumed to be 2/3rds of tan , but it is sufficiently accurate to take the angle as
2/3rds of .
The effect of wall friction on passive pressures is taken into account by using
modified values as Kp as given in the table below.
Values of Kp
Values of ()
Values of ()
0
1/2
2/3
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15
1.7
2.0
2.0
20
2.1
2.5
2.7
22
2.2
2.7
3.0
24
2.4
3.0
3.3
26
2.5
3.4
3.8
28
2.8
3.8
4.3
30
3.0
4.4
5.0
32
3.3
5.0
5.8
34
3.6
5.8
6.8
36
3.9
6.6
7.8
38
4.2
7.8
9.0
40
4.6
9.0
45
5.8
Note: For the design of maritime structures using sheet piling, clause 50 BS.6349 :
Part 1 : 1984 gives guidance on the maximum angle of passive wall friction that
may be used.
In cohesionless soils, the soil below ground water level should be taken at
submerged density when calculating the earth pressures. To these pressures, the
full water pressure is added.
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Cohesive and Mixed Soils
The effects of wall friction and adhesion on active pressures are taken into account
by using modified values of Ka and substituting Kac for the terms 2 Ka.
The expression for active pressure thus becomes: pa = .h.Ka - Kac.c
Values Ka and Kac are given in the table below.
Values of Ka and Kac
Values
of
Values of
ca/c
Values of
0
10
15
20
25
All values
1.00
0.85
0.70
0.59
0.48
0.40
All values
1.00
0.78
0.64
0.50
0.40
0.32
2.00
1.83
1.68
1.54
1.4
1.29
2.83
2.6
2.38
2.16
1.96
1.76
0.5
2.45
2.1
1.82
1.55
1.32
1.15
2.83
2.47
2.13
1.85
1.59
1.41
Ka
Kac
The effects of wall friction and adhesion on passive pressure are taken into account
by using modified values of Kp and substituting Kpc for the term 2 Kp.
The expression for passive pressure thus becomes: pp =.h.Kp + Kpc.c
Values of Kp and Kpc are given in table below.
Values of Kp and Kpc
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Values
of
Values of
ca/c
Values of
0
10
15
20
25
All values
1.00
1.2
1.4
1.7
2.1
2.5
All values
1.00
1.3
1.6
2.2
2.9
3.9
2.00
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.1
0.5
2.4
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.8
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.6
4.0
4.4
0.5
2.4
2.8
3.3
3.8
4.5
5.5
2.6
2.9
3.4
3.9
4.7
5.7
Kp
Kpc
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Wall Adhesion
Wall adhesion ca should be taken as being equal to c, up to a maximum of 50kN/
m for active pressures, and equal to 1/2c up to a maximum of 25kN/m for
passive pressures.
The effect of wall friction and wall adhesion on active pressures should only be
taken into account when the wall is prevented from moving downwards by
adequate penetration. Similarly, the effects of wall friction and wall adhesion on
passive pressures should only be taken into account when the wall is adequately
restrained against upward movement. Such restraint is usually provided by friction
between the retained earth and the back of the wall.
Where the wall tends to move downwards due to the application of external
permanent vertical loading the value of ca for passive pressures may be taken as
equal to c but should not exceed 50kN/m . Under these conditions the effects of
wall adhesion on active pressures should be ignored.
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Tension Crack
When soils with a high cohesion are involved, it may be found that the calculated
active pressure has a negative value, which in fact represents zero pressure.
However, when this occurs, allowance should be made for the intrusion of water
between the piles and the soil which will produce an active pressure equivalent to
full hydrostatic head up to ground water level. If ground water is not likely to be
present, an alternative substitution for zero active pressure in cohesive soils is that
of the pressure due to an equivalent fluid of 5 kN/m weight density.
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Superimposed Loading
This is taken into account by adding the intensity of the load to the value of .h.
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Battered Walls
The effect of batters up to 5 may be neglected.
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Pressure Calculations
A convenient system for the calculation of earth pressures is as follows:
1. Calculate the value of .h at the ground surface and each subsequent change in
stratum down to a point well below the excavation level. This is done commencing
at existing ground level for active pressures and at excavation level for passive
pressures.
2. The earth pressure at any level is then obtained by substituting the appropriate
value of .h in the expressions for the active or passive pressure, using the coefficients and properties applicable to the stratum under consideration.
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Concentrated and Linear Surcharge
!
These are treated in a similar manner to superimposed loads except that allowance
should be made for dissipation of the load at increasing depth.
There are various methods of allowing for this dissipation and the following is
suggested by Krey when designing for cohesionless soils.
The maximum increase in horizontal total stress (h) is given by:
(h max) = 4q.tan (45 - '/2) / (2 + (1 + tan (45 - '/2)) x/z)
where
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q = magnitude of surcharge (kN/m )

a = x.tan '
c = x / tan (45 - '/2)
d = z / tan (45 - '/2)
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Sloping Ground Surface
Approximate pressures can be obtained by assuming a horizontal surface and

increasing the pressures thus obtained by 5% for each 5 inclination above the
horizontal.
Alternatively an arbitrary horizontal ground surface, at some level above that at
which the sloping surface intersects the wall, may be assumed.
When dealing with cohesionless soils the following method may be adopted
pa at A= 0.Ka
pa at B= .h1 Ka
pa at C= .h2 Ka
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Earth Pressure Calculation Example
The coefficients of earth pressure for each type of soil are obtained from tables in sections Cohesionless Soils and Cohesive and
Mixed Soils
Values of Ka, Kac, Kp, Kpc
Ka
Kac
Kp
Kpc
Loose Fine Sand
0.33
4.90
Soft Clay
1.00
2.83
1.00
2.40
Sand and Gravel
0.27
6.00
Firm Clay
1.00
2.00
1.00
2.30
Calculation of Overburden
The mass densities of the materials must be converted to weight densities before calculation of overburden, ie the mass density in kg/
m divided by 101.97 will give the weight density in kN/m . For simplicity the figure of 100 has been used in the following calculations.
As cohesive strata are impervious to the passage of water, the bulk weight density should be used.
This in turn means that the uplift thus created on the underside of such strata must be deducted when calculating the over-burden in
subsequent non-cohesive strata.
The method of calculating the overburden is shown below:
Soil Overburden: Active Side
Overburden at...
In soil...
Calculation
Value (kN/m)
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Ground level
10.0
-1.2m
Loose fine sand
(17.5 x 1.2) + 10
31.0
-2.4m
Loose fine sand
(10 x 1.2) + 31
43.0
-2.4m
Soft clay
-6.1m
Soft clay
-6.1m
Compact gravel
-7.9m
Compact gravel
(11 x 1.8) + 113.3
133.1
-11.0m
Compact gravel
(11 x 3.1) + 133. 1
167.2
-11.0m
Firm clay
-13.0m
Firm clay
43.0
(19 x 3.7) + 43
113.3
113.3
167.2
(20 x 2) + 167.2
207.2
Calculation
Value (kN/m)
Soil Overburden: Passive Side

Overburden at...
In soil...
-7.9m
Compact gravel
-11.0m
Compact gravel
-11.0m
Firm clay
-13.0m
Firm clay
0.0
(11 x 3.1)
34.1
34.1
(20 x 2) + 34.1
74.1
Revised Overburden with effects of water pressure and buoyancy added: Active Side
Overburden at...
In soil...
Calculation
Ground level
Value (kN/m)
10.0
-1.2m
Loose fine sand
31.0
-2.4m
Loose fine sand
43.0
-2.4m
Soft clay
43 + 12
55.0
-6.1m
Soft clay
113.3 + 12
125.3
-6.1m
Compact gravel
125.3 - 49
76.3
-7.9m
Compact gravel
(11 x 1.8) + 76.3
96.1
-11.0m
Compact gravel
(11 x 3.1) + 96.1
130.2
-11.0m
Firm clay
130.2 + 98
228.2
-13.0m
Firm clay
(20 x 2) + 228.2
268.2
Revised Overburden with effects of water pressure and buoyancy added: Passive Side
Overburden at...
In soil...
Calculation
Value (kN/m)
-7.9m
Compact gravel
0.0
-11.0m
Compact gravel
34.1
-11.0m
Firm clay
34.1 + 31
65.1
-13.0m
Firm clay
(20 x 2) + 65.1
105.1
Calculation
Value (kN/m)
10 x 0.33
3.3
Earth Pressures: Active Side

Pressure at...
In soil...
Ground level
-1.2m
Loose fine sand
31 x 0.33
10.2
-2.4m
Loose fine sand
(43 x 0.33) + 12
26.2
-2.4m
Soft clay
55 - (2.83 x 20)
-1.6 or 12 pw
-6.1m
Soft clay
125.3 - (2.83 x 20)
68.7
-6.1m
Compact gravel
(76.3 x 0.27) + 49
69.6
-7.9m
Compact gravel
(96.1 x 0.27) + 67
93.0
-11.0m
Compact gravel
(130.2 x 0.27) + 98
133.2
-11.0m
Firm clay
228.2 - (2 x 65)
98.2
-13.0m
Firm clay
268.2 - (2 x 65)
138.2
Calculation
Value (kN/m)
Earth Pressures: Passive Side

Pressure at...
In soil...
-7.9m
Compact gravel
0x6
0.0
-11.0m
Compact gravel
(34.1 x 6) + 31
235.6
-11.0m
Firm clay
65.1 + (2 x 65)
214.6
-13.0m
Firm clay
105.1 + (2.3 x 65)
254.6
Pressure at...
In soil...
Calculation
Value (kN/m)
-7.9m
Compact gravel
93 - 0
93.0 Active
-11.0m
Compact gravel
235 - 133.2
102.4 Passive
-11.0m
Firm clay
214.6 - 98.2
116.4 Passive
-13.0m
Firm clay
254.6 - 138.2
116.4 Passive
Net Pressures
The limit of water pressure in the soft clay stratum is the point at which the water pressure = the active pressure.
-1.6 + 19X = 12 + 10X
9X = 13.6
X = 1.51m
Water pressure = 10(1.2 + 1.51) = 27.1 kN/m
Overburden = (19 x 1.51) + 43 + 12 = 83.7 kN/m
Active pressure = 83.7 - (2.83 x 20) = 27.1 kN/m
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Retaining Walls - Corus Piling Handbook
RETAINING WALLS
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Introduction
Types of Wall
Design (General)
Dealing with Water
Design Situations
Factor of Safety
Softened Zone
Analysis of Pressure Diagrams
Design for Bending Moments
Bending Moment Reduction
Support Location
Calculating Support Forces
Walls Supported by More Than One Level of Struts or Ties
Selection of Pile Section
Development of Section Strength
Design Bending Stresses
Low Propped Walls
Anchorages
Walings
Design of Walings in Continuous Anchor Walls
Tie Rods
Relieving Platforms
Miscellaneous Details
Design of Cantilever Retaining Walls
Design of Walls with Free Earth Support
Design of Walls with Fixed Earth Support
Analysis by Graphical Method
Design of Sheet Pile Deadman Anchorage
Design Example
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RETAINING WALLS
Introduction
A sheet pile retaining wall has a significant portion of its structure embedded in the
soil and a very complex soil/structure interaction exists as the soil not only loads
the upper parts of the wall but also provides support to the embedded portion.
Current design methods for retaining walls do not provide a rigorous theoretical
analysis due to the complexity of the problem. The methods which have been
developed to overcome this, with the exception of finite element modelling
techniques, introduce empirical or empirically based factors which enable an
acceptable solution to the problem to be found. As a result, no theoretically correct
solution can be achieved and a large number of different approaches to this
problem have been devised.
The design of a retaining structure using currently available techniques requires
the performance of two sets of calculations, one to determine the geometry of the
structure to achieve equilibrium under the design conditions, the other to
determine the structural requirements of the wall to resist bending moments and
shear forces determined from the equilibrium calculations. The selected design
conditions occur during the life of the structure are taken into account.
Designers should not overlook the possibility of global failure resulting from deep
seated slip failure of the soil and ensure that the proposed
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RETAINING WALLS
Types of Wall
Retaining walls can be classified into cantilever or supported types. Cantilever walls are
dependent solely upon penetration into the soil for their support and clearly, fixity of the toe is
required to achieve equilibrium of the forces acting on the structure. As fixity of the wall toe
requires longer and, in many cases, heavier piles to achieve the necessary penetration into the
soil, this type of wall can only be economic for relatively small retained heights. Variations in soil
properties, retained height and water conditions along a wall can have significant effects on the
alignment of a cantilever wall and care must be taken when designing them for permanent
structures, although provision of a capping beam will often alleviate alignment problems.
Supported walls, which can be strutted or tied, achieve stability by sharing the support to be
provided between the soil and the supporting member or members. In this situation the soil
conditions at the toe of the wall are not as critical to the overall stability of the structure as in the
case of a cantilever wall. The provision of longitudinal walings to transfer the tie or strut force
uniformly along the wall also caters for variations in displacement along the structure.
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RETAINING WALLS
Design (General)
A retaining wall structure must be designed to perform adequately under two
particular sets of conditions, those that can be regarded as the worst possible to
occur during the life of the structure and those that can be expected under normal
service conditions. These design cases represent the ultimate and serviceability
limit states for the structure.
Ultimate limit states to be taken into account in design include instability of the
structure as a whole including the soil mass, failure of the structure by bending or
shear and excessive deformation of the wall or soil to the extent that adjacent
structures or services are affected. Where the mode of failure of the structure
involves translation or rotation, as would be expected in the case of a retaining
wall, the stable equilibrium of the wall relies on the mobilisation of shear stresses
within the soil. Full mobilisation of soil shear strength results in limiting active and
passive conditions and these only act together on the structure at the point of
collapse, the ultimate limit state.
Design for serviceability involves a consideration of the deformation of the
structure and movement of the ground to ensure that acceptable limits are not
exceeded. The deformations of the ground which accompany full shear strength
mobilisation are large in comparison to those which occur in normal service and as
the forces on the structure and the forces from the retained soil are inversely
proportional to movement, the serviceability limit state of displacement will often
be the governing criterion for equilibrium. Although it is impossible, or impractical,
to directly calculate displacements, serviceability requirements can generally be
achieved by limiting the magnitude of the mobilised soil strength.
The designer of a retaining wall must assess the design situations to which the wall
could be subjected during its lifetime and apply these to the structure to analyse
their effect. The design situations should include the following where appropriate:
Applied Loads and any Combinations
Surcharges and externally applied loads on each side of the wall: a minimum
surcharge of 10kPa on the retained side of the wall should be used in design.
Where very high levels of surcharge or concentrated loads occur, eg ports and
harbours, it is often more economical to carry the loads on bearing piles which
transfer them to a lower stratum where no lateral pressure is exerted on the
retaining structure.
Geometry of the Problem
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A minimum unplanned depth of excavation in front of the wall of 0.5m or 10% of

the retained height of a cantilever or 10% of the distance below the lowest support
in a supported wall should be included. In the case of a retaining structure with
services buried in the passive zone, allowance should be made for future
excavation to replace or maintain the cables or pipes.
Material Characteristics
In permanent structures, the long term performance of steel must be considered.

Environmental Effects
Variations in ground water level, due to dewatering, flooding or failure of drainage

systems. Consider the effects of providing weep holes to prevent the accumulation
of ground water behind the wall; however these must be designed to prevent
clogging by any fines transported in the flowing water. Scour, erosion and tree
removal will all affect the structure. Weathering, freezing and other effects of time
and environment on the material properties.
Mining Subsidence
Consider the tolerance of the structure to deformation.

Construction
Driving of sheet piles into dense soils may necessitate the provision of a section
larger than that needed to satisfy the structural requirements. Drivability should be
considered at an early stage in the design process as the need to provide a
minimum section for driving may lead to a more efficient support system.
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RETAINING WALLS
Dealing with Water
The water pressure conditions adopted in retaining wall design should be the most onerous that
can be possibly imagined as the effect of water pressures on design calculations is very
significant.
When an analysis is being carried out assuming that drained conditions exist, the effect of flow
beneath the toes of the sheet pile wall is to increase the active pressures on the wall and
decrease the passive pressures.
The minimum design pressure acting on a retaining wall should be the pressure due to retention
of a fluid with an effective density of 5kN/m. However, if the designer considers that water
could be present behind the wall to the ground surface, in a tension crack for example, then the
design should incorporate full hydrostatic pressures behind the wall.
In order to reduce the effect of large water pressures resulting from differences in water level on
each side of a retaining structure, the designer may provide weep holes through the wall
preventing an accumulation of ground water.
These will generally be located at the bottom of the exposed section of wall to maximise their
effect as a means of reducing water levels. It should be noted, however, that weep holes are
only fully effective when free drainage is possible and they should be designed in such a way
that any fine material transported by the flow of ground water will not cause them to become
clogged. In cohesive soils, weep holes are ineffective in the relief of water pressure behind the
wall.
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Contents
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RETAINING WALLS
Design Situations
When designing a retaining wall, the designer may choose between the adoption of free and fixed
earth conditions at the toe of the wall. The difference between these two conditions lies in the
influence which the depth of embedment has on the deflected shape of the wall. This is illustrated
in the figures below and in the examples section.
A wall designed on free earth support principles can be considered as a simply supported vertical
beam, one support being provided by the soil pressures acting in the embedded zone, the other
support being provided by a prop or tie near the top of the wall. In this situation, the wall is
embedded into the soil a sufficient distance to prevent translation, but is able to rotate at the toe.
For a given set of conditions, the length of pile required is minimised, but the bending moments are
at a maximum.
A wall designed on fixed earth principles is a propped vertical cantilever, fixity at the foot of the
wall being provided by the soil pressures resulting from increased embedment, the upper support
reaction being provided by either a tie or a prop. In this case the pile length is such that the toe of
the wall is sufficiently embedded to prevent both translation and rotation.
The effect of this toe fixity is to reduce the bending moments for a given set of conditions but at
the expense of increased pile length.
When a retaining wall is designed using the assumption of fixed earth support, provided that the
wall is adequately propped and capable of resisting the applied bending moments and shear forces,
no failure mechanism relevant to an overall stability check exists. However, empirical methods
have been developed to enable design calculations to be carried out, an example of which is given
later in this chapter.
Designers must be careful when selecting the design approach to adopt. For example, walls
installed in soft cohesive soils may not generate sufficient pressure to achieve fixity and in these
soils it is recommended that free earth conditions are assumed. Similarly, where driving to the
required depth may be problematic, assumption of free earth support conditions will minimise the
driven length and ensure that the bending moment is not reduced by the fixity assumed.
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The design methods used to determine the pile length required for both free and fixed earth
support conditions do not apply if the support is provided below the mid point of the retained height
as the assumptions made in the analysis models will not be valid.
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RETAINING WALLS
Design of Walls with Free Earth Support
In this condition the penetration of the piles is such that the passive pressure in front of the piles is
sufficient to resist the forward movement of the toes but not sufficient to prevent rotation. Thus
the piles are supported by ties at the top of the wall and the soil at its base in a manner similar to a
beam on simple supports.
The figure above indicates the loads acting on the wall.

Area A.O.B1 = total net active pressure
Area O.C.C1 = total net passive pressure (Factor of safety = 1)
Area O.D.D1 = total net passive pressure (Factor of safety = 2)
T = Force applied at waling level
The depth of cut off should be sufficient to give a factor of safety of 2 against rotation of the wall
about the waling.
For stability the moments of areas A.O.B1 and O.C.C1 about the waling level should be in
equilibrium.
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The bending moment on the piles is derived by calculating the level XY at which zero shear occurs
(ie where area X.Y.B1.O = Area O.C.C1) and obtaining the net moment of these areas about this
level.
The force T at waling level = Area A.O.B1. - Area O.C.C1. The depth of cut off should be such that
the moment of area O.D.D1 is twice the moment of area A.O.B1 about tie rod level.
Free Earth Support - Example

Active pressure
Passive pressure
pa = .h.Ka - 2cKa + pw kN/m

pp = .h.Kp + 2cKp + pw kN/m
The coefficients of earth pressure used in the calculations are:

Loose fine sand:
Ka = 0.33,
Kp = 4.9
Kp = 6.0
Dense fine sand:
Ka = 0.27,
pa at :
ground level
= 10 x 0.33
= 3.3 kN/m
4m below ground level in loose fine sand
= 78.6 x 0.33
= 26 kN/m
4m below ground level in dense fine sand
= 78.6 x 0.27
= 21.3 kN/m
= 89.6 x 0.27 + 9.8
= 34 kN/m
= 111.2 x 0.27 + 29.4
=59.4 kN/m
= 154.4 x 0.27 + 68.6
=110.3 kN/m
pw at 7m below ground level
= 19.6 kN/m
pp at 11m below ground level in dense fine sand
= 43.1 x 6.0 + 58.8
= 317.4 kN/m
Net pp at 7m below ground level in dense fine sand
= 59.4 - 19.6
= 39.8 kN/m
= 317.4 - 110.2
= 207.2 kN/m
Moments of active pressures about waling level:

Active Pressure
3.3 x 4.0 x 0.5 =
Moment of Active Pressure about 'O'

6.6
6.6 x 0.333 =
2.2
26 x 4.0 x 0.5 =
52.0
52.0 x 1.667 =
86.7
21.2 x 1.0 x 0.5 =
10.6
10.6 x 3.333 =
35.3
34 x 1.0 x 0.5 =
17.0
17.0 x 3.667 =
62.3
34 x 2.0 x 0.5 =
34.0
34.0 x 4.667 =
158.7
39.8 x 2.0 x 0.5 =
39.8
5.9 x 5.333 =
212.3
39.8 x 0.645 x 0.5 =
12.8
12.8 x 6.215 =
= 172.7 kN
79.8
= 637.3 kNm
For stability the moment of passive pressure about the waling level must be at least equal to the
moment of active active pressure about the waling.
The rate of increase of the passive pressure with depth:
= (39.8 + 207.2) / 4 = 61.75 kN/m per metre.
Hence 61.75 / 2 * x (6.645 + 2x/3) = 673.3 and therefore x 1.63m
The total net passive pressure is 61.75 x 1.63 x 0.5 = 82.0 kN/m.
Moment of passive pressure about waling level = 82 x (6.645 + 2 x 1.63 / 3) = 634 kNm
Total net active pressure = 172.7 kN
Therefore the force in the aling ans supports = 172.7 - 82.0 = 90.7 kN/m run of wall.
Zero shear (where area of active pressure diagram = waling force) is at 5.12m below pile top.
Moments about and below level of zero shear:
82.0 x 3.612 =
296.2
-34.3 x 1.880 x 0.5 x 0.627

=
-20.2
-39.8 x 1.880 x 0.5 x 1.25 =
-46.8
-39.8 x 0.645 x 0.5 x 2.095

=
-26.9
= 202.3 kNm
The maximum bending moment on the piles = 202.3 kNm per metre run of all.
Section modulus required = (202.3 x 1000 x 100) / (180 x 100) = 1124 cm/m
In this example it has been assumed that the wall is to be used for permanent works for which a
working stress of 180 N/mm is adopted.
Penetration required to give a factor of safety of 2 against rotation of the wall about the waling
level = y + 0.645 + 7.00
To find y, 61.75y/2 * (6.645 + 2/3y) = 2 x 636.4 and therefore y 2.24m.
Moments of net passive pressure with 2.24 + 0.645 = 2.885m penetration.

2.24 x 61.75 x 2.24 x 0.5 x (6.645 + 2 x 2.24 / 3) = 1260.7 kNm
(c.f. 2 x 637.3 = 1275 kNm)
Therefore actual Factor of Safety against rotational failure = 1260.7 / 637.3 = 1.98
Total pile length required = 7.00 + 0.645 + 2.24 = 9.885 say 10m.
Use LX12 or Frodingham 2N piles in EN10248: S270GP steel, 10m long.
Note: Although these sheet pile sections will be adequate for structural purposes the designer must
check that they will be drivable to the required depth and will provide the required effective life.
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RETAINING WALLS
Factor of Safety
Many different methods of analysis have been developed to calculate the
embedment depth required to ensure stability in a retaining structure. In the main,
these methods are empirical and start with the concept that the soil will attain
active and passive pressure conditions at the point of failure. The pressure
diagrams resulting from this ultimate condition are then used to determine the
length of the pile required to achieve moment equilibrium. However, as this
represents imminent failure of the wall, a factor of safety is applied, to ensure that
the soil stresses are limited to an appropriate value and that the failure condition is
not realised in practice.
The factor of safety can be applied in a number of different ways:
Application of a multiplying factor to increase the calculated depth of

embedment required for limiting equilibrium.
Reduction of the soil strengths by application of an appropriate factor.
Increasing the net or gross pressures acting on the structure by application
of an appropriate factor.
The magnitude of the factor or factors to be applied is dependent upon the method
of analysis to be used and should reflect the confidence the designer places in his
choice of soil parameters for design and the deformation limits to be applied to the
structure.
Methods by which factors of safety can be introduced to design calculations based
on active and passive limit pressures include the gross pressure method, the net
pressure method, the revised method and the factor on strength method. These
are discussed in general terms below.
Gross Pressure Method (Fp)
Commonly referred to as the CP2 method, the factor of safety is applied to the
gross passive pressure diagram only. This approach can lead to an anomaly in
undrained conditions where Ka = Kp =1 as, beyond a certain depth of embedment,
the calculated factor of safety decreases with increasing length of wall. This
situation results from the fact that the bulk weight of the soil on the passive side,
used to calculate the earth pressures acting on the wall, is effectively reduced by
the factor of safety.
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Net Pressure Method (Fnp)
The method has been used by designers for many years and is often referred to as
the British Steel Piling Handbook method. The factor of safety is applied to the net
passive pressure diagram which is derived by subtracting the active earth pressure
and water pressure at a given level from the passive earth pressure and water
pressure. The method tends to give higher factors of safety for a given geometry
when compared to other methods, but careful selection of conservative design
parameters will give acceptable analysis results.
Revised Method (Fr)
Often referred to as the Burland and Potts method, the factor of safety is applied to
the moment of the net available passive components of the active pressure which
result from the weight of soil below dredge level. In effect the factor of safety is
applied to the dead weight of soil below dredge level on both sides of the wall. This
method partially overcomes the anomaly in the gross pressure method.
Factor on Strength Method (Fs)
In this approach, the strength parameters of the soil are reduced by an appropriate
factor in a method analogous to the calculation of embankment stability. The effect
is to increase Ka and decrease Kp, modifying the pressure distribution relative to
that used as a base in the other described methods.
This distortion of the pressure diagram affects the bending moment calculation and
it is recommended that this method is only used to determine the wall length. The
advantage of this method is that the parameters which introduce the greatest
uncertainty to a design are factored.
With each method of analysis, for the same input parameters, the limiting
equilibrium condition (factor of safety = 1), will result in the same depth of
penetration. The application of the factor of safety to different areas of the moment
equation as required by the various methods of analysis will result in different
penetration lengths for the same factor of safety value.
Note: The factor on strength approach to design is favoured by BS 8002:1994 and
Eurocode 7, the standards which govern the design of earth retaining structures in
the UK.
In both documents, partial factors are applied to the various parameters affecting
the wall design (ie soil density, surcharges, loads etc) to enhance unfavourable
(disturbing) loads and pressures and downrate favourable ones. The adjusted
input data are then analysed to determine the equilibrium condition as the partial
factors provide the appropriate factor of safety. Different factors are applied
dependent upon the nature of the analysis being carried out, ie serviceability or
ultimate limit state.
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RETAINING WALLS
Softened Zone
Where soft cohesive soils are exposed at dredge or excavation level it is advisable
when calculating passive pressures to assume that the cohesion increases linearly
from zero to the design cohesion value over the top metre of passive soil.
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RETAINING WALLS
Analysis of Pressure Diagrams
When creating a pressure diagram to work with, it is essential that the pressure
conditions are calculated at every change of state of the problem, ie strata
boundaries, water tables, excavation depth etc. However, when designs involve a
support, it is often convenient to include a pressure calculation at this level. When
taking moments of pressures about a given position, the diagram can be broken
down in different ways to produce a series of sensible units. It should be noted that
in the situation where the pressure diagram is divided into rectangles and
triangles, care must be taken to introduce the 1/2 factor for areas of triangles and
either 1/3, 2/3 or 1/2 when assessing moments of areas about a point. When
divided only into triangles, the 1/2 factor in the area calculation appears
everywhere and the moment factor will be 1/3 or 2/3.
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RETAINING WALLS
Design for Bending Moments
There are two methods by which bending moments in retaining structures can be calculated
from limit equilibrium pressures, one for the equilibrium condition where the earth pressure
diagram is truncated at the wall length where the rotational factor of safety is 1 and the other
for the in-service condition where the earth pressure diagram over the specified wall length is
adopted. These are often referred to as ultimate and working bending moments respectively (to
the confusion of some structural engineers).
For the equilibrium condition, bending moments and shear forces in the wall are computed at
limiting equilibrium with unfactored soil parameters, ie factor of safety = 1. The actual design
depth of embedment is deeper than required to achieve stability against rotational failure, but
this additional length, which will in effect cause a partial fixity of the wall and therefore a
reduction in maximum bending moment, is not taken into account in calculations.
For the in-service condition, bending moments and shear forces in the wall are computed from
the earth pressures acting on the wall in its specified state. The service pressures are obtained
from the limiting equilibrium pressures by dividing the relevant pressure component by the
current factor of safety. The result of the calculation is therefore dependent upon the method
used to determine the factor of safety.
In the case of a cantilever, the difference in bending moments calculated by each method is
very small.
In the new partial factor design methods, a service condition for the bending moments results
as the earth pressures are already factored and the calculated pressure diagram is used to
compute structural forces and moments in the wall.
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RETAINING WALLS
Bending Moment Reduction
The simplifying assumptions made in design calculations concerning the linear
increase in active and passive pressures in a material does not take into account
the interaction between the soil and the structure. Studies have shown that this
can have a significant effect on the distribution of earth pressures and consequent
bending moments and shear forces on a structure.
The reduction in calculated bending moments is a function of the soil type and the
flexibility of the wall in comparison to the supported soil. When a supported,
flexible wall deflects, a movement away from the soil occurs between the support
position and the embedded portion of the wall. This effect often leads to a form of
arching within the supported soil mass which allows the soil to maximise its own
internal support capabilities effectively reducing the pressures applied to the wall.
For a relatively flexible structure, such as an anchored sheet pile wall, the effect of
wall deformation will increase the pressures acting above the anchor level, as the
wall is moving back into the soil using the support as a pivot, and reduce the
pressures on the wall below this level where the biggest deflections occur.
The result of a redistribution of pressures is therefore a reduction in the maximum
bending moment on a wall, but an increase in support reaction.
Redistribution should not be considered for cantilever walls or where the structure
is likely to be subjected to vibrational or large impact forces which could destroy
the soil arch. Similarly, if the support system is likely to yield or movement of the
wall toe is expected, moment reduction should not be applied. Where stratified
soils exist, moment reduction should be viewed with caution since soil arching is
less likely to occur in soils of varying strength.
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RETAINING WALLS
Support Location
The location of supports to a retaining structure has a critical bearing on the
structural requirements of the wall itself. As has been illustrated in the preceding
sections, consideration of the wall as either fixed or free in terms of its mode of
operation directly affects the bending moments and shear forces to be resisted by
the wall. Similarly, the position at which supports are assumed to act will affect the
magnitude of bending moments and shear forces and consequently the support
reaction required for stability.
Conventional design methods assume a particular form of failure for the structure.
For example, in the case of a wall designed for free earth support, forward rotation
of the toe of the wall occurs and to achieve this, the support system must act
above the mid-point of the retained height. The factor of safety methods discussed
previously all assume that this form of failure occurs and are all based on the
provision of a single support location. When multiple supports are provided, the
conventional methods of analysis do not apply and consideration must be given to
the mode or modes of failure which will occur.
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RETAINING WALLS
Calculating Support Forces
For a wall with a single support, the support reaction can be calculated using either
of the two methods indicated for the calculation of bending moments; ie under
equilibrium conditions when the factor of safety equals 1 or under in-service
conditions when the particular factor of safety calculated for the prescribed pile
length is used to factor the applied earth pressures.
It is recommended that the calculated reaction force is increased by 25% to allow
for arching and stress redistribution behind the wall. However, experience with
similar structures in the particular soil types may enable the designer to reduce
that figure.
The design of the support system for a retaining structure should incorporate a
factor of safety of at least 2 and it is prudent to be conservative when assessing
the support loads and member sizes as the effects of under design can be
catastrophic.
As with bending moment calculations, adoption of a partial factor design philosophy
will result in the calculation of support reactions for the service condition.
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RETAINING WALLS
Walls Supported by Multi-Level Struts or Ties
As discussed above, the conventional design methods based on a factor of safety against
rotational failure assume that the wall will fail in a particular manner. When more than one level
of support is provided to a wall the potential failure mode changes provided that the supports
are not close enough together to act as a single support. With multiple levels of support, the wall
will not fail by rotation and failure will be as a result of collapse of the support system or
excessive bending of the piles. Consequently, provided that the wall and supports are sufficiently
strong to resist the worst credible loading conditions, failure of the structure cannot occur.
To assess the bending moments and reaction forces in a multipropped wall, a number of analysis
methods have been developed. Unfortunately, the structure is statically indeterminate and a
number of assumptions need to be made to enable the structure to be analysed.
Hinge Method
This method allows the structure to be analysed at successive stages of construction, modelling
the retaining wall at a number of construction stages when additional supports are introduced.
The method assumes that a hinge occurs at each support position except the first, the spans
between the frames being considered as simply supported beams loaded with earth and water
pressures; the span between the lowest support and excavation level is designed as a single
propped wall with the appropriate earth and water pressures applied. Prop loads calculated using
this method include the respective load from adjacent spans.
The analysis of structures using this method is carried out on a stage by stage basis with
excavation being carried out to sufficient depth to enable the next level of support to be
installed. It is therefore possible that the support loads and bending moments calculated for a
given stage of excavation are exceeded by those from a previous stage and it is important that
the highest values of calculated support force and bending moments are used for design
purposes.
Using this method, it is possible to calculate a depth of penetration to give a factor of safety
against rotational failure as the lowest span is treated as a singly supported wall and can
therefore be analysed as such. This can be a comfort to designers as the calculations show that
a given FoS has been achieved. However, this should only be considered as an indicative value
as the remainder of the piled wall has been ignored and failure will not be in the form assumed.
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Pressure Envelopes
This method of analysis is empirical and based upon loads measured in struts which were then
used to construct envelope diagrams of the horizontal earth pressures acting on a wall. The
envelopes, which take into account the variations in strut load that occur in practice, are
trapezoidal in form, the magnitude of the loading diagram being a function of the ground type.
The total load represented by the area of the trapezoid exceeds the load predicted using the
Rankine pressure distribution by a factor between 1.3 and 1.75 depending on soil types.
The most frequently used diagrams are those developed by Terzaghi and Peck, which were
subsequently modified by Peck. For granular and mixed soils, the water and surcharge pressures
should be added to the diagram to enable the prop forces to be calculated. No allowance should
be made for continuity of the wall when using this method, each support load being calculated
from a summation of the appropriate parts of the pressure envelope. This method of analysis is
not recommended for the calculation of bending moments.
Continuous Beam Method
The wall is assumed to act as a vertical beam subjected to a pressure distribution with reactions
at support points. The bottom of the beam is also assumed to be supported below excavation
level by a soil reaction at the point at which the net active pressure on the wall falls below zero.
Mobilised earth pressures are assumed to act on the wall, the magnitude of these pressures are
dependent upon a factor governed by the permissible movements of the wall being designed.
The minimum recommended mobilised earth pressure is however 1.3 times that resulting from
the use of ka to determine soil pressures on the wall.
Each support is modelled either as rigid or as a spring, depending on its compressibility. The
displacement at a rigid support is zero, whereas in a spring it is propor-tional to the force carried
by the spring.
The hypothetical soil support is modelled in one of three ways.
If the net pressure does not fall to zero anywhere along the wall, the hypothetical soil support is
ignored and the embedded portion of the wall is treated as if it were a cantilever. This situation
is likely to occur if there is only a short depth of embedment or the active pressures are
particularly large. The applied load in this case is carried entirely by the props.
If the net pressure does fall to zero along the length of the wall, the hypothetical soil support is
considered as a rigid prop. This situation is likely to occur if there is a large depth of embedment
or the active pressures are particularly small. The applied load in this case is shared by the
props and the soil. The force carried by the soil is equal to the jump in shear force that occurs at
the hypothetical soil support. Under this assumption it is essential to check that the force
assumed to be provided by the hypothetical soil support is not greater than the available soil
resistance below that support. If it is greater, the following method should be applied.
If the net pressure falls to zero, but the available soil resistance below the point at which that
occurs is less than that required by the rigid soil prop, a finite soil reaction equal in magnitude to
the available soil resistance should be adopted in subsequent calculations. This situation is likely
to occur if there is a moderate depth of embedment. The applied load in this case is shared by
the props and the soil.
The force carried by the soil is equal to the change in shear force that occurs at the hypothetical
soil support.
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RETAINING WALLS
Selection of Pile Section
The section required for installation should be considered at an early stage in the
design process as it may be necessary to provide a heavy section and/or a high
quality of steel where it is anticipated that piles will need to be driven to deep
penetration or where driving will be hard.
Provision of piles for driving will influence the support requirements. Information
regarding the selection of piles on the basis of installation conditions is given in
Installation.
The absolute minimum sheet pile section required for the retaining wall is obtained
from the bending moments which have been derived by calculation for the
particular case in question.
The requirements with respect to the effective life of the retaining wall should then
be applied to the minimum section required for bending. The effect of corrosion on
the steel piles is to reduce the section strength and the design must ensure that
the section selected will be able to resist the applied bending moments at the end
of the specified life span without exceeding design stresses. In many instances the
need for a heavy section for driving automatically introduces the additional
strength needed for durability. This is covered in more detail in Installation.
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Installation - Corus Piling Handbook
INSTALLATION
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Plant and Equipment
1. Plant Type Selection for Granular Soils
2. Plant Type Selection for Cohesive Soils
3. Plant Type Selection for Mixed Soils
3. External Considerations
4. Pile Section for Drivability
1. Cohesionless Soils
2. Cohesive Soils
5. Impact Hammer Energy for Pile Section
6. Vibratory Hammer Energy for Pile Section
7. Driving Method
1. Pitch and Drive Method
2. Panel Driving Method
8. Ancillary Equipment
1. Pile Threading Devices
2. Ground Release Lifting Shackles
3. Pile Extractors
4. Pumping Equipment
9. Driving Sheet Piling
1. Alignment of Driving Hammer
2. Submerged Piling
3. Driving in Limited Headroom
4. Control of the Wall Length
10. Hard Driving Conditions
1. Rock
2. Hard Ground
3. Toe Pinning
11. Obstructions
1. Correction of Leaning
12. Drawing Down
13. Jetting Steel Sheet Pilling and Bearing Piles
14. Ground Pre-Treatment
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INSTALLATION
Introduction
The success of any piling scheme requires satisfactory completion of the following
stages.
1. Competent site investigation, sampling and relevant testing to build up an

informed picture of the task.
2. Adequate design of all the stages of the construction.
3. Setting out and installation of the piles.
The first two stages are dealt with elsewhere in this handbook and can be
referred to as required. The last one can be divided into two equally
important parts, namely the selection of plant to give optimum performance
and pile selection to enable this performance in terms of drivability. The
following details are intended as a guide to efficient and economical pile
installation.
As with all site operations the relevant legislation and guidance on matters
pertaining to safety must be strictly adhered to
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INSTALLATION
Plant and Equipment
A wide variety of plant is available to facilitate the economical installation (and extraction for
temporary works) of all types of conventional piling. The choice of piling plant must be considered
well in advance of actual driving operations to ensure the best results from the outset. The
following tables do not list every piece of plant available for economical pile installation but gives
an indication as to the categories of plant which are available, which ground characteristics they
are suited to, and other consider-ations relevant to their use.
Plant Type Selection For Granular Soils
Plant Type Selection For Cohesive Soils
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Plant Type Selection for Mixed Soils
Sites where the soils can be classified as wholly granular or wholly cohesive over the entire depth
of penetration for the pile are very rare and hence the selection of plant must be a compromise,
choosing the plant suited to the dominant soil type, but then checking that the chosen plant has a
reasonable capability to penetrate the other soils.
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INSTALLATION
External Considerations
The choice of plant will often be influenced by noise and vibration limitations. The table below gives
guidance on the noise emissions associated with different plant types and the type of vibration
caused. It is very important to note that noise and vibration waves attenuate quickly with distance
from source, so although a particular hammer may exceed given limits at source, by the time these
waves have propogated to the nearest affected structure etc they may be well within the stipulated
levels deemed acceptable. This table relates to levels of noise and vibration at source and not at
distance from source.
Key:
V Low
acceptable in all circumstances
Low
acceptable in all but extreme cases
Medium
borderline when occupied facade is close
High
not acceptable close to occupied or susceptible facades
Cont
continuous vibration during drive
Int
intermittent vibration from each hammer blow
Note: Further guidance is available from the Corus Construction Centre.
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INSTALLATION
Pile Section for Drivability
It is important to check that the pile section is capable of withstanding the rigours of driving and
will reach the desired penetration in a condition suited to the application for which it is intended.
The strength of the pile in driving is a function of its width (interlock spacing), the thickness of the
pan and web and its moment of inertia. In order to consider all these factors in terms of one
descriptor, the section modulus (cm3/m) is used. Generally, sheet piles increase in driving capacity
as the section modulus increases.
Drivability of a particular section may be increased by specification of a higher grade of steel.
The following tables are intended to be used as a guide to pile sizing for drivablilty using percussive
methods.
Cohesionless Soils
NOTE:
The N value is the Standard Penetration Test Value.
Dominant means the high average for the soils to be penetrated. Where piles are to be driven to
a toe hold in rock, the N value shall be divided by a factor of 4 for that stratum only.
It should be stressed that these figures are for guidance purposes only for the less
experienced designer and cannot be seen as a substitute for previous job experience.
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Cohesive Soils
It is difficult to provide precise guidance for drivability in cohesive soils due to variations in pile
adhesion, moisture content of the soil, etc which will affect the driving resistance.
However the following table may be used as a guide:
It will be noted that this table does not take into account the overall length of the pile and hence
does not allow for cumulative skin friction/adhesion effects in the selection of the required pile
section for drivability.
When considering the length of the pile to be driven it is recommended that the following maximum
driving lengths are not exceeded:
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INSTALLATION
Impact Hammer Energy for Pile Section
When the most suitable hammer type has been chosen, after consideration of the site conditions
and external limitations, the actual size of hammer must be selected to give the input energy
required to drive the pile or piles to the required depth. The table above gives guidance as to the
actual energy which must be imparted to the pile (ie after allowance for any efficiency losses), to
drive it to the required depth. However this is not intended as a substitute for engineering
experience or local knowledge and should be treated as the preliminary process in hammer sizing.
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INSTALLATION
Vibratory Hammer Energy for Pile Section
These types of hammers temporarily disturb the soil local to the pile, reducing
friction and allowing the pile to penetrate under self weight and the weight of the
hammer and, in the correct ground conditions, offer the best production rates.
Thus they are suited only to granular soil (less than very dense) and only the
softest cohesive materials, since these respond to particle excitement. Hence it is a
matter of experience to determine which size and frequency of vibratory hammer
will achieve best results in given soil conditions. As preliminary guidance the
following formula may be applied:
F = 15 (t + 2G) / 100 kN
where
F
is centrifugal force in kN
is driving depth in m
is mass of the pile/piles in kg
A penetration rate of 500mm/ minute is usually applied, below which close

monitoring is required to avoid excessive heat production in the interlocks.
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INSTALLATION
Driving Method
After initial plant type considerations, thought must also be given to the type of
driving method to be adopted. The methods of driving can be broken into two
distinct groups :
Pitch and Drive Method
As the name suggests this method entails the pitching of each pile or pair of piles
and driving to finished level before repeating the operation. The plant required for
this usually comprises a crane or specialist lifting machine with a leader
attachment. The pile/s are winched into the leader and guided by restraints at the
pile head and at a second position usually near to the base of the leader, ensuring
that verticality is maintained throughout the installation. The advantage of this
method is that speed of installation is maximised. However it would not be
considered a suitable technique where long piles are to be installed, where the
ground conditions may give rise to hard driving or where obstructions are likely to
be encountered during the drive.
As each driving operation is carried out, with the trailing clutch interlocked with the
previously driven pile but the leading lock free, there can be a tendency for the
piles to lean in the direction of wall progress. Only with care and frequent
monitoring and correction can this problem be avoided. This method is suited to
the installation of bearing piles and King Pile systems.
Panel Driving Method
Once guide frames (on at least two levels) have been correctly positioned, the first
pair of piles should be carefully pitched, plumbed and partly driven to form a guide
for adjacent piles. The remaining panel of piles (usually 10-20m run of wall per
panel) is then pitched and interlocked. The last pair of piles pitched into the panel
are then partially driven, followed by the partial driving of the rest of the panel,
working back towards the first pair in the panel. Care must be taken not to allow
any departure from the vertical. The top guide walings can then be removed and
all but the last pair of piles in the panel are driven to level. The last pair of piles are
left partially upstanding to form the guide pair for the commencement of the next
panel.
This process is repeated panel by panel. Where long piles are to be driven, it is
common to use a lighter hammer for the initial driving and a heavier hammer for
the deeper driving stages.
Where obstructions are encountered, the remainder of the panel can be completed
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and the piles which are obstructed will then have support from neighbouring piles
during any attempt to drive through the obstruction. If this is not successful, panel
driving can continue whilst the obstruction is removed, minimising delays to
construction.
Adoption of this method allows difficult driving conditions to be more capably dealt
with and will generally result in better vertical alignment.
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Panel driving
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INSTALLATION
Ancillary Equipment
Pile Threading Devices
Pile threaders are mechanical devices for interlocking sheet piles into panels. They
are attached to the piles to be interlocked at ground level and eliminate the need
for a top man to manually guide the piles into interlock, which has always been a
dangerous occupation. In addition to improving safety on site, pile threaders can
also be operated in fairly severe weather conditions when pile pitching with a top
man would not normally be considered.
Ground Release Lifting Shackles
These devices were developed for lifting piles into position and for the quick
release of the shackle from a safe location at ground level. Used in conjunction
with a pile threading device, the need for a man at the top of the piles is eliminated.
Pile Extractors
Where piling is intended to serve only as temporary works it can be extracted for
re-use by means of a suitable extractor. Extraction can be carried out by means of
a purpose built impact extractor or by use of a conventional vibro driver. In either
case, care must be taken to ensure that the crane has an appropriately sized jib to
prevent damage when the extraction force is applied.
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Pumping Equipment
In cases where flooding or water seepage could occur within the area, sufficient
pumping capacity should be made available to ensure the continuity of work.
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INSTALLATION
Driving Sheet Piling
Alignment of Driving Hammer
It is essential that pile driving hammers be correctly positioned so that the hammer
will deliver its blow in line with the axis of the pile. Driving with the hammer offcentre or out of line merely contributes to leaning and can damage the pile heads.
Submerged Piling
When it is required to drive piling below water level, a dolly pile should be inserted
between the hammer and the pile head, the dolly pile being of such a length that
the hammer is always above water. Some types of hammer operate under water,
in which case the dolly pile is not required.
Driving in Limited Headroom
The great difficulties imposed when pitching and driving with restricted headroom
warrant the consideration of the practical and economic possibilities of removing
the overhead obstruction. If this is not possible, headroom may be increased by
the excavation of a trench along the proposed line of the piling.
In situations where headroom is limited the piles should be pitched and driven in
panels, but this leads to difficulties due to lack of pitching height. These can be
overcome by assembling a panel of piles horizontally on the ground, the length of
the piles being less than the headroom. The panels should be bolted to temporary
walings and moved into position by means of an overhead runway. Alternatively,
where convenient, the panel may be floated into position on the side of a barge. It
may be necessary to have a shorter pile in the end of the panel to facilitate
interlocking with the previously driven piles. A supplementary making-up piece is
required to be inserted over the short pile after partial driving of the panel, the two
shorter lengths being fishplated or welded together.
When the length of the pile exceeds the available headroom, the piles must be
driven in short lengths which are welded or fishplated together as driving proceeds,
the joints being to the full strength of the section.
Driving is commenced using a double-acting hammer mounted in a cradle
suspended at the side of the pile. As soon as sufficient headroom is available the
hammer should be moved to the normal driving position. Alternatively the initial
penetration may be achieved by jacking the piles down from the overhead
obstruction.
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Control of the Wall Length
Some control over the running length of the wall can be established during pitching
by adjusting the overall depth of the pile section and consequently adjusting the
theoretical distance between lock centres.
Larssen Sections:
If the wall is found to be gaining in length, this gain may be corrected by reducing
the depth of the section with timber blocks placed between the outside faces of the
piles and the guide walings. Conversely a loss in length may be corrected by
increasing the depth of the section with timber blocks between the inside faces and
the guide walings. (See Figure below)
Frodingham Sections:
If the wall is found to be gaining in length, this gain may be corrected by

increasing the depth of section with timber blocks placed between the inside faces
of the piles and the guide walings. Conversely a loss in length can be corrected by
decreasing the depth of the section, however this will decrease marginally the
effective strength of a wall. (See Figure below)
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INSTALLATION
Hard Driving Conditions
Each pile, or pair of piles, should be marked off in 25mm intervals to enable the
engineer to record the penetration during the later stages of driving; the number of
hammer blows taken to drive a pile over a given number of these intervals will
indicate the measure of progress being made.
Rock
Where penetration into rock is required, the selection of pile section, steel quality,
and type and size of hammer is most important.
In this case, driving conditions may require a heavier pile than that derived from
design considerations. It may also be necessary to use high yield quality steel
(S355GP) to reduce the distortion of the piles.
Where very hard driving occurs it is possible that the pile heads will be distorted
before full penetration has been achieved. Immediately damage to the pile head
becomes apparent, driving should be stopped and the damaged portion burnt off in
order to avoid further damage and reduction of hammer energy. In extreme cases
it may be an advantage to use a shaped cast steel driving cap.
Hard Ground
Similar qualifications to those given for rock regarding the size of piling and quality
of steel are applicable. A considerable choice of hammer is available, the main
consideration being that the hammer should be of ample size.
Toe Pinning
It is possible to secure pile toes into rock by use of steel pins. This may be required
where it is not feasible to drive piles to the required penetration or where there is
concern that the pile may slide down a sloping rock stratum. The pins can be
welded to the pile before driving or may be installed via tubes which are attached
to and driven with the piles. In the latter case, a hole is drilled into the rock and
the pin is then grouted into position.
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INSTALLATION
Obstructions
Increased resistance to driving at an early stage could be considered attributable
to boulders, rubble, roots, etc. Under these conditions it is essential to drive the
piling in panels. If a pile encounters an obstruction during driving, the hammer
should be transferred to subsequent piles in the panel until piles clear of the
obstruction are located. These piles should then be driven and the hammer
returned to the difficult section of the panel where there will be a greater possibility
of displacing or breaking through the obstruction without damage to the piles as
the obstructed piles would be guided by the adjacent driven piles. Piles which for
any reason become badly distorted should be withdrawn and replaced if possible.
Where regular obstructions are expected pile toe strengthening, by cast shoes,
may be worth consideration to give better strength on the toe during impact on the
obstruction and to minimise driving resistance due to wall adhesion/friction from
upper strata. However the effects of this must be allowed for in design calculations,
especially if wall adhesion/friction has been included in the design analysis.
Correction of Leaning
In order to avoid the tendency of sheet piling to lean, the hammer should be
placed over the centre of gravity of the piles being driven and should be
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INSTALLATION
Drawing Down
When piles are being driven in soft ground, particularly when they are allowed to
lean, the pile being driven may draw down the adjacent pile below its intended
final level. If this occurs the affected pile should be extended by welding on a short
length.
In order to prevent the drawing down of already driven piles, several may be
bolted together with a waling, or alternatively the interlocks may be tack welded.
As a further precaution against drawing down when using Larssen sections, a rivet
or bolt may be inserted in the leading interlock of the pile prior to driving, thus
preventing soil entering the interlocks, and reducing friction in the driving of the
next pile. cross-sectional area. It is not necessary to attach the jetting pipe to the
pile, it often helps to surge it into the ground slightly ahead of the pile.
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INSTALLATION
Jetting Steel Sheet Pilling and Bearing Piles
Driving in sand, silty sand, fine sandy gravel, and similar non-cohesive soils can
usually be assisted by jets of water at high pressure directed into the ground
alongside and below the pile. In some cases jetting is so effective that ordinary
driving can almost be dispensed with, but at least the last metre of driving should
be carried out without jetting, so that the lower part of the pile is in undisturbed
soil.
With steel sheet piling jetting is not essential but may be very effective in
improving the progress of the work. In fine waterlogged sand jetting with
compressed air sometimes gives good results.
It is best to have a pipe on either side of the pile as a single jet pipe tends to make
the pile go off line. Occasionally a single pipe is positioned on the centre of each
pile with a special nozzle opening at the same level as the pile toe. The water from
the jetting pump is led through a flexible hose into pipes of 40mm to 50mm
diameter, terminating in a nozzle or fishtail of slightly smaller cross-sectional area.
It is not necessary to attach the jetting pipe to the pile, it often helps to surge it
into the ground slightly ahead of the pile.
When jetting steel piling the pump should be able to deliver up to about 450 to 600
litres per min at a pressure of 0.5 to 0.8 N/sq mm or more, but for box piles, 1500
litres per min or even more may be required. Jetting must be discontinued at 1
metre minimum from final level of piles. A possible serious disadvantage of jetting
is that it may cause disturbance either to nearby piles which have already been
installed or to adjacent existing structures.
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INSTALLATION
Ground Pre-Treatment
Where the section choice is dominated by driving considerations rather than the
moment capacity it may be cost effective to consider pre-treatment of the ground
to allow a lighter section choice for drivability. This can take many forms depending
on the ground conditions:
1. Pre auguring to weaken or replace hard ground, can be adopted either in

advance of piling or alongside part driven piles.
2. Driving of heavier section or similar drivable unit along the proposed piling line,
extract the heavy unit and drive the working piles in the prepared ground
3. Use of controlled explosions to reduce very dense soil or obstructions to a fine
granular material without displace-ment rather than to blast a cavity.
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Canary Wharf Jubilee Line Extension

Photograph by kind courtesy of London Underground Limited
Contractor: Christiani ORourke JV
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RETAINING WALLS
Development of Section Strength
The development of full section modulus in a sheet pile wall is based upon the
assumption that any two adjacent flanges are able to work together when
subjected to bending. Bending induces tension in one face of the wall and
compression in the other and the parts of the pile connecting the two flanges
together must maintain this stress state for the wall to develop full inertia and
hence section modulus.
The flange sections of Z profile piles are connected by continuous webs and full
section modulus will always be developed in this type of sheet pile wall.
In the case of U profile piles, the connecting section incorporates an interlock which
is located on the centre line or neutral axis of the wall. This is the position where
the stress induced in the wall due to bending is theoretically zero with one pile in
the interlocked pair in tension and the other in compression. If the two piles are
able to displace relative to one another along the interlock then the full modulus of
the combined sections will not be realised, but if that movement is prevented they
will act as a combined unit and full modulus will result.
The movement can be resisted or eliminated by physically connecting the individual
sections together. This can be practically achieved by welding or crimping the
interlocks or by embedding the pile in a capping beam or in soil. In most situations,
the longitudinal movement will be resisted by the development of friction in the
common interlock; the greater the frictional resistance generated in the interlocks,
the higher the proportion of the combined section modulus which can be
developed. If it is assumed that there is no interaction at all, which is a very
extreme situation, the section modulus of single piles must be used in calculations
as the piles will be able to bend independently and combined action will not occur.
In practice, friction will always be present in one form or another, and the following
are some of the factors which will affect the development of friction in interlocked
piles.
The variation of interlock geometry along the length of a pile as a result of

production tolerances will result in a degree of interference when adjacent
sections are interlocked.
Driving the piles into the ground will cause soil particles to be forced into the
interlocks enhancing any frictional resistance.
The application of strut or tie forces through walings will force the interlocks
together preventing relative movement.
The fact that the piles are driven substantial distances into the soil to
generate the required passive resistance will prevent relative longitudinal
movement.
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Any deflection will cause adjacent piles to bind up due to the relatively close
fitting nature of the interlocks.
The situations which may require consideration regarding the development
of full section modulus when designing U profile pile walls are as follows:
Piles acting in cantilever when no head restraint in the form of a capping
beam is to be provided.
Piles cantilevering for significant distances above or below a support.
Piles supporting water or very soft materials when the piles are not driven to
the design penetration depth, ie as a result of obstructions.
The introduction of lubricants into the interlocks of Larssen piles as an aid to

driving will effectively reduce the frictional resistance developed in the interlocks
and it should not be overlooked that this action may reduce the section modulus of
the wall.
Larssen or U profile piles have been in use for over 60 years in the construction of
embedded retaining walls and only in a limited number of very specific cases has
reduced modulus action been observed, for example where piles were not
embedded or very soft clays were present. However, should the designer wish to
guarantee the wall modulus, the main options are to specify Z piles or alternatively
weld/crimp piles together into pairs. (see here for further details.)
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RETAINING WALLS
Design Bending Stresses
The allowable bending stresses which may be used for the design of sheet piled
retaining walls are given below. When designing the wall as a temporary structure,
a higher stress can be allowed to develop in the steel than in the case of a
permanent structure as a temporary wall will not require any allowance for
corrosion and increased deflections may be acceptable.
The design stress in the steel may be slightly increased over the allowable
temporary stress for design cases which occur during intermediate stages in the
construction of a temporary wall at the descretion of the engineer. However this
condition must be of short duration for an increase in allowable stress to be
adopted.
The following table indicates the design stresses to be used in calculations:
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RETAINING WALLS
Low Propped Walls
Research at Imperial College, London has shown that the earth pressures acting on
retaining walls that are restrained with a single level of support at or near
excavation level, are different to those assumed in conventional limit equilibrium
calculations. Conventional calculations assume that the mode of failure for a
retaining structure supported at or near the top will be in the form of a forward
rotation of the pile toe and the pressure distribution at failure is based on this
assumption. The failure mode assumed for a low propped wall is that the pile will
move away from the soil in a similar manner to a cantilever and the pile will move
back into the soil below the support level. This will result in the generation of
passive pressures on the back of the wall and active pressures on the front.
To design a wall incorporating a low prop, there are two fundamental requirements
which must be satisfied for the calculation method to be correct. Firstly, the prop
must be sufficiently rigid to act as a pivot and prevent any forward movement of
the wall and secondly, the sheet piles forming the wall must be capable of resisting
the bending moments induced at the prop level to ensure that rotation of the pile
occurs rather than buckling.
The design rules resulting from the Imperial College work suggest that the earth
pressures below the support should be calculated assuming that active pressures
apply at and above the prop position with full passive pressure at the toe of the
pile; the change from one to the other being linear.
The support may be considered to be at low level if the depth to the support
exceeds two thirds of the retained height of the excavation.
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RETAINING WALLS
Anchorages
General
An anchorage for an earth retaining structure is a system installed into the retained soil to
provide a tensile support to the main wall. Consideration must be given to the ground
conditions, the effect of the installation method on the soil properties and the effect of the
anchor system on adjacent buildings and the land under which the anchorage is to be installed.
Anchorages can be divided into three general categories, rock or soil anchors, tension pile
anchors and deadman anchorages.
The design of soil or rock anchors is dealt with in BS 8081 but should be undertaken by a
specialist with appropriate experience and knowledge of both the soils and the techniques to be
employed. It is normal for anchors of this type to be inclined in order that the anchorage can be
formed in the more competent ground found at depth. The depth achieved by inclination of the
anchors also results in increased overburden pressures acting on the anchor.
Tension piles used as an anchor for retaining walls are usually found either beneath relieving
platforms, as part of an A frame with compression piles or as a raked tension anchorage
attached directly to the wall. The capacity of a driven pile can be assessed from the soil
properties, but the effective anchorage length should not include any part of the tension
member which is within the active failure zone behind the wall to be supported. It is
recommended that any calculations based on soil properties to assess the resistance of the
section to tensile loading are verified by means of a pull-out test. This will not only supply data
relevant to the capacity of the pile under tension but will also yield valuable information on the
likely movement of the pile under working load conditions. The effect of cyclic loading and creep
must be considered when designing tension anchorages in cohesive soils and weak rocks as the
resistance can fall to a residual value under these conditions.
Deadman anchorages generally comprise a second row of sheet piles or concrete blocks
installed at an appropriate distance behind the main wall and attached to the wall by tendons or
tie rods. In each instance the anchorage can be a continuous wall or discrete units depending
upon the anchorage capacity required and any physical limitations on position dictated by the
structure being built. Sheet pile anchorages can be either of the balanced or cantilever type.
Whilst the concrete deadman anchorage does not require walings for the distribution of load
from the tie rod, it is necessary to excavate to the full depth of the anchorage during
construction which may cause difficulties when the water table is close to the ground surface.
The deadman anchorage is designed to mobilise the passive resistance of the soil in front of the
anchorage plus any shear resistance resulting from the movement of the anchorage and passive
soil wedge through the soil.
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RETAINING WALLS
Walings
Walings usually comprise two rolled steelchannel sections placed back to back and spaced to allow
the tie rods to pass between the channels. This spacing must allow for the diameter of the tie rod
and thickness of any protective material applied to the rod and take into account any additional
space required for inclined tie rods which will pass between the walings at an angle.
It is generally convenient to use 102mm or 127mm channel section diaphragms at approximately
1.5m centres. The walings may be fixed either at the back or front of the retaining wall. The first
arrangement is usually adopted for the sake of appearances and, in the case of a wall in tidal or
fluctuating water level conditions, to prevent damage to the waling by floating craft or vice versa.
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When the waling is placed behind the wall it is necessary to use short anchor bolts and plates at
every alternate pile to connect the waling and the wall together. Placing the waling in front of the
wall eliminates the need for connection bolts and this arrangement is therefore more economical.
For ease of handling, walings are generally supplied in 10m lengths. Splices should be located at a
distance of 1/5 of the tie rod spacing from the tie rod as this will be close to the position of
minimum bending moment in the waling. The walings should be supplied 75mm longer than the
theoretical dimensions to allow for any creep which may develop in the wall as the piles are driven,
one end only of each length being drilled for splicing (if the splice is achieved by bolting). The other
end should be plain for cutting and drilling on site, after the actual length required has been
determined by measurement of the driven piles.
In order to facilitate drainage, holes should be provided at 3m centres in the webs of the walings.
Where sheet pile anchorages are used, similar walings to those at the retaining wall are required.
These are always placed behind the anchor piles and consequently no anchor bolts are required.
Where walings form part of the permanent structure they can be supplied with a protective coating
applied before despatch, a further coat being applied at site after completion of the works.
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RETAINING WALLS
Design of Walings in Continuous Anchor Walls
For design purposes, the waling may be considered to be simply supported between the tie rods
(which will result in a conservative bending moment) with point loads applied by the anchor bolts.
The magnitude of the tie bolt load is a function of the bolt spacing and the design support load per
metre run of wall. Alternatively, the waling can be considered as continuous with allowance being
made for end spans. Although the waling is then statically indeterminate it is usual to adopt a
simplified approach where the bending moment is assumed to be wL/10 where w is the calculated
support load acting as a uniformly distributed load and L is the span between tie rods.
Where inclined ties are used, the vertical component of the anchor load must not be overlooked and
provision must be made to support the waling, usually in the form of brackets or welded connections.
The walings should be designed to accommodate the possibility of the failure of a tie rod. The wall
and waling should be designed to be capable of distributing the load from a failed tie rod or anchor.
Under these conditions, it is permissible to increase the allowable steel stress to the yield value.
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RETAINING WALLS
Tie Rods
When designing tie rods, it must be remembered that the load cannot be determined with any great
degree of accuracy due to factors such as arching of the retained soil and variability of the material
retained. It is possible that the actual load on a tie rod may exceed the theoretical value by as much
as 15%. It is, therefore, usual to adopt a working stress lower than the value which would be used
in most structural applications.
The required diameter of tie rods is calculated from the permissible stress acting on the stress area
of the thread as defined in BS3580.
Permissible stresses in tie rods specified in most European codes of practice are governed by the
nature of the load conditions, and are greater in the parent bar than in the threaded section. The
table below sets out the value to be used as a proportion of the yield stress, fy.
Note:
1. Lengths up to 17.5m are available by prior arrangement with manufacturers
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2. 0.1% proof stress

Suggested permanent working loads for steel sheet piling tie rods are given in the table below,
based on rolled threads. The suggested working loads for high strength alloy tie rods are based on a
factor of safety of three on the failure load.
The elongation of the tie rods under the design load should be checked. For steels of higher tensile
strength used at a working stress greater than the mild steel value, the strain at working load may
be more than the structure can accommodate. Move-ment under superimposed loads may be
reduced in many cases by pre-loading the tie rods at the time of installation to develop the passive
resistance of the ground. Details of this technique are given in Site Assembly.
The effect of sag of the tie rods and forced deflection due to settlement of fill should also be
considered. Bending stresses induced at a fixed anchorage may significantly increase the tensile
stress in the tie rod locally. Shear stresses may also be induced if a tie rod is displaced when the fill
settles causing compound stresses which must be allowed for in the detailed design. This can often
be overcome by provision of articulated joints or settlement ducts.
Fittings
For normal use, tie rod assemblies are provided with a nut at each end, a plate to suit the bearing
conditions at each end, and usually a turnbuckle with right and left hand threads to give length
adjustments and take out sag. If the length of the complete rod is such that more than two
elements of bar are required, couplers with two right hand threads are also included. For very large
diameter ties, a coupler with left hand and right hand threads can be provided to eliminate the need
to turn the whole bar, which could weigh up to 1 tonne, when making the connection.
Taper washers or spherical seating washers are used when the axis of a tie rod is not perpendicular
to its seating. In some instances it is desirable to allow for rotation of the axis of a tie rod relative to
the bearing face, and articulated anchorages are available for this purpose.
Plates are needed to transmit the load imposed on sheet piling to the tie rods and from the tie rods
to the anchorages. Washer plates are used when the tie rods are anchored within the pans of sheet
piles and bearing plates when the load is transmitted through walings. When the load is taken to a
concrete wall or block, anchorage plates distribute the load to the concrete. The waling loads are
transmitted to the anchorages by means of anchor bolts which also require bearing plates and
washers of such size as to provide adequate bearing to the sheet piling, walings, etc.
Tie rods are generally available in lengths of up to 12m and it is advisable to provide them with
turnbuckles. Lengths over 12m can be made up by using additional turnbuckles and couplers.
Tie rods are normally supplied in weldable structural steel complying with BS EN10025 grades S275
and S355. For very high loadings steels with higher tensile strengths are available, as shown in this
Table.
Threads may be produced by cold rolling or machining. ISO metric threads to BS3643 are usually
offered on tie rods. However, Macalloy high strength alloy steel bars are supplied with a rolled
thread of a specially designed profile.
Tie Bar Corrosion Protection
Steel sheet piles are used in many aggressive environments and conse-quently corrosion protection
or factors influencing effective life must be considered. Several options are available to the designer.
Effective Life With No Corrosion Protection
In this situation, consideration should be given to the probable corrosion rates in a particular
environment. If the design calculations are completed using stress levels appropriate to BS EN10025
S355JR (BS 4360 Gr 50B) and a higher grade of steel is provided, it is permissible to allow sacrificial
corrosion to take place because of the superior mechanical properties of the steel.
Protective Coatings
Several options are available, such as painting using the Corus paint systems, galvanising or
wrapping. It is however usual to wrap tie bars to give an appropriate level of corrosion protection.
The vulnerable anchor head should be protected, and the figure below shows a recommended detail.
Plates
Dimensions suggested for each type of plate with each diameter and type of steel tie rod are set out
in the tables below. Their use is illustrated in the Figure below. Dimensions of washer plates are
governed by the type of sheet piling used. Details are given for Larssen and Frodingham sections.
Washer plate dimensions have been increased from those previously used, bringing them more in
line with those used elsewhere in Europe. As a general rule the plate length is approximately 80% of
the pan flat and its thickness is approximately 40 to 50% of the thread diameter.
Plates for high strength alloy steel tie rods are designed to suit each specific application.
Taper washers are required when the axis of the tie rods are not perpendicular to their anchorage
seatings. The thickness is varied to enable the nut to seat square with the axis of the tie rod
Special Fittings
Any bending in a tie rod, especially in the thread length increases the stress locally with the
possibility of yield or even failure if the bending is severe. In order to eliminate the risk of bending,
several options are available which allow rotation of the axis of a tie rod while maintaining its tensile
capacity. Some of these methods are illustrated in the Figure below. These include fork ends and
spades or a fork end pinned to a bracket onto the sheet pile. Other options are nuts and washers
with spherical seatings or pairs of taper washers which can be rotated to give any angle between
zero and a predetermined maximum. The last two methods will cater for initial angularity but will
not move to accommodate rotation in service.
Site Assembly
Tie rods are normally assembled with component bars supported to the correct level. Any slack is
then taken out by tightening either a turnbuckle or the nut at one end. It is not possible to apply
more than a nominal tension by tightening the end nut.
Installation
Tie bars perform best in pure tension, so it is good practice to ensure that this is achieved. The
following is a recommended sequence of events to ensure that tie rods are installed and tensioned
correctly.
1. Backfill to approximately 150mm below the finished level for the ties.
2. Lay out tie bars on sand bags placed every 6m and on either side of a coupler/turnbuckle or
articulated joint.
3. Fit settlement ducts over the ties.
4. Assemble with turnbuckles set such that there is a 100mm gap showing between the ends of
the bars. Couplers should be fully engaged.
5. Tension from the anchorage outside of the wall to take up the slack.
6. Tension turnbuckles.
7. Place sand fill over the settlement ducts.
8. Backfill to required level.

This procedure applies to a simple situation and additional activities may be considered, for example
applying pretensioning to pull the piles in before final backfilling, stressing after backfilling to
prevent future movement due to subsequent loading.
Further information on stressing details is available on request from tie rod manufacturers.
Examples of plates in use
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RETAINING WALLS
Relieving Platforms
When the depth of soil to be retained and/or the applied surcharge loading (eg from heavy wharf cranes) is
excessive, soil pressures may be reduced by the use of a relieving platform.
The relieving platform is constructed such that it will support the surcharge loads and the upper portion of
the retained soil, these loads being transferred to lower strata where there will be no effect on the pressures
acting on the wall. Bearing piles, which support the platform and transfer the loads into the soil at depth,
may also be designed to provide an anchorage to the wall.
The platform can be supported in part by the main sheet pile wall (see Axially Loaded Sheet Piling) and if
the vertical loading becomes excessive, box or high modulus piles may be introduced into the wall at
appropriate intervals to carry this load. Alternatively, bearing piles may be provided immediately behind the
wall. The relieving platform must be designed such that it will intersect the plane of rupture from the soil
above and behind the platform preventing any load from that soil acting on the wall. The main sheet piles
may extend up to ground level or be curtailed at platform level with a concrete retaining wall being provided
above that level; the concrete wall must be designed to derive its stability from the platform.
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Axially loaded sheet piling - Corus Piling Handbook
AXIALLY LOADED SHEET PILING

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction
Steel Sheet Pile Types
Application of Steel Sheet Piling in Bridge Construction
Design
1. General
2. Vertical Load Capacity
1. Skin Friction
2. End Bearing
5. Propped Embedded Abutments
1. Example 1
2. Example 2
6. Integral Abutments
7. The Advantages of Using Steel Sheet Piling
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Introduction
All the applications of steel sheet piling that have been covered in the handbook so
far have focused on its ability to resist horizontal earth and water pressures,
typically in a retaining wall or cofferdam structure. In such structures there is no
requirement for the sheet piles to resist vertical loads, however, the ability of steel
sheet piling in this respect has long been proven in maritime applications; quay
walls often being designed to resist the vertical load applied via crane rails, etc in
addition to the horizontal loads from backfill and/or in-situ soil.
This dual ability of steel sheet piling is of particular relevance to land-sited
structures such as bridge abutments and this chapter aims to briefly cover the use
of steel sheet piling to carry axial loads, with particular emphasis on bridge
abutment construction and the relevant design issues.
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Steel Sheet Pile Types
The choice of the most suitable pile section for the abutment or pier will depend on
a number of factors including the configuration of the bridge, the loads involved
and the ground conditions at the site. With these factors in mind, the designer may
choose from the LX, Larssen and Frodingham ranges, giving a range of section
moduli from 610cm/m to 5066cm/m.
Should a larger section be required, high modulus piles (Larssen, Frodingham)
may be used, with a range of section moduli from 4832cm/m to 24687cm/m.
Usually Hi-Mod sections are fabricated with the beam extending 50mm beyond
the sheet piles at the top and at least 500mm beyond the sheet piles at the
bottom. The projection at the bottom can be increased if large vertical loads are to
be carried, and require a pile length considerably greater than that necessary to
resist horizontal load.
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Application of Steel Sheet Piling in Bridge Construction
There is continual pressure on engineers to produce even more economical and
faster solutions to construction problems and here steel sheet piling can help. Steel
pile installation is fast - the abutments to Shrivenham Bridge, a British Rail
structure, were completed in only 40 hours of line possession. If necessary, the
piles can be loaded immediately after they have been propped or anchored back.
When thinking about bridge construction, the structural elements which are most
readily built in steel sheet piling are:
Bridge Abutments
Intermediate Pairs
Wing Walls
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Design
General
Steel sheet piling is a flexible form of construction and has advantages over materials such as
reinforced concrete. Two of these are:
The flexibility of the piles allows them to move away from horizontal earth and water
pressures, creating active earth conditions behind the wall and therefore reducing the load
on them. Rigid walls must be designed for the more onerous earth at rest conditions, since
their lack of flexibility results in them attracting greater loads.
The flexibility of the piles allows the bending moments in the wall to be re-distributed,
further reducing the size of pile section that will be required.
Since the wall is flexible, there is a need to restrain the heads of the piles against movement due to
vehicle braking loads etc and this can be achieved by using one of the following methods:
Tying back the piles as in a conventional retaining wall using tie rods and deadman anchors.
Using grouted ground anchors, post-tensioned after installation.
On short span bridges, it may be economical to use a stiffened para-pet edge beam as a
strut between abutments.
The deck slab can be cast integral with the heads of the piles.
Vertical Load Capacity
As with any other form of bearing pile, steel sheet piles resist vertical load by a combination of endbearing and skin friction and the contribution of each is calculated as follows:
Skin Friction
The ultimate skin friction (Qs) on the pile may be calculated using one of the following equations,
depending on the soil type.
Granular Soils:
Qs = 2Ns.As
Ns = average SPT N value over embedded length (for submerged soils the Ns value should be
factored down by 0.67)
As = embedded area of pile
Cohesive Soils:
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Qs = .Cs.As
Cs = average undrained shear strength over embedded length
As = embedded area of pile
= an adhesion factor which is dependent on Cs and the soil profile and varies between around 0.2
and 1.0
Where plug formation at the toe of the pile does not occur during driving, the developed surface
area used to calculate Qs can be taken from the table below. Where a soil plug forms during
driving, the surface area available for frictional resistance is limited to the interface between the
remoulded soil in the plug and the in-situ soil and is usually taken as twice the elevation area of the
piling.
End Bearing
The ultimate base resistance of the piles is calculated by using one of the following equations,
depending on the soil type.

Granular Soils:
Qs = 400Nb.Ab
Nb = SPT N value at pile toe level (for submerged soils the Nb value should be factored down by
0.67)
Ab = area of pile base
Cohesive Soils:
Qs = 9.Cb.Ab
Cb = undrained shear strength at toe of pile
Ab = area of pile base
Clearly the end-bearing capacity is directly proportional to the base area Ab, which is itself a
function of plug formation.
In cohesive strata, plug formation may be expected to occur and 50% of the gross pile area is
commonly used for Ab. In cohesionless strata, plug formation is usually neglected.
In any event, vertical load carrying capacity must be confirmed on site by an appropriate
test loading programme.
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Propped Embedded Abutments
If the bridge being designed is a Department of Transport Structure, then the
provisions of BD42/94 (Design Manual for Roads and Bridges) apply, but in any
case the initial stage in the design process is to design the abutment as a retaining
structure resisting earth and water pressure, a free earth support or a fixed earth
support being adopted at the discretion of the designer. Once the length of pile
required for rotational stability of the abutment is determined using this method, to
this must be added a length of pile which will be adequate to resist the vertical
load, through a combination of skin friction and end-bearing. This extra length may
be calculated using the formulae appropriate to the ground conditions over the
section of pile involved and the procedure is dealt with in detail in the Steel
Construction Institute publication Steel Bearing Piles Guide: 1997.
Example 1
Example 2
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Example 1
Steel sheet piles are to be used to construct a 7.0m high abutment, anchored back
at a level 1.0m down from the pile head. The piles are to be clad with masonary.
Soil: natural, undisturbed, uniform medium dense gravel with = 35 and an SPT
N value of 37 (submerged N = 0.67 x 37 = 25).
Ground water is 2.5m below ground level in front of the wall.
Wall friction on the active side of the piles is ignored, whilst that on the passive
side is taken as 2/3
Assume a 350kN/m vertical load is applied to the piles and that an LX25 section in
grade S270GP steel is required for drivability. The design life required is 120 years.
The pile length required for Fnp = 2.0 (using free earth support) against rotational
failure is 8.9m, the design anchor load is 100.4kN/m and the design bending
moment is 172kNm/m.
Consider Durability of Pile Section
From BD42/94, Clauses 5.3 and 5.8 and given the protection against corrosion that
the cladding will offer, it would seem reasonable to design for a total sacrificial loss
of 4mm. From Graph 1 in Chapter 3, the section modulus of the corroded section =
1809 cm/m
Consider Bending Resistance of Pile Section
Bending stress (fb) = M/Z

fb = 172 x 10 / 1809
fb = 95N/mm (< 180 \ OK for bending)
Consider Combined Bending and Axial Resistance of Pile Section
r= (I/A)0.5 = (56824/200)0.5 = 16.9cm

(uncorroded value will be sufficiently accurate)
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le = 0.7L
(Assume L = the pile length for Fnp = 1 (8.4m), less the depth of the anchorage
below the top of the pile)
le = 0.7 x (8.4 - 1)
le = 5.2m
le/r = 520/16.9 = 31
from Table 17a, B.S. 449 gives pc = 154N/mm
fc = (350 x 10) / (200 x 10 ) =18N/mm
Now, from B.S. 449:
fc / pc + fb / pb < 1
18/154 + 106/180 = 0.12+ 0.59 = 0.71 (< 1 \ OK for bending and axial load)
Consider Axial Load Capacity
For the strata described, it will be assumed that no soil plug forms at the toe of the
piles and therefore base resistance will be neglected.
Using the Meyerhof equations:
Ultimate shaft resistance
Qs = 2Ns.As
Ns = average SPT N value, below 8.9m depth
As = embedded area of pile shaft
For the LX25 section the effective perimeter = 1.80m
Load/pile = 350 x 0.6 = 210kN
For a factor of safety of 2, the penetration x in metres required is given by:

x = (2 x 210) / (2 x 25 x 1.18) = 4.7m
Therefore the overall pile length required becomes 8.9 + 4.7 = 13.6m
NB - The calculated load capacity of the piles should always be proved by a
maintained load test.
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Example 2
The structure in Example 1 is to be designed in accordance with Chapter 3

BD42/94 and B.S. 5400: Part 3 as follows:
Consider Ultimate Limit State of Overall Stability
For this limit state, the designer is required by BD42/94 to use the worst credible
design approach and to simulate this the soil strength has been reduced from 35
to 32 and the water table level behind the abutment has been raised by 2m. The
recommended factors of safety for use in this limit state are given in Table 5 of
CIRIA Report 104. The Net Pressure (Piling Handbook) method may be used (see
Clause 3.1 (iv) BD42/94), so long as it is checked by one of the recommended
methods and Fr is used in this case.
The length of pile required for Overall Stability is 9.6m (for Fnp = 2.0 and 9.5m for
Fr = 1.5), an increase of 0.7m over that from Example 1. The maximum bending
moment has increased to 197kNm/m and the anchor load to 111kN/m.
As noted in Clause 3.2. of BD42/94, the Serviceability Limit State of Deformation
will normally be satisfied by the adoption of recommended safety factors as above.
Consider Ultimate Limit State of Structural Elements
Structural Design of Abutment Piles
The design load effects, ie moments and shear forces, for use in this limit state are
obtained by multiplying those obtained using the worst credible design approach
above, by a partial load factor (yfL) of 1.0 and a partial safety factor (yf3) of 1.1
from B.S. 5400: Part 3.
Therefore the design ultimate bending moment in the abutment piles is:
197 x 1.0 x 1.1 = 217kNm/m
Now that the design load effects have been calculated for this limit state, reference
can be made to B.S. 5400: Part 3 for the procedure to be followed for the
structural design of the sheet piling. B.S. 5400:Part 3 (and BD13/90 which clarifies
and replaces several clauses in B.S. 5400) is geared towards the design of the
structural steel elements that make up bridge decks and is therefore mainly
concerned with beams. Therefore, in order to use the standard to design steel piled
bridge abutments, it is necessary to view the bridge abutment as a bending
member which is also taking some axial load - from the bridge deck. This is not as
unreasonable as it may first sound since the compressive stress in the piles is
usually very small when compared with that due to bending.
Therefore, the section of B.S. 5400: Part 3 that is applicable to the structural
design of steel sheet piled structures is Clause 9 -Design of Beams.
Consider Bending Resistance of Piles
(Clauses in this section are taken from BS 5400:Part 3)
Clause 9.9.1.3. gives the bending resistance (M D ) of a member which is not of
compact section as:
MD = Zxc. lc / m.f3
from Clause 9.8.3, lc = yc = 270N/mm
from Table 2, page 9 m = 1.2
from Clause 4.3.3, page 9 f3 = 1.1
therefore MD = (1809 x 270) / (1.2 x 1.1 x 10)
therefore MD = 370kNm/m (> 217 \ OK)
Consider Combined Bending and Axial Resistance of Piles
Clause 9.9.4.1 - Check yielding of piles:
P / Ae + Mx / Zx + My / Zy y / m.f3
= 270 / (1.2 x 1.1) = 205N/mm
P = 1.5 x 350 = 525kN/m (where 1.5 is the partial load factor (fl) for Load
Combination 1 - Table 1, B.S. 5400: Part 2)
(525 x 10) / (200 x 10) + (217 x 10) / 1809
= 26 + 120 = 146N/mm
( 205 therefore Piles OK for yielding)

Clause 9.9.4.2 - Check buckling of piles:
Pmax / PD + Mxmax / MDx + Mymax / MDy 1
PD is the axial resistance of the piles derived in accordance with Clause 10.6.1
From Table 10, page 73, le = 0.7L (assume L=the pile length for Fnp = 1, less the
depth of the anchorage below the top of the pile)
le = 0.7 x (8.9 - 1)
le = 5.5m
From Clause 10.6.1:
PD = Ae.c / m.f3
r = (I/A) = (56824/200) = 16.9cm
therefore r/y = 16.9 / 22.5 = 0.75
(le / r) x (y / 355)
= (5500 / 169) x (270 / 355) = 28.3
From figure 37, using curve A, c / y = 0.96
therefore c = 0.96 x 270 = 259N/mm
PD = (200 x 10 x 259 x 10-) / (1.05 x 1.1)
PD = 4484kN/m
525 / 4484 + 217 / 370 = 0.12 + 0.59 = 0.71
( 1 \ Piles OK for buckling)
Consider Shear Resistance of Piles
By inspection, the maximum shear force will be at the location of the anchorage
waling. Anchor load = 111kN/m
Sectional area of piles = 200cm/m
therefore Max shear stress = (111 x 10) / (200 x 10) = 5.5N/mm
(by inspection, this is negligible)
Consider Length of Pile Required to Resist Axial Load
From Example 1, the additional pile length = 5.1m, therefore the overall pile
length required becomes 9.6 + 4.7 = 14.3m
Structural Design of Anchorage/Propping System
At this limit state, the design load for the ground anchorage system is obtained
from the worst credible design approach and the design of the anchorage itself
shall be in accordance with the recommendations of BS 8081:1989 -Ground
Anchorages, as modified by Clause 6.5 of BD42/94.
If instead of a ground anchorage system, the bridge deck, parapet beams or some
other form of prop is used, the design axial force in the member(s) for this limit
state is obtained by multiplying the figure from above, by a partial load factor (yfl)
of 2.0 and a partial safety factor (yf3), for concrete or steel construction from BS
5400: Parts 3 or 4.
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Integral Abutments
Movement or expansion joints in bridge decks present highway authorities with a
continual maintenance requirement which is both costly and involves significant
disruption to traffic. It is, of course, possible to design bridge decks without
movement joints, provided that the abutments are flexible enough to tolerate the
movements and imposed loads that result from thermal expansion and contraction
of a deck which is continuous with the abutments. In fact, jointless bridges have
been constructed in the USA since the early 1950s, where bridges up to 180m in
length have been built. Steel piled abutments, in the form of sheet piles or high
modulus piles are the ideal way of providing the required flexibility and for further
information on the subject, reference should be made to the Steel Construction
Institute publication Integral Steel Bridges - Design Guidance.
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The Advantages of Using Steel Sheet Piling
The use of a ready made, driven system, such as steel sheet piling to form bridge abutments,
allows work on the permanent structure to start as soon as possible, without involving deep
excavations and the temporary works associated with conventional techniques. So where the
construction of bridge abutments is on the critical path of an overall programme or where space for
a structure is limited, steel sheet piling can be used to the advantage of all parties involved by
cutting construction time and therefore site establishment costs.
The completed structure can then be test loaded immediately if required and put into service
without delay. These qualities make the use of steel sheet piling ideal where construction is taking
place close to existing roads, railways and other services where the use of conventional techniques
would mean costly disruptions in the form of extended lane rental or possession time.
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RETAINING WALLS
Miscellaneous Details
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The following pages contain sample calculations employing the net pressure approach for the
design cases detailed below:
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RETAINING WALLS
Design of Cantilever Retaining Walls
The earth pressures are calculated as in here - one metre of wall being considered. The figure
above indicates the theoretical forces acting on the wall
F1 (Representing area A.O.B1) = total net active pressure
F2 (Representing area O.C.C1) = total net passive pressure
F3 (Representing area C.D.D1) = total net passive pressure required to fix the toe of the wall
Forces F1, F2 and F3 act through the centres of gravity of their respective areas.
Calculations may be simplified by considering the line C1.C.D1. to be horizontal and to pass
through point C. The area C. D. D1. is replaced by force F3 acting at C as shown in the figure
below.
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The depth O.C. should be such that the moments of forces F1 and F2 about F3 are in equilibrium.
The value of force F3 is such that the algebraic sum of forces F1, F2 and F3 is zero.
The Piling Handbook method of design for cantilever piles has been successfully used over many
years but as can be seen from these sample calculations, a finite factor of safety has not been
incorporated. The factor of safety is introduced by the adoption of reasonably conservative soil
strength parameters. Should designers wish to include a specific factor of safety against
rotational failure, the depth O.C. is determined such that restoring moments about point C
equate to the disturbing moments multiplied by the desired factor of safety.
In uniform cohesionless soils, when the depth O.C. has been derived, it should be increased by
0.2 x O.C. in order to correct the error produced by the simplified method.
Hence, depth of cut off = B.O. + 1.2 x O.C. The maximum bending moment on the piles is
derived by calculating the level X.Y. at which zero shear occurs (ie where area O.X.Y. = area A.
B1.O.) and obtaining the net moment of these areas about this level.
A wall is to be builtto retain a height of 3.5m of sandy soils.

The effective wall height =3.5m + 0.5m = 4m
(Minimum over excavation allowance = 0.5m or 10% of retained height)
Minimum surcharge load = 10 kN/m.
Pressure on active side
pa = .h.Ka - 2cKa + pw
Pressure on passive side
pp = .h.Kp + 2cKp + pw
The coefficients of earth pressure are obtained from the tables in Chapter 4 on Earth and Water
Pressures.
Loose fine sand
Compact fine sand
Ka=0.33
Kp=3.0
Kp=3.7
Ka=0.27
Note: Wall friction has been ignored in this example, however, its benefitial effect can be included
at the discretion of the designer.
pa at :
ground level
= 10 x 0.33
= 3.3 kN/m
4m below ground level in loose sand
= 78.6 x 0.33
= 25.9 kN/m
= 95.8 x 0.33
= 31.6 kN/m
5m below ground level in compact sand
= 95.8 x 0.27
= 25.9 kN/m
= 114.4 x 0.27
= 30.9 kN/m
= 146.8 x 0.27 + 29.4
= 69 kN/m
pp at :
= 0 kN/m
= 17.2 x 3
= 51.6 kN/m
= 17.2 x 3.7
= 63.6 kN/m
= 35.8 x 3.7
= 132.5 kN/m
= 68.1 x 3.7 + 29.4
= 281.4 kN/m
= 51.6 - 31.6
= 20 kN/m
= 63.6 - 25.9
= 37.7 kN/m
= 132.5 - 30.9
= 101.6 kN/m
= 281.4 - 69.0
= 212.4 kN/m
Net pp at :
Try Oc = 3.0m
Moments about above point C:
3.3 x 4.0 x 5.56 =

22.6 x 4.0 x 0.5 x 4.893 =
73.4
221.2
25.9 x 0.56 x 0.5 x 3.373 =
24.5
-20 x 0.44 x 0.5 x 2.707 =
-11.9
-37.7 x 1.0 x 2.06 =
-77.7
-63.9 x 1.0 x 0.5 x 1.893 =
-60.5
-101.6 x 1.56 x 0.78 =

-57.6 x 1.56 x 0.5 x 0.52 =
-123.6
-23.4
= +22.0 kNm
As the sum of the moments is slightly positive, the correct value of OC is marginally greater than
3.0m.
Depth of cut-off required
= 0.56 + 1.2 x 3.0
= 4.2m (rounded to nearest 0.1m)
Total active pressure =
(3.3 + 25.9) x 0.5 x 4.0 =
+ 25.9 x 0.56 x 0.5 =
58.4
7.25
= 65.65 kN/
m
The level of which zero shear occurs (where the area of the net passive diagram equals the active
force calculated above) is 5.9m below the top of the pile.
Moments about and above the level of zero shear:
3.3 x 4.0 x 3.9 =
(25.9 - 3.3) x 4.0 x 0.5 x 3.233 =
51.5
146.1
25.9 x 0.56 x 0.5 x 1.713 =
12.4
-20.0 x 0.44 x 0.5 x 1.047 =
-4.6
-37.7 x 0.9 x 0.45 =

-(95.2 - 37.7) x 0.9 x 0.5 x 0.3 =
-15.2
-7.8
= 182.4 kNm/m
The calculated bending moment on the piles is 182.4 kNm/m.

Section modulus required = (182.4 x 1000 x 100) / (180 x 100) = 1013 cm/m
Provide LX 12 or Frodingham 2N sheet piles in EN 10248:S270GP steel, 8.2m in length.
Note: Although this sheet pile section will be adequate for structural purposes the designer must
check that it will be drivable to the required depth and for permanent construction ensure that
the pile will provide the required life expectancy (as outlined in Chapter 13).
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RETAINING WALLS
Design of Walls with Fixed Earth Support
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In this condition the penetration of the piles is such that the passive pressure generated is
sufficient to prevent both forward movement and rotation at the toes. Thus the piles have a
simple support due to the ties or struts at the top of the wall and fixed support due to soil at
the wall base in a manner similar to a propped cantilever.
Figure 5.25.1 indicates the forces acting on the wall.
F1 (Representing area A.O.B1) = total net active pressure.
F2 (Representing area O.C.C1) = total net passive pressure.
F3 (Representing area C.D.D1) = total net passive pressure required to fix the toe of the wall.
T = Support force applied at waling level.
Forces F1, F2 and F3 act through the centres of gravity of their respective areas.
As in the case of a cantilever wall, calculations may be simplified by considering the line C1.C.
D1 to be horizontal and to pass through the point C. The area C.D.D1 is replaced by force F3
acting at C, as shown in Fig 5.25.2.
The force T at waling level is obtained by taking moments of area A.O.B1 about O.
The depth OC should be such that the moments of forces T, F1 and F2 about F3 are in
equilibrium.
The value of the force F3 is such that the algebraic sum of forces T, F1, F2 and F3 is zero.
When depth OC has been derived, it should be increased by 0.2 x OC in order to correct the
error produced by the simplified method.
In uniform cohesionless soils, the penetration is obtainable directly from the formula.
Depth of cut-off below excavation level = Y + 1.2{6R/g.(kp - ka)}
where Y is the depth below excavation level of the point O (zero net pressure) and R is the
reaction at point O when the pile is considered as a beam simply supported at the waling level
and point O and loaded with active pressure A.O.B1.
The maximum bending moment is obtained again by considering the pile as a beam simply
supported at the waling level and point O loaded with active pressure A.O.B1.
Active pressure
Passive pressure
pa = g.h.Ka - 2cKa + pw kN/m

pp = g.h.Kp + 2cKp + pw kN/m
The coefficients of earth pressure used in the calculations are:

Loose fine sand:
Ka = 0.33,
Kp = 4.9
Dense fine sand:
Ka = 0.27,
Kp = 6.0
pa at :
ground level
= 10 x 0.33
4m below ground level in loose fine sand
= 78.8 x 0.33
= 3.3 kN/m
= 26 kN/m
= 78.8 x 0.27
= 89.6 x 0.27 + 9.8
= 111.2 x 0.27 + 29.4
=59.4 kN/m
= 154.4 x 0.27 + 68.6
=110.3 kN/m
pw at 7m below ground level
= 21.3 kN/m
= 34 kN/m
= 19.6 kN/m
pp at 11m below ground level in dense fine sand
= 43.1 x 6.0 + 58.8
= 59.4 - 19.6
= 317.4 - 110.2
Active Pressure
= 317.4 kN/m
= 39.8 kN/m
= 207.2 kN/m
Moment of Active Pressure about 'O'
3.3 x 4.0 =
13.2
13.2 x 5.645 =
74.5
(26 - 3.3) x 4.0 x 0.5 =
45.4
45.4 x 4.978 =
226.0
21.2 x 1.0 =
21.2
21.2 x 3.145 =
66.7
6.2 x 2.978 =
18.5
(34 - 21.7) x 1.0 x 0.5 =

34 x 2.0 =
(39.8 - 33.9) x 2.0 x 0.5 =
39.8 x 0.645 x 0.5 =
6.2
68.0
5.9
12.8
68.0 x 1.645 =
111.9
5.9 x 1.312 =
7.7
12.8 x 0.430 =
5.5
= 172.7 kN
= 510.8 kNm
Force in walings and supports = 510.8 / 6.645 = 76.9 kN/m of wall.

Total active force = 172.7 kN/m and is applied 510.8 / 172.7 = 2.957 above 'O'.
Net passive pressure at any depth below point 'O'
= g'.(kp-ka).d
= 10.8 x (6.0 - 0.27) x d = 61.9d

Moments of the total active force, net passive pressure and support force t about the pivot
point at the toe of the pile must be in equilibrium.
Hence 172.7 x (2.957 + d) = 76.9 x (6.645 + d) + (d x 61.9d x 0.5 x 0.33d)
d = 3.1 m
Depth of cut-off required for fixity = 0.645 + 1.2 x 3.1 = 4.365 say 4.5m
Zero shear occurs 4.7m below ground level.
Moments about and above level of zero shear:
79.6 x 3.70 =
284.5
-3.3 x 4.0 x 2.70 =
-35.6
-22.7 x 4.0 x 0.5 x 2.033 =
-92.3
-21.2 x 0.7 x 0.35 =
-5.2
-8.9 x 0.70 x 0.5 x 0.233 =
-0.7
= 150.7 kNm/m
(say 151 kNm/m)
Section modulus required = (151 x 1000 x 100) / (200 x 100) = 755 cm/m (assuming
teporary works stress)
Length of pile required = 4.5m + 7m = 11.5m
Use LX8 or Frodingham 2N piles in EN10248: S270GP steel, 11.5m long.
Note: Although these sheet pile sections will be adequate for structural purposes the designer
must check that they will be drivable to the required depth and will provide the required
effective life.
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RETAINING WALLS
Analysis by Graphical Method
As an alternative to the analytical method, the bending moment, embedment and the anchor
force can be obtained by means of graphical construction.
Explanation of the Method
The pressure diagram is constructed in the normal way and subdivided into a number of sections
which need not be equal but must be of sufficient number to form a reasonably smooth curve
when the bending moment diagram is plotted.
From the centre of gravity of these sections, horizontal lines are drawn and numbered to
represent the forces acting on the wall.
A vector diagram is then constructed by marking out horizontally the forces acting in each
section.
Choosing polar distances O and O 1 , lines are drawn from each point on the horizontal vector
lines to their respective points O and O 1 .
A funicular polygon or bending moment diagram is then constructed by drawing lines parallel
with those of the vector diagram to the horizontal lines drawn from the centre of gravity of each
section of the pressure diagram.
The first upper line of the funicular polygon is produced to cut the horizontal line of the tie bar
force at X. From the point X a base line is drawn so that the area A multiplied by the distance
from its centre of gravity to X equals the areas B multiplied by the distance from its centre
of gravity to X. The force T is obtained by drawing line OZ parallel to the base line XY.
The depth of cut off is shown where the base line cuts the bending moment curve at Y.
It is necessary to increase this distance by 20% to allow for satisfactory cut off and full fixity at
the toe.
Results of Analysis
Maximum bending moment
Required section modulus
Embedment depth
= 140 kNm x 1.07m
= 150 kNm
= {150 x 1000}/200 x 100/100

= 0.6 + 1.2 x 3.12
= 750 cm 3 /m
= 4.344m
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Length of pile required
= 4.4m + 7m
= 11.4m
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RETAINING WALLS
Design of Sheet Pile Deadman Anchorage
The following example illustrates the method which has been widely used for the design of
balanced anchorages.
Tie rod load (calculated from limit equilibrium condition) = 77kN/m

Assume LX anchor piles are selected:Assume tie rods will be at 8 pile centres. Tie rod spacing = 4.8m
Load per tie rod = 77 x 4.8 = 369.6 kN
Therefore from Table 5.20.3 of permissible tie rod loads select 70mm diameter rods in S275 grade
steel or 60mm diameter rods in S355 grade steel
A factor of safety of 2 is applied to the tie rod load to calculate the ultimate anchorage load
required.
(The factor of safety against failure will therefore be 2)
Ultimate anchorage load = 2 x 369.6 = 739.4 kN
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The net passive pressure at any depth d in front of the anchorage = g x d x (kp - ka)
Assume that the depth to the centre of the anchorage is 2m.
Therefore, for a balanced anchorage, the depth to the toe = 3m
Average net pressure in front of the anchorage = 17.2 x 1.5 x (3 - 0.33) = 68.9 kN/m
(g = 17.2 kN/m 3 , depth to mid point of anchorage = 1.5m, k p = 3 and k a = 0.33 )
Total soil shear resistance at the ends of the anchorage:
= 1/3 x g x d 3 x ka x tan(45 + f/2) x tanf
= 0.33 x 17.2 x 3 3 x 0.33 x tan(45 + 30/2) x tan 30
= 51 kN
Therefore, the anchorage width required = (739.4 - 51)/(68.9 x 3) = 3.33m
Therefore, adopt a 5 pile anchorage giving a width of 3.00m
(When designing an anchorage using Larrsen piles an odd number of piles should be used)
The depth of anchorage must therefore be increased to allow for this reduction in nominal width
but can be approximated to
(739.4 - 51) / (68.9 x 3) = 3.33m
(A more accurate calculation will result in a smaller anchorage depth as the d variable used to
calculate both the average pressure in front of the anchorage and shear resistance at the sides
should be increased, but it is normally sufficiently accurate to use previously calculated values at
this stage)
Area of anchorage
= 3.0 x 2.22
Average pressure on the anchorage
= 6.66m
= 739.4 / 6.66
= 111kN/m
Consider 1m width of anchorage.

Bending moment on the piles
= w x L/8 = 111 x 2.22/8
= 68.4kNm
(L = actual length of anchor piles ie 2 x 3.33 / 3)

Therefore minimum section modulus required = 68.4 x 1000 / 270 = 254 cm/m
(Note that the yield stress of the steel anchor piles is used in this calculation as the loading applied
to the anchorage has already been factored by 2 to calculate the ultimate achorage load)
Therefore, adopt Larssen LX8 steel sheet piles in EN 10248: S270GP steel, 2.2m in length.
Load on the anchorage waling = 111 x 2.22 = 246.4 kN/m

Bending moment on the waling = 246.4 x 3 / 8 = 277.2 kNm
Therefore, minimum section modulus required = 277.2 x 1000 / 275 = 1008cm/m
Adopt 2 / 305 x 102 x 46.18 kg/m R.S.C in grade S275 steel as the waling.
If Z piles are to be used, an even number of piles should be chosen.
For this example, the overall width of piling to be provided should be approximately 3.33m
Therefore, consider 6 Nr Frodingham piles. Overall width = 6 x 0.483 = 2.898m
Depth of anchorage required = (739.4 - 51) / (68.9 x 2.898) = 3.45m
Area of anchorage = 3.45 x 2/3 x 2.898 = 6.665m
Average pressure on anchor piles = 739.4 / 6.665 = 111kN/m
Consider 1m width of anchorage.
B.M. on anchor piles = 111 x 2.3/8 = 73.4kNm/m
Section modulus required = 73.4 x 1000 / 270 = 272 cm/m
Use 6 Nr. Frodinghan 1N profile piles in EN 10248: S270GP steel, 2.3m long
Load on anchorage waling = 111 x 2.3 = 255.3 kN/m
Bending moment on the waling = 255.3 x 2.898 / 8 = 268 kNm
Section modulus required = 268 x 1000 / 275 = 975 cm
Use 2 / 305 x 102 x 46.18 kg/m R.S.C in grade S275 steel as the waling.
River Retaining Wall, Swansea

Client: West Glamorgan County Council
Main Contractor: Edmund Nuttall Limited
Sub-Consultant: Ove Arup & Partners
Contents
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RETAINING WALLS
Design Example
Consider a cantilever sheet pile wall in good granular material to retain 4.0m of
water. The work is temporary and the intention is to use grade S270GP grade steel
piles. Select the appropriate table, in this case Table 'Cantilever Walls Cohesionless Soils'.
On the horizontal scale select 4.0m.
1. Read up the chart to the line for S270GP steel (temporary). Read the required
minimum section modulus from the left hand vertical scale. In this case 1300cm 3 /
m. Therefore use either LX16 or Frodingham 3N or 3NA sheet piles.
2. Read up the chart to the maximum pile length line. Read the required minimum
pile length from the right hand vertical scale. In this case 9.0m long.
Suggested piles for this example LX16 or Frodingham 3N or 3NA in grade S270GP
steel
Typical Retaining Walls
The following charts indicate the requirements for a retaining wall for the
conditions specified.
The user should select the conditions which represent the case in question and
then scale off from the charts the bending moment, support force and minimum
pile length. The figures thus obtained are unfactored. The sheet pile section
required may then be ascertained by dividing the theoretical bending moment by
the permissible design stress to obtain the minimum section modulus.
The charts are based on the assumption that weep holes are provided where
necessary and the retained soil is capable of allowing the design water regime to
be realised. In the case of cohesive soils, the charts allow for the accumulation of
ground water in any tension cracks which may develop.
The soil conditions adopted in the production of the charts assume a softened zone
to a depth of 1m below excavation level when cohesive soils exist at excavation
level.
The length of pile below excavation level has not been checked to ensure that
there is sufficient penetration to prevent piping or heave and provide a water cutoff where appropriate. This must be considered separately.
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The selected section must be checked for drivability.

Note:
Cantilever walls in excess of 4.5m high are not generally recommended as the
section required to resist bending moments and the length required for stability
mean that uneconomic designs may result. In circumstances where the retained
height exceeds 4.5m, a cantilever wall may be considered, but the deflection of the
wall is likely to be large and this should be checked to ensure that serviceability
criteria are not exceeded.
It is further recommended that cantilever walls are not used in soft clays.
When Larssen sheet piles are selected for the construction of cantilever retaining
walls, the designer must satisfy himself that the section is
capable of developing the required section modulus. Guidance on the selection of
pile sections is given in 5.13.
Cantilever walls should not be designed for permanent construction using total
stress soil parameters.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cantilever
Cantilever
Cantilever
Cantilever
Cantilever
Cantilever
Walls
Walls
Walls
Walls
Walls
Walls
Cohesionless
Cohesionless
Cohesionless
Cohesionless
Cohesionless
Cohesionless
Soils
Soils
Soils
Soils
Soils
Soils
7. Anchored Walls - Cohesionless Soils

8. Anchored Walls - Cohesionless Soils
9. Cantilever Walls - Cohesive Soils (Temporary works only)
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Example - Cantilevel Walls - Cohesionless soils
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Cantilevel Walls - Cohesionless soils
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Anchored Walls - Cohesionless soils
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Cantilevel Walls - Cohesive soils
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Cofferdams - Corus Piling Handbook
COFFERDAMS
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Introduction
Requirements of a Cofferdam
Planning a Cofferdam
Causes of Failure
Support Arrangements
Design of Cofferdams
Single Skin Cofferdams
Cofferdams for River Crossings
Single Skin Cofferdam Design Example
Design of Support System
Allowable Stresses for Steel Walings
Cofferdam Support Frames
Strength of Walings - Universal Columns
Strength of Walings - Timber Beams
Safe Loads for Horizontal Box Pile Struts
Safe Loads for Horizontal Universal Column Struts
Safe Loads for Horizontal Universal Compound Beam Struts
Safe Loads for Square Timber Struts
Circular Cofferdams
Reinforced Concrete Walings for Circular Cofferdams
Earth Filled Double Wall and Cellular Cofferdams
Double Skin/Wall Cofferdams
Cellular Cofferdams
Effect of Water Pressure
Flow Nets
Pump Sumps
Contents
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COFFERDAMS
Introduction
The purpose of a cofferdam is to exclude soil and water from an area in which it is
required to carry out construction to a depth below the surface. Total exclusion of
water is often not necessary and in some instances is not possible, but the effects
of water ingress must be taken into account in any calculations.
There are two principal approaches to cofferdam design. Single skin structures are
most common, but for very large or deep excavations and marine works, double
wall or cellular cofferdams may be preferred.
The design of a cofferdam is carried out in the same manner as a retaining wall
and consequently, the same design rules apply.
Contents
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COFFERDAMS
Requirements of a Cofferdam
The design of a cofferdam must provide the following:
The structure must be able to withstand the loads applied to it.

The quantity of water entering the cofferdam must be controllable by
pumping.
At any stage in the construction, the formation level must be stable and not
subject to excessive heave or boiling.
Deflection of the cofferdam walls and bracing must not affect the permanent
structure or any existing structure adjacent to the cofferdam.
Overall stability must be demonstrated against out of balance earth
pressures due to sloping ground or circular slip failure.
The cofferdam must provide an appropriate size of hole to suit what is to be
built inside.
Temporary cofferdams must be built in such a way that the maximum
amount of construction materials can be recovered.
Consideration should be given to the incorporation of piles used to form temporary

cofferdams in the permanent structure as significant savings in both time and
overall cost can be achieved.
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COFFERDAMS
Planning a Cofferdam
The designer of a cofferdam must have an established set of objectives before
commencing the design. The sequence of construction activities must be defined in
order that the design can take into account all the load cases associated with the
construction and dismantling of the structure. From this sequence, the critical
design cases can be determined and the bending moments, shear forces and
minimum penetration depths calculated to determine the pile section which is
required to do the job.
As part of the analysis of construction activities, the designer should undertake a
risk assessment of the effect of any deviation from the planned sequence. Such
deviations may be in the form of over excavation at any stage, inability to achieve
the desired pile penetration, installation of supports at the wrong level or the
imposition of a large surcharge loading from construction plant. If any stage in the
cofferdam construction is particularly vulnerable then contingency plans should be
developed to minimise any risk and site staff should be informed to limit the
possibility of critical conditions being realised.
The majority of cofferdams are constructed as temporary works and it may be
uneconomic to design for all possible loading cases. Decisions will have to be taken
to determine the level of risk which is acceptable when assessing the design cases;
such a situation may occur when assessing hydraulic loading on a cofferdam. Flood
conditions tend to be seasonal and provision of a cofferdam which will exclude
water at all times may involve a substantial increase in pile size and strength. In
an extreme flood condition the design philosophy may involve evacuation of the
excavation and allowing for the structure to be overtopped. Under these
conditions, the designer must allow for overtopping, considering the effect of the
sudden ingress of water on the base of the cofferdam and the effect that any
trapped water will have on the stability of the cofferdam when the flood subsides.
Prior to the commencement of construction the site area should be cleared to
permit plant and guide frames to be set up. Excavation should not begin until all
plant and materials for supporting the piles are readily available including pumping
equipment where necessary.
Contents
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COFFERDAMS
Causes of Failure
There are many possible causes of cofferdam failure, but usually failure can be
attributed to a relatively small number of causes. These include:
Lack of attention to detail in the design and installation of the structure.

Failure to take the possible range of water levels and conditions into account.
Failure to check design calculations using information discovered during
excavation.
Over excavation at any stage in the construction process.
Inadequate framing (both quantity and strength) provided to support loads.
Loading on frame members not taken into account in the design, ie walings
and struts used to support walkways, pumps etc.
Accidental damage to structural elements not repaired.
Insufficient penetration of piles to prevent piping or heave.
Lack of communication between temporary and permanent works designers
or designer and site staff.
In many cases failure may result from the simultaneous occurrence of a number of
the above factors, any one of which might not have been sufficient to cause the
failure itself.
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COFFERDAMS
Support Arrangements
The arrangement of supports to a cofferdam structure is the most critical part of a
cofferdam design. The level at which support is provided governs the bending
moments in the sheet piles and the plan layout governs the ease of working within
the structure. Whilst structural integrity is paramount, the support layout must be
related to the proposed permanent works activities causing the minimum
obstruction to plant and materials access. As a general rule simplicity should
always be favoured.
Support frames should be located such that concrete lifts can be completed and the
support loads transferred to the permanent works before the frame is removed.
Clearance to starter bars for the next lift should also be considered when
positioning frames.
The clear space between frame members should be optimised to provide the
largest possible uninterrupted area without the need for excessively large
structural elements. Positioning of support members is often a matter of
experience.
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COFFERDAMS
Design of Cofferdams
The life of the cofferdam structure must be assessed in order that the appropriate
geotechnical parameters for the soils in which the cofferdam is to be constructed
can be selected. In the majority of cases, total stress parameters for clay soils can
be used as the cofferdam is a temporary structure. However, the susceptibility of
any clay to rapid attainment of a drained state must be assessed by the designer
and if there is any doubt, a check should be made on the final structure using
effective strength parameters.
As a rule of thumb it is recommended that cofferdams which will be in service for
three months or more should be designed using effective stress strength
parameters.
The most economic section of sheet pile to be used will be determined by the
bending moments calculated in the cofferdam design. This section must then be
considered with respect to site conditions as it may be necessary to select a
heavier section and/or higher quality of steel to ensure that the calculated
penetration depth can be achieved. This is often the case where long piles are to
be driven to deep penetrations or when hard driving conditions are expected. This
topic is discussed in greater depth in Installation.
In order to maximise the benefits in terms of the design from provision of a
heavier section or higher quality steel, it is recommended that engineers consider
driving of piles at an early stage in the planning/design process as the need for a
heavy pile for driving may eliminate one or more levels of support with a
consequent reduction in design effort.
It is recommended that a minimum surcharge load of 10 kN/m is adopted in
design calculations to allow for the presence of plant and equipment around the
edge of the excavation during construction. However, this surcharge should be
increased (locally or globally) if heavy plant is to be located adjacent to the
cofferdam or if excavated spoil is to be stacked before removal from the site - a
1m height of spoil will result in a surcharge load in the order of 20kN/m .
Following the guidance of BS 8002:1994 the structural design of steel piling,
walings, struts and tie rods should be undertaken in accordance with BS 449: Part
2: 1969. It is recommended that, due to the degree of uncertainty in the
determination of tie rod loads, an additional factor of safety is incorporated into
their design as described in Retaining Walls. Timber components should be
designed in accordance with BS 5268: Part 2: 1991.
The application of the referenced codes to sheet pile design yields the following
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allowable stresses:
Allowable stresses for sheet piles in bending
Class of Work
Contents
Steel Grade EN 10248:

1995
S270GP
(N/mm)
S355GP
(N/mm)
Permanent
180
230
Temporary
200
260
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COFFERDAMS
Single Skin Cofferdams
Single skin cofferdams are typically formed of sheet piles supported either by means of internal
props or external anchors. The mechanics of single skin cofferdam design are those already outlined
in Retaining Walls. The piles are considered to be simply supported between frames and below the
lowest frame (in both temporary and final conditions) and to have either fixed or free earth
support, depending on the type of soil and the depth of cut-off of the piles below the excavation
level.
Piles will need to be driven to such a level as to generate sufficient passive resistance and also to
control the infiltration of water into the excavation. Records should be kept during driving for any
indication of declutching of the piles. In such a case it may be necessary to grout behind the piles in
order to control seepage. Cantilever pile cofferdams can be formed but have the same limitations as
cantilever retaining walls particularly in terms of the achievable retained height.
When the cofferdam has very large plan dimensions, but relatively shallow depth, it is often more
economical to incorporate inclined struts or external anchorages similar to those described in the
chapter on retaining walls. It should not however be forgotten that the installation of external
anchorages requires space which is outside the cofferdam area and wayleaves may be required to
install the anchors under adjacent properties.
For a typical cofferdam with a depth exceeding 3m, a system of internal frames constructed from
either timber or steel is normally employed.
The design should be undertaken in stages to reflect accurately the construction process. Typically
the sequence of operations would be to excavate and dewater to just below top frame level then
install the first frame; this procedure being repeated for each successive frame. In the case of
cofferdams in water, it should be noted that the stresses occurring during dewatering and
installation of frames may be considerably in excess of those in the completed cofferdam. For
cofferdams in water it may be preferable to employ Z-profile piles as the interlocks are located in
the zone of maximum stress and therefore tend to tighten as the load is applied. If U-profile piles
are employed it is advisable to investigate the use of some form of proprietary interlock sealant.
When a cofferdam is to be used solely for the purpose of excluding water and the depth of soil to be
excavated is only nominal, it is often more efficient to install all the framing under water before
commencing dewatering. The table below shows the optimum spacing of frames for this method of
construction. The spacing results in approximately equal loading on the second and successive
frames. The table below also indicates the maximum spacing between the top and second insert
frame for different pile sections.
Maximum Depth, h, from first to second waling (top waling at water level)
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The above dimensions are based on an allowable working stress of 180N/mm . For other stresses
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h =1.56 x Z x pbc
NB - For depths exceeding 7m waling loads may become excessive
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COFFERDAMS
The following cofferdam arrangements may be employed when a pipeline is to be laid under a river
bed and it is not possible to close off the waterway.
Construction of cofferdams in river banks
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COFFERDAMS
Construction of cofferdams in river banks
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COFFERDAMS
Single Skin Cofferdam Design Example
The following example is based upon the same soil conditions as used for the earth pressure
calculation example included in the Retaining Walls Chapter. The earth pressures in the final
condition are those calculated in that example.
In this example, the analysis of the sheet piles assumes the presence of a hinge at the lower prop
position to make the problem statically determinate. The problem can, using this assumption, be
treated as two single propped retaining walls.
Before placing the top frame, excavation will have had to be carried out and the piles will
therefore act in cantilever mode. The net pressure diagram for that case is given in the figure
below.
The top frame is assumed to be 1m below the ground surface. We will assume in this example
that the lower frame is positioned 5.5m below the ground surface.
The excavation depth required to install the lower frame is therefore 6.1m.
The net pressure diagram for this condition is given below.
Pp at 6.1m below ground level in sand and gravel = 0x6.0
= 0.0 kN/m
Pp at 11m below ground level in sand and grave = (53.9x6.0)+49.0
= 372.4 kN/m
Pp at 11m below ground level in firm clay = 102.9+(2.3x65)
= 252.4 kN/m
Pp at 13m below ground level in firm clay = 142.9+(2.3x65)
= 292.4 kN/m
Net Pp at 11m below ground level in sand and gravel = 372.4-133.2
= 239.2 kN/m
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Net Pp at 11m below ground level in firm clay = 252.4-98.2
= 154.2 kN/m
Net Pp at 13m below ground level in firm clay = 292.4-138.2
= 154.2 kN/m
In this condition, the piles are supported by their embedment below the excavation level at 6.1m
depth and the top frame. This depth is sufficient to produce a fixed earth support to the toes of
the piles. Hence the effective span of the piles may be taken as the distance from the top waling
and the point 0 on the diagram.
Taking moments of the active pressures about the point 0:
kNm/m
69.6 x 1.1 x 0.5 x 0.73 =
68.7 x 2.19 x 0.5 x 1.83 =
27.94
137.66
27.1 x 2.19 x 0.5 x 2.56 =
75.97
27.1 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 3.79 =
77.55
12.0 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 4.30 =
38.96
26.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 5.2 =
81.74
10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 5.6 =
34.27
10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 6.4 =
39.17
3.3 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 6.8 =
13.46
= 526.72
The load on the top frame
= 526.72/6.2 = 84.95 kN/m
Zero shear occurs at 4.66m below ground level. (Where the area of the active pressure diagram
above the level equals the top frame load)
Take moments about and above the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
84.95 x 3.66 =
310.92
-41.35 x 0.75 x 0.5 x 0.25 =
- 3.88
-27.1 x 0.75 x 0.5 x 0.5 =
- 5.08
-27.1 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 1.25 =
-25.58
-12.0 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 1.76 =
-15.95
-26.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 2.66 =
-41.82
-10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 3.06 =
-18.73
-10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 3.86 =
-23.62
-3.3 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 4.26 =
- 8.43
167.83
Maximum bending moment in the temporary condition = 167.83 kNm/m

Lower frame is installed 5.5m below ground level.
Excavate to final level.
The depth of cut off is insufficient to produce fixed earth support. Check for free earth support
considering that the piles are simply supported at the bottom frame position due to the
assumption of a hinge at the support position.
Moments about and below the lower frame position:

kNm/m
57.3 x 0.6 x 0.5 x 0.2 =
3.44
68.7 x 0.6 x 0.5 x 0.4 =
8.24
69.6 x 1.8 x 0.5 x 1.2 =
75.17
93.0 x 1.8 x 0.5 x 1.8 =
150.66
93.0 x 1.46 x 0.5 x 2.89 =
198.89
= 436.40
Assume that the piles will be 11.75m long. Take moments of net passive pressures about and
below the lower frame:
kNm/m
102.4 x 1.62 x 0.5 x 4.96=
411.4
512.89
116.4 x 0.75 x 5.875=
= 924.29
Factor of safety against movement of pile toes
= 924.29
436.40
= 2.12
Depth of cut off required to give a factor of safety of 1:
411.4 + 116.4x (5.5 + x/2)
= 436.4
Simplifying x + 11x - 0.43
= 0.0
Solving for x gives x
= 0.04m
Pp when x=0.04:
102.4 x 1.62 x 0.5=
82.94
= 04.66
116.4 x 0.04=
= 87.60kNm/m
Zero shear occurs 7.7m below ground level.
(This is found by calculating the level at which the area of the active pressure diagram below the
line equals the calculated total passive pressure Pp working up the diagram from the net zero
pressure point).
Take moments of pressures about and below the point of zero shear:
kNm/m
90.4 x 0.2 x 0.5 x 0.07 =
0.63
93.0 x 0.2 x 0.5 x 0.13 =
1.21
93 x 1.48 x 0.5 x 0.69 =
47.49
-102.4 x 1.62 x 0.5 x 2.76 =
-228.93
-116.4 x 0.04 x 3.32 =
- 15.46
= -195.06
The maximum bending moment in the sheet piles is 195.06 kNm/m (Final condition)
Take moments of the active pressures about and above the lower frame:
kNm/m
57.3 x 1.59 x 0.5 x 0.53 =
24.14
27.1 x 1.59 x 0.5 x 1.06 =
22.84
27.1 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 2.09 =
42.76
12.0 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 2.6 =
23.56
26.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 3.50 =
55.02
10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 3.90 =
23.87
10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 4.70 =
28.76
3.3 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 5.10 =
10.1
= 231.05
The load on the top frame in the final condition = 231.05/4.5 = 51.34kN/m
To calculate the load on the lower frame in the final condition, take moments of the entire load
system about the level where the factor of safety against rotational failure = 1 (ie 11.04m below
ground level)
kNm/m
-116.4 x 0.04 x 0.02 =
- 0.09
-102.4 x 1.62 x 0.5 x 0.58 =
-48.11
93.0 x 1.48 x 0.5 x 2.65 =
182.37
93.0 x 1.8 x 0.5 x 3.74 =
313.04
69.6 x 1.8 x 0.5 x 4.34 =
271.86
68.7 x 2.19 x 0.5 x 5.67 =
426.53
27.1 x 2.19 x 0.5 x 6.40 =
189.92
27.1 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 7.63 =
156.11
12.0 x 1.51 x 0.5 x 8.14 =
73.75
26.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 9.04 =
142.11
10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 9.44 =
57.77
10.2 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 10.24 =
62.67
3.3 x 1.2 x 0.5 x 10.64 =
21.07
-51.34 x 10.04 =
-515.45
1,333.55
The load on the lower frame
= 1,333.55/5.54 = 240.71kN/m
Summary of Results
Maximum bending moment in the temporary condition = 167.83 kNm/m
Maximum bending moment in the final condition = 195.06 kNm/m
Section modulus required

= 195.06 x 1000 x 100/200 x 100 = 975.3 cm/m
Note that in the example given above it has been assumed that the construction is temporary
works and a working stress in the steel piles of 200N/mm has been used.
The recommended sections for this construction are therefore:
LX 12
Frodingham 2N
(z=1208 cm/m), or
(z=1161 cm/m)
both in S270GP steel
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Net Pressure Diagram
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COFFERDAMS
Design of Support System
The choice of timber or steel for cofferdam bracing is governed by the external
loads which the piles must withstand, taking into account the most severe
conditions possible and the internal dimensions of the cofferdam. The loads on the
walings are obtained from consideration of the same conditions used to obtain the
bending moments in the piles. It is acceptable to use good quality timber such as
Douglas Fir or Pitch Pine for the lighter loadings. However, such timbers must be
free from knots, splits, sloping grain and similar defects which could lead to
possible failure.
Heavier loadings will necessitate the provision of steel members, ie universal
beams suitably reinforced by stiffeners where necessary to safeguard against
buckling. Information regarding the resistance to bending and shear of timber and
steel beams is given in the table below.
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COFFERDAMS
Allowable Stresses
The application of BS 449 : Part 2 : 1969 to the design of steel walings in universal
beams and columns, channels and compound girders composed of universal
beams, or plated channels yields the following allowable stresses:
Action and Material Steel Grade to BS EN 10210:1995
Bending <40mm
S275 (N/mm)
S355 (N/mm)
180
230
<63mm
230
<100mm
165
Shear in <40mm
110
unstiffened <63mm
web <100mm
Contents
215
140
100
130
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COFFERDAMS
Cofferdam Support Frames
Timber Framing
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Steel Framing
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COFFERDAMS
Strength of Walings -- Universal Columns
The table below is based on S275 steel with an allowable bending stress of 180N/
mm and an allowable shear stress in unstiffened webs of 110N/mm . Webs
should also be checked for buckling and bearing.
When the waling is also subject to axial load the allowable bending moment should
be reduced to ensure that the sum of the stress ratios does not exceed unity.
Serial Size (kg)
Elastic Modulus 'X-X'

axis cm
Allowable BM 'X-X'
axis kNm
Shear Value kN
254 x 146 x 31
351
63
166
305 x 165 x 40
560
100
200
356 x 171 x 45
687
123
270
406 x 178 x 60
1063
191
353
457 x 152 x 67
1263
227
453
457 x 191 x 74
1458
262
452
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533 x 210 x 92
2072
372
592
610 x 229 x 113
2874
517
741
610 x 305 x 149
4111
740
794
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COFFERDAMS
Strength of Walings -- Timber Beams
The table below is based upon BS 5268: Part 2: 1991. Permissible bending
moments have been calculated for Grade SS, Class SC4 timber in the wet exposure
condition under medium term loading. For differing exposure/loading conditions the
designer must refer to the code. When the waling is also subject to axial load the
allowable bending moment should be reduced to ensure that the sum of the stress
ratios does not exceed the permissible values given in the code.
Basic Size
Elastic Modulus cm
Permissible BM kN
mm
' X-X' axis
'Y-Y' axis
'X-X' axis
'Y-Y' axis
150x150
562
562
4.2
4.2
150x200
1000
750
7.5
5.6
150x300
2250
1125
16.8
8.4
200x200
1333
1333
10
10
250x250
2604
2604
19.5
19.5
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300x300
4500
4500
33.7
33.7
350x350
7145
7145
53.6
53.6
400x400
10666
10666
80
80
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COFFERDAMS
Safe Loads for Horizontal Box Pile Struts
Note: Table is in accordance with BS 449 for S270GP steel. Selfweight and a 10kN accidental load at
the centre of the strut has been allowed for when used with x- x axis vertical. For additional or
alternate loading normal to the span of the strut, calculations must be made to establish safe axial
load.
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COFFERDAMS
Safe Loads for Horizontal Universal Column Struts
Note: Table is in accordance with BS 449 for S275 steel. Selfweight and a 10kN accidental load at
the centre of the strut has been allowed for when used with web vertical. For additional or alternate
loading normal to the span of the strut, calculations must be made to establish safe axial load.
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COFFERDAMS
Safe Loads for Horizontal Universal Compound Beam Struts
Note : Table is in accordance with BS 449 for S275 steel. Selfweight and a 10kN accidental load at
the centre of the strut has been allowed for when used with web vertical. For additional or alternate
loading normal to the span of the strut, calculations must be made to establish safe axial load.
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COFFERDAMS
Safe Loads for Square Timber Struts
Note:- Table is in accordance with BS8004 for SS Grade Class SC4 timber in the medium term
condition. Selfweight has been allowed for. Particular attention must be paid to straightness of the
strut, eg by limiting bow to approximately 1/ 300 of the length.
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COFFERDAMS
Circular Cofferdams
The table in Product Information gives the approximate minimum diameters of cofferdams
constructed in LX, Larssen and Frodingham sheet piling; the approximate maximum driving lengths
are also given.
The table is intended as a guide as the minimum diameter will depend upon several other factors
such as type of ground, length of piles and penetration required.
Smaller diameters can be achieved by introducing individual bent corner piles.
On site it is usual to pitch the whole circle before driving, the piles being driven in stages as the
hammer works its way several times around the circumference.
Earth pressures are calculated as for straight-sided cofferdams and the piles may be supported by
circular ring beams, instead of walings and struts, thus leaving the central area clear of obstruction.
The ring beams are normally subjected to axial loads only, which are calculated as follows:
Axial load (kN) = waling load (kN/m) x radius of cofferdam (m)
The following table gives an indication of suitable sizes of reinforced concrete ring beams for various
cofferdam diameters and loadings.
Diameter of
Cofferdam
(metres)
Safe Waling Load (kN per metre run)

Size of Waling 'd' x 'b' in mm and number of reinforcing bars
450 x 300
8 no. 12bars
600 x 400
10 no.
12bars
473
840
10
236
420
656
15
158
280
438
630
210
328
473
20
750 x 500
900 x 600
8 no. 16bars 8 no. 20bars
1050 x 700
10 no.
20bars
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643
25
263
30
378
515
315
429
35
368
Note: The number and size of reinforcing bars given in the table is based on the minimum area of
steel for column construction given by table 3.27 of BS8110: Part 2: 1985 and assumes the use of
High Yield steel (fy = 460N/mm ) reinforcing bars to BS4449: 1988.
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COFFERDAMS
The tabulated safe loads are based on:
1. The permissible compressive stress in the concrete not exceeding 8.8N/
mm, assuming the use of C35 concrete.
2. W = 1.5 E I / (105 r)
Where:
W = Waling Load in kN/m
E = Youngs modulus for concrete
= 25000N/mm
I = Moment of Inertia about x-x in cm4
r = Radius of cofferdam in metres
3. The cofferdam diameter divided by the width of the beam (d) < 35
The above basic formula is based on Timoshenkos work wherein the formula is
given as:
Wu = (k.E.I) / (R.105) kN/m
where Wu is the ultimate waling load and k is a factor, the value of which is
dependent on the stiffness of the retained medium. 3 is the value for water, eg in a
marine cofferdam built to facilitate construction on the sea bed. Progressively
higher values are, in theory, applicable for weak/medium/strong soils. However, it
is common to use the value of 3, to which a factor of safety of 2 is applied. Hence
the value of 1.5 in the basic formula.
The ring beam can tolerate very little distortion from a true circle before the onset
of catastrophic instability. Hence the empirical rule:
D/d < 35
where d is the depth of the ring beam, ie the difference between the inner and
outer radii of the beam and D is the diameter of the cofferdam (ie the diameter of
the inner face of the piles). If the sheet piles deflect to any great extent then the
load in the walings will be concentrated at the top or bottom of the waling and will
impart torsion into the beam. This condition should also be checked in the design.
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COFFERDAMS
Earth Filled Double Wall and Cellular Cofferdams
Earth filled cofferdams are self supporting gravity structures, either parallel-sided
double-wall cofferdams or cellular coffer-dams. The stability of both types is
dependent on the properties of the fill and the soil at foundation level as well as on
the arrangement and type of the steel sheet piling. Typical uses are as dams to
seal off dock entrances temporarily so that work below water level can be carried
out in the dry and in the construction of permanent walls for land reclamation,
quays, wharves and dolphins.
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COFFERDAMS
Double Skin/Wall Cofferdams
Double wall cofferdams comprise two parallel lines of sheet piles connected together by a system of
steel walings and tie rods at one or more levels. The space between the walls is generally filled with
granular material such as sand, gravel or broken rock.
The exposed or inner pile wall is designed as an anchored retaining wall while the outer line of piles
acts as the anchorage. U or Z-profile sheet piles are appropriate to this form of construction.
The wall as a whole should be analysed as a gravity structure and, in order to achieve adequate
factors of safety against overturning and sliding, the width should be not less than 0.8 of the
retained height of water or soil. When determining the resistance to sliding, the coefficient of
friction m along the base may be taken as 0.5 to 0.6 but cannot exceed tanf of the strata.
Resistance to sliding per unit run of wall = .h.. W plus the passive resistance in front of the wall,
where W is the width of the structure.
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Transverse bulkheads should be provided to form strong points at the ends and at intermediate
positions to assist construction and confine any damage which might occur. The strong points may
comprise a square or rectangular cell tied in both directions.
The water regime both inside and outside the structure is critical. It is recommended that
weepholes are provided on the inner side of the structure near the bottom of the exposed portion
of pile to permit free drainage of the fill material reducing the pressures on the inner wall and
preventing a decrease in the shear strength of the fill with time. As complete drainage of the fill is
not always practical, allowance should be made for any water pressure acting on the piles.
It is essential that clay or silt is not used as fill material and any material of this type occurring
above the main foundation stratum within the cofferdam must be removed prior to fill being placed.
The piles must be driven into the soil below excavation or dredge level to a sufficient depth to
generate the required passive resistance. In this condition the structure will deflect towards the
excavated side and the lateral earth pressure on the landward side may be taken as active. When
cohesionless soils occur at or below excavation level, the penetration of the piling must also be
sufficient to control the effects of seepage. The bearing capacity of the founding strata should be
checked against the weight of the structure and any super-imposed loading.
The presence of rock at excavation level makes this type of cofferdam unsuitable, unless:
The rock is of a type that will allow sheet piles to be driven into it to an adequate penetration
(see Installation).
Tie rods can be installed at a low level (probably underwater).
A trench can be preformed in the rock into which the piles can be placed and grouted.
The pile toes can be pinned with dowels installed in sockets in the rock.
If the piles are driven onto hard rock, or to a nominal depth below dredged level, the resistance to
overturning and sliding should be developed by base friction and gravitational forces alone. In this
condition the lateral earth pressure on the landward side will be in a condition between at rest and
active, depending on the amount of deflection.
The internal soil pressures acting on the outer walls should be taken as 1.25 times active values.
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COFFERDAMS
Cellular Cofferdams
Cellular cofferdams are constructed using straight web sheet piles. (See figure) The piles are
interlocked and driven to form closed cells which are then filled with cohesionless material.
Provided that the material on which they are to be founded is solid they require only nominal
penetration to be stable. Pile penetration will assist in the resistance of any lateral loads occurring
during the construction phase in the vulnerable period before the fill has been placed and the cell
has become inherently stable.
Cellular cofferdam structures are used to retain considerable depths of water or subsequently
placed fill. The straight web pile section and particularly the interlocks, have been developed to
resist the circumferential tension, which is developed in the cells, due to the radial pressure of the
contained fill and, at the same time permit sufficient angular deflection to enable cells of a practical
diameter to be formed. In cellular construction no bending moments are developed in the sheet
piles, which enables the steel to be disposed of in such a manner to enable the maximum tension
to be developed across the profile. The sections have therefore very little resistance to bending and
are not suitable for normal sheet pile wall construction. Since the straight web sections themselves
are capable of retaining the fill, walings and tie rods are not required. U or Z-profile piles are not
suitable for this application as they are not designed to act in tension in this manner.
The radial pressure p at any depth 'h' is Ko.'.h plus the net hydrostatic pressure at that depth. Ko
is the at rest earth pressure coefficient and is obtained from the equation Ko = 1 - sin. The
effective or buoyant density of the fill should be used below the contained water level. In some
circumstances, eg when using hydraulic fill, the contained water level may be at the top of the
structure during and immediately after filling.
Circumferential tension = p x radius of cell.
The stability of the cofferdam is dependent, on the tensile strength of the piles, the size and shape
of the cell and the properties of the fill and the foundation soil. The granular fill within the cells
provides stability to the whole structure by resisting shear forces which are set up in it when
external forces are applied. To provide adequate factors of safety the average width of the wall
should not be less than 0.8 of the retained height. The stability calculations should include checks
for sliding, overturning, bursting of interlocks, web tension, internal shear of fill, tilting and
foundation failure. The ratio of ultimate interlock strength against the maximum calculated
circumferential tension should not be less than 2. The disturbing forces on the landward side will be
derived from the active state due to the flexibility of the cellular structure. When determining the
resistance to sliding, the coefficient of friction m between the fill and the founding stratum may be
taken as 0.5 to 0.6 but cannot exceed tanf of the fill. Resistance to sliding per unit run of wall = .
h..Wa where Wa is the average width of the cofferdam.
If the structure is to be founded on clay the strata must be hard or very stiff and the resistance to
sliding should be checked for shear failure within the clay. When founding on fine sand, a berm
may be necessary on the inner side of the wall in order to prevent loss of stability by boiling of the
natural stratum due to seepage. With a sand or gravel foundation penetration of the piles must be
sufficient to prevent seepage affecting the structural stability. Rock provides a suitable base for
cellular construction and penetration is generally not required for stability. Some limited
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penetration is desirable in order to prevent loss of fill and water under the wall, otherwise some
other means of sealing the base should be investigated such as placing mass concrete. Whatever
the type of soil at foundation level all soft clays or silts must be removed prior to filling. Where
there is a significant depth to the founding strata consideration should be given to removing the
overlying material to reduce the driving depth.
All the piles should be driven to the same nominal toe level to permit the transfer of stresses
around the structure. If this is not possible eg due to the presence of a sloping rock platform, it will
be necessary to relieve the load from any piles below the level of continuity. This may be achieved
by the formation of a horizontal concrete infill wedge; on steeply sloping surfaces such a wedge
may need to be dowelled into the rock. Where the rock profile is irregular, consideration should be
given to levelling the surfaces prior to construction.
Adequate drainage must be provided near the bottom of the piles on the exposed face by means of
weepholes, together with filters where necessary, to improve stability. Complete drainage may not
be possible, however, so the effect of water on the weight of the infill and pressures on the piles
must be investigated.
The usual maximum length in which straight web sections are provided is 20m. Longer lengths can
be supplied by prior arrangement and splice details can be supplied on request. Due to their low
bending strength, however, special care is required when handling straight web piles. Lifting beams
should be employed when moving the piles horizontally between storage positions. Piles exceeding
15m in length require two or even three points of support when being raised to the vertical pitching
position.
An efficient, robust arrangement of temporary works and templates is fundamental to the success
of a cellular cofferdam scheme. A minimum of two templates is generally required often placed at
low and high water in a tidal location. During pitching it is essential that pile verticality is
maintained. Driving plant should be lightweight and easy to handle to avoid causing damage to the
piles and facilitate repositioning. In difficult driving conditions some form of driving assistance such
as water jetting, should be investigated. Guidance on temporary works arrangements and the
construction sequence is available on request.
Frodingham Straight Web Section - Dimensions and Properties

Note: *Including 4 No T-Junction Piles.
All Dimensions to centre point of pile web. The practicability of radii less than 3.75m is subject to
site conditions and guidance should be sought from the Corus Construction Centre. The
dimensions given above are for the unloaded condition. Allowance should be made for a barrelling
effect during filling as the tensile force is developed in the piles.
A cellular cofferdam is a flexible structure; horizontal movements of the piles and vertical
movement of the fill should be expected. As pitched, the pile interlocks are not stressed and a
barrelling effect, producing movements of 150mm, is not uncommon during filling. Horizontal
movements at the top of high cofferdams can be up to 500mm and fill settlements of 150mm are
not unusual.
The properties of the Frodingham Straight Web Section SW-1A are shown here. The range of
standard corners and junctions is also indicated. Non-standard corners and junctions can be
fabricated on request. The figure below illustrates the most common type of cellular construction in
circular cells.
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Forming Cellular Cofferdams
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COFFERDAMS
Effect of Water Pressure
The stability of a cofferdam can be adversely affected by the action of water
pressures on the soils at formation level to the extent that collapse may occur. In
granular soils, excess water pressure causes piping and in cohesive or very tightly
packed soils, heave results.
Piping occurs when the pressure on the soil grains due to the upward flow of water
is so large that the effective stress in the soil approaches zero. In this situation,
the soil has no shear strength and assumes a condition which can be considered as
quicksand which will not support any vertical load. This is obviously a very
dangerous situation for personnel operating in the cofferdam and will also affect
the passive resistance afforded to the cofferdam wall by the soil. The likelihood of
piping for a given cross section can be predicted by the construction of a flow net
which will allow the engineer to calculate the exit hydraulic gradient. Comparison of
the calculated value to the critical hydraulic gradient will indicate the factor of
safety against piping; for clean sands this should generally lie between 1.5 and
2.0. Care should be taken when designing circular cofferdams and at the corners of
rectangular structures where the three dimensional nature of the situation is more
critical than in the case of a long wall.
The factor of safety against piping can be increased by installing the piles to a
greater depth thereby increasing the flow path length and reducing the hydraulic
gradient. The table below gives an approximate guide to the safe minimum cut-off
depth for a cofferdam constructed in medium uniform cohesionless soil, when the
toes of the piles do not penetrate impermeable soils and excess water is pumped
from sumps at excavation level.
Safe Minimum Cut Off Depth
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Width of
Depth of CutCofferdam 'W' off 'D'
2H or more
0.4H
0.5H
0.5H
0.7H
Base heave can occur in cohesive or very tightly packed granular material, if the
force exerted by water pressure acting on a block of material inside the cofferdam
exceeds the bulk weight of the block. The likelihood of heave can be assessed
using a flow net to calculate the average water pressure acting on the line drawn
between the toes of the piles and converting this to an uplift force on the soil. This
can then be compared to the weight of the soil plug within the cofferdam.
The flow of water into a cofferdam may also be reduced by lowering the ground
water level by means of well points outside the cofferdam. Alternatively, flow into
the cofferdam can be reduced by pumping from well points located inside the
cofferdam at pile toe level. It should however be remembered that, when the
stability or ease of operation of a cofferdam involves pumping, reliability of the
pumps is of paramount importance and back-up capacity must be available to cope
with any emergencies.
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COFFERDAMS
Flow Nets
The preparation of flow nets is a useful tool, as it not only allows the Engineer to calculate the water
pressures in a particular situation, but also provides a visual representation of the flow regime in the
soil. The shape and complexity of a flow net is a function of the homogeneity and permeability of the
soil and the following notes indicate how a net can be drawn for uniform soil conditions and permeability.
A scaled drawing of the problem should be produced.

A datum level should be marked on the cross section either at an impermeable boundary or at a
suitable level below the cofferdam.
The flow criteria must be determined.
External water level.
Internal water level.
Centre line of cofferdam (this is the axis of symmetry).
Lines of flow must be parallel to the cofferdam walls and the impervious datum.
Using the above as guidelines, the net is produced from flow lines and equipotential lines (a stand pipe
at any point on an equipotential line would register the same height H above datum level). These are at
right angles to each other and form approximate squares. This process is very much trial and error but
practice will enable the flow net to be produced with a reasonable degree of speed and accuracy.
To calculate the pore water pressure u at any point (using the example above)
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Calculate the potential head H at the desired point (note that the potential head drop is always
the same between successive equipotential lines once a square net has been formed)
H = H1 - (H1 - H2 ) x n / Nd
where
n = number of equipotential drops to the point being considered
Nd = total number of drops
Hence at a point A,
H = H1 - (H1 - H2 ) x 2 / 10
At any point H = u / w + z
where
u = pore water pressure
w = density of water
z = height of point above datum
AsH, w and z are known, u can be calculated,
u = (H-z) x w
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COFFERDAMS
Pump Sumps
Although a sheet pile wall can prevent the ingress of water into an excavation, it is not possible to
give any guarantee that a cofferdam will be watertight. In order to deal with any water which
enters the excavation it is often desirable to install a drainage system which can channel water to a
sump from which the water can be pumped away.
As the hydraulic gradient adjacent to the corner of a cofferdam is at its largest, it is advisable to
place any sumps at excavation level as far as possible from any corner and wall.
It should not be forgotten that pumps are able to remove soil as well as water and a suction hose
laid in the bottom of a cofferdam can disturb the base of the excavation with subsequent
movement of the wall if the hose is badly located. Consideration should be given to forming a sump
using a perforated drum into which the hose can be fixed to limit damage.
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Bearing Piles - Corus Piling Handbook
BEARING PILES
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Introduction
Selection of Profiles
Design and Installation of Steel Bearing Piles
Testing the Load Capacity of Steel Bearing Piles
1. Maintained Load Test and Constant Rate of Penetration Test
2. Dynamic Testing
3. Pile Driving Formulae
Working Stresses
Splice Welds in Steel Piles
Tension Piles
Steel H Piles Dimensions and Properties
End-Bearing Steel H Piles
Non End-Bearing Steel H Piles
Allowable Stress in Axial Compression for Piles Projecting Above Soil
Level
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BEARING PILES
Introduction
Steel bearing piles can be used to support a structure where the use of shallow
foundations would cause either failure of the underlying soil, or result in
unacceptable settlements. The piles transmit the loads from the structure through
the upper layers of soft soil to those of adequate strength at greater depth.
The main advantages which steel piles have over alternative systems are as
follows:
They are available in a wide range of profiles and section weights in order to
allow the most economical choice of section for any particular loading
condition or soil profile.
They are well suited to use in cases where very soft clays or loose sands and
gravels are present in the soil profile or when piles are being installed below
the water table - conditions which can pose problems for cast-insitu systems.
Steel piles have a very high load-carrying capacity which can be further
enhanced, given suitable ground conditions, by the use of high yield strength
steel. The option of using a higher grade steel is also useful when harddriving conditions are anticipated.
Because they are comparatively light in weight, but very robust, they require
no special handling equipment for transport and they can be supplied in long
lengths (up to 26.5m for some sections).
The ease with which steel piles can be extended, increasing their load
carrying capacity, is of great value to the designer working with a material
as variable as soil. The inherent uncertainty of a calculated pile capacity is
less of a problem to the designer and the effect of unforeseen ground
conditions on the construction process can be reduced. For example, to
maintain load capacity if weak soils are encountered, it is a simple welding
operation to extend the pile or where a pile achieves the required set earlier
than predicted it can be shortened, with the advantage that off-cuts from
piles on one part of the site can be used as extension pieces for other piles.
Steel bearing piles are extractable at the end of the structures life and
therefore the opportunity for either re-use or recycling exists, resulting in an
economic and environmental bonus.
Steel bearing piles are of the low-displacement type and therefore there is
no spoil to dispose of, which is of particular benefit when piles are being
installed into contaminated ground.
Steel bearing piles can readily be used as raking members in order to
accommodate horizontal loads on structures such as bridge abutments.
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BEARING PILES
Selection of Profiles
Four basic types of steel bearing piles are produced by Corus:1. H-Section Universal Bearing Piles.
2. Box Piles. These are formed by welding together two or more units to form a
single section and are sub-divided into the following types:
1. Larssen Box Piles
2. Frodingham Plated and Double Box Piles
Types (2.1) and (2.2) are fabricated from standard sheet pile sections
and the dimensions and properties of these box piles are given in
Fabricated Steel Sheet Piling.
3. Tubular Piles.
4. Sheet Piles. It should be noted that as well as being widely specified for the
construction of purely earth-retaining structures, sheet piling also has a
significant capacity to carry axial load in addition to earth and water
pressures and can be used to form structures such as bridge abutments,
without modification.
Basically, the choice of the most suitable profile is defined as follows:
Where piles are fully embedded, ie the whole length of the pile is below ground
level, an H-section pile is most suitable. This usually occurs when piles are used to
support land-sited structures such as road and railway bridges and industrial
buildings.
Box piles are most useful when part of the pile is exposed above ground level, as in
pier and jetty construction, or when hard-driving ground conditions are anticipated.
They can also be incorporated into a plain sheet pile wall in order to increase its
bending strength and/or axial load capacity. That these sections possess a
comparatively uniform radius of gyration about each axis, and hence excellent
column properties, is a particular advantage in these situations.
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BEARING PILES
Design and Installation of Steel Bearing Piles
The design, installation and test loading of bearing piles is a complex subject and
the applicable design methods in particular, will be subject to some change in the
future as the limit-state approach given in Eurocode 7 - Geotechnical Design General Rules is adopted. These topics are dealt with in detail in the Steel
Construction Institute publication, P156 Steel Bearing Piles Guide: 1997.
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BEARING PILES
Testing the Load Capacity of Steel Bearing Piles
There are four categories of tests that are commonly used to determine the load
capacity of steel bearing piles. These are:
Maintained Load Test and Constant Rate of Penetration Test
Both these tests use similar apparatus and in both cases the test load is applied by
hydraulic jack(s) with kentledge or tension piles/soil anchors providing a reaction.
In the Maintained Load Test, the load is increased incrementally, and is held at
each level of loading until all settlement has either ceased or does not exceed a
specified amount in a stated period of time. In the Constant Rate of Penetration
Test, the load is increased continuously at a rate such that the settlement of the
pile head occurs at a constant rate. A rate of 0.75mm/min is suitable for friction
piles in clay, whilst for end-bearing piles in sand or gravel a penetration rate of
1.5mm/min may be used. The amount of kentledge or tension resistance should
always be in excess of the estimated ultimate bearing capacity of the pile and if
kentledge is used, its support system and foundations should be carefully
considered well in advance of the test. Details of both these tests are given in
BS8004 1986 Clauses 7.5.5 and 7.5.6.
It is desirable to carry out test loading of steel bearing piles to *failure/ultimate
load to determine whether the factor of safety or penetration is approximately
correct and this can generally be done without affecting the piles subsequent load
carrying capacity.
* This is commonly defined as the load at which the total head settlement is 10%
of the pile width or the load at which the net residual head settlement, after
removal of all load, is equal to a specified amount eg 8mm
Dynamic Testing
Using this approach, the test pile is instrumented with strain transducers and
accelerometers, the pile is struck with the piling hammer and the force and velocity
data recorded and analysed. Using this data, methods are available that give an onsite estimate of the pile bearing capacity, although more rigorous and detailed
analysis of the recorded data can be performed using a computer program such as
the Case Pile Wave Analysis Program (CAPWAP). Using the program, an engineer
can determine the pile bearing capacity, in terms of shaft resistance and toe
resistance and the distribution of resistance over the pile shaft. A load-settlement
curve is calculated and is similar in form to traditional static load tests. It is
advisable to correlate the results of dynamic pile tests with those of at least one
maintained load test.
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Pile Driving Formulae
This approach, eg the Hiley formula, relates the measured permanent displacement
of the pile at each blow of the hammer to the dynamic capacity of the pile, from
which the static capacity can be obtained by the application of a factor of safety,
normally 2.0. It should be noted that a dynamic formula should be applied only to
piles founded in hard or soft rocks, sands and gravels or extremely hard clays and
that it is then applicable only if a satisfactory re-drive check is obtained, ie the
immediate set per blow on re-driving the pile after an interval of several hours
should be either equal to, or less than, the previous final set per blow.
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BEARING PILES
Working Stresses
The maximum working stress should normally be limited to 30% of yield stress, ie
85N/mm for grade S275 steel and 105N/mm for grade S355 steel, to BS EN
10025:1993. However, when piles are driven through fairly soft soils to refusal on
a sound rock stratum at a known level, then the maximum working stress can be
increased to approximately 50% of yield stress, ie 140N/mm for grade S275 steel
and 180N/mm for grade S355 steel.
Where bending moments are to be resisted in addition to axial loads, the combined
bending and axial stresses should not exceed 50% of yield, whilst the stress due to
axial load alone must not exceed 30% or 50% of yield as explained above.
For general guidance, extracts in the form of tables from the Steel Construction
Institute publication Steel Bearing Piles Guide:1997 are reproduced in this
chapter. These tables give the range of pile sizes available and general guidance on
the selection of piles and sizes for various loads.
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BEARING PILES
Splice Welds in Steel Piles
Two main types of weld are used in steel piling:
1. Primary welds, used to form tubular or box piles and fabricate corners,
junctions etc in sheet piles.
2. Splice Welds to connect an extra length to a pile, either before or after an
initial installation to increase the overall pile length.
For splice welds to steel piling, there has been no generally agreed Standard or
Code of Practice stipulating the weld quality level to be used, which has led to a
tendency to use a standard which is too high. Over specification leads to higher
labour and welding consumable costs, increased Non-Destructive Testing costs,
high rectification costs and consequent delays to the overall construction
programme. Therefore, for guidance on the subject of welding sheet piles and
bearing piles, reference should be made to Site Fabrication of Piles and the
Corus publication Splice Welds in Steel Piles
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BEARING PILES
Tension Piles
Bearing Piles manufactured in steel have the advantage of being able to withstand
high tensile loadings, which makes them ideal for resisting uplift forces.
Contents
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BEARING PILES
Steel H Piles Dimensions and Properties
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BEARING PILES
End-Bearing Steel H Piles
The table below is applicable to piles founded in:
1. Hard and medium rock or equivalent,strata, such as extremely dense or partially cemented sands
or gravels.
2. Soft rocks, dense sands and gravels or extremely hard clays, hardpan and similar soils.
In the second case the piles will act in a combination of end bearing and friction in the founding stratum
and the required penetration will be greater than that for the first case where penetration is dependent
on the hardness of the rock and on any weathering of its upper surface.
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BEARING PILES
Non End-Bearing Steel H Piles
The following tables give some typical sizes and working loads for piles founded in:
1. Sands and gravel of medium to loose density.
2. Hard and stiff clays.
The working loads given in the table are only an indication of bearing capacity in
the above conditions. Reference should be made to the Steel Construction Institute
publication Steel Bearing Piles Guide: 1997 in determining actual load bearing
capacities of piles.
Typical Working Loads
Pile Size
mm x mm x kg/
m
Typical range of working loads per pile kN
356x368x109
(1140) (1040) 990
840
305x305x95
(990)
(890)
(790)
305x305x79
(820)
(720)
(620)
(520)
254x254x63
(650)
(550)
450
Note:
Loads are for mild steel to BS EN 10025 Grade S275
The highest loads correspond approximately to the maximum load per pile given in
this table. Selection of pile size for a given working load depends on the actual
soil properties and is subject to driving and test loading of a trial pile.
The highest loads in brackets may result in excessive penetrations into the
founding stratum, depending on its properties, and may not necessarily result in
the most economical solution.
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BEARING PILES
Allowable Stress in Axial Compression for Piles Projecting Above
Soil Level
When a pile projects above soil level, as in a jetty or pier, the upper portion should
be designed as a column.
The table below gives permissible stress values for bearing piles subject to purely
axial compression.
If bending forces are to be resisted also, it will be necessary to check that the pile
section selected is adequate to meet the requirements of BS 449 for members
subject to combined axial compression and bending and that the combined stress
does not exceed 0.5 x Yield Stress - see BS 8004.
The effective length is based on a length L which is defined as follows:
1. Where soft soils occur immediately below bed level, L is the distance
between the point of connection with the deck (or bracing if any) and a point
which is located at half the depth of the soft stratum or three metres down
from bed level whichever is the lesser. Liquid mud should be considered as
being equivalent to water.
2. Where firm soils occur immediately below bed level, L is the distance
between the point of connection with the deck (or bracing, if any) and a
point located at bed level.
Hence, if the top of the pile is fixed in position in the orientation being considered
but is not effectively fixed in direction, the effective length is L. If however, the
pile is also fixed in direction in this situation the effective length should be taken as
0.75 x L.
If the top of the pile is fixed in direction but not in position the effective length is L.
For partial fixity in this situation the effective length should be taken as 1.5 x L.
When the top of the pile is neither fixed in position, nor in direction in the
orientation being examined, the effective length is 2 x L.
Permissable Stress Values
Slenderness ratio I/r
Grade S275 (mild steel) N/

mm
Grade S355 (high yield

stress steel) N/mm
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90
95
100
100
92
105
74
85
110
69
78
120
60
67
130
52
58
140
46
50
150
40
44
160
36
39
170
32
35
180
29
31
Note:
l = effective length as defined above;
r = appropriate radius of gyration.
Where no stress is given, maximum working stress of 0.3 x minimum yield stress
controls.
It is emphasised that the stresses given are for axial loading only.
Contents
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Sample Specification - Corus Piling Handbook
SAMPLE SPECIFICATION
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Introduction
General
Quality
Tolerances of LX and Larssen SSP
Tolerances of Frodingham SSP
Coating Protection
Method Statement
Handling
Pitching & Driving
Driving Tolerances
Driving Records
Cutting and Welding
Walings and Tie Rods
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Introduction
No specific mention is made in this chapter of Safety Standards, Health and Safety
Legislation, C.O.S.H.H., C.D.M. etc as it is assumed that they would form the key
part of any specification, without further duplication.
This chapter is intended to encompass some of the main points commonly used in
specifications for todays contracts. Hence it cannot be job specific nor does it
attempt to go into any great depth on any particular point.
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General
Either:
The Steel Sheet Piles shall be LX, Larssen or Frodingham, as produced by Corus or
similar approved in new condition and shall be of the sections, numbers and
lengths specified on the drawings complete with all necessary corners, junctions
and special piles as indicated.
Or:
The Steel Sheet Piles shall be LX, Larssen or Frodingham, in new condition and
shall have a minimum theoretical combined section modulus of..... cm /m run and
a theoretical mass of..... kg/m.
The corners, junctions and special piles indicated on the working drawings shall be
fabricated at the Sheet Pile Manufacturers premises under workshop conditions or
similar approved facility with quality assurance systems operative. All such work
shall comply (within the tolerances) to the standard dimensions quoted by the
manufacturer, or for non standard fabrications to the approval of the Engineer.
If during the course of the works a requirement for extra fabricated piles occurs,
the contractor shall submit to the Engineer for approval, the proposed type and
method of manufacture. Piles of the same steel grade and section size as the
neighbouring plain piles shall be used, unless otherwise approved.
All materials shall comply with the appropriate British Standards.
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Quality
The quality of steel shall conform to :
Either: (If Mild Steel is required)
- EN 10248:1995 Grade S27OGP
- BS EN 10025:1993 Grade S275
- BS EN 10025:1990 Grade Fe 430A
- BS 4360:1990 Grade 43A
- BS 4360:1986 Grade 43A
Or: (If High Yield Steel is required)
- EN 10248:1995 Grade S355GP
- BS EN 10025:1993 Grade S355
- BS EN 10025:1990 Grade Fe 51OA
- BS 4360:1990 Grade 50B
- BS 4360:1986 Grade 50A
The following clauses may be included if required:
Either:
The Steel shall contain 0.20% to 0.35% Copper.
Or:
The Steel shall contain over 0.35% to 0.50% Copper.
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Tolerances of LX and Larssen Steel Sheet Piling
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Tolerances of Frodingham Steel Sheet Piling
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Coating Protection
Steel sheet pile coating protection, when required, shall receive the following
surface preparation and take one of the following forms:
Either:
Light shot blast then application of Tar Vinyl (an aromatic pitch modified with
suitable vinyl resins) in coat thicknesses of up to 150 microns. [Corus designation
PC1]
Or:
Blast clean to ISO 8501-1, grade 2, then application of High-Build Isocyanate
cured, Epoxy Pitch (special coal tar pitch, modified with epoxy resins, cured with
isocyanate adducts) in coat thicknesses of up to 400 microns. [Corus designation
PC2]
Or:
Similar approved.
Due care and attention shall be given to the offloading, storing and installation of
protected piles to prevent damage to coatings (see section 'Handling')
Any remedial work to coatings shall be carried out in accordance with the
manufacturers recommendations and to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
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Handling
All piles shall be stacked in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.
The contractor shall ensure that operations involving loading, transporting,
offloading, handling, stacking and pitching the piles, are carried out in such a
manner as to prevent damage to the piles or their coating.
Any damage that does occur shall be drawn to the attention of the Engineer and
the contractor shall submit his proposals for remedial works for approval prior to
commencement. The making good/replacement measures shall be carried out by
the contractor at his own expense. The Engineers approval of the completed
remedial measures will be required before inclusion into the structure can take
place.
Holes shall not be burnt/drilled nor lifting brackets welded to the sheet piles
without the prior approval of the Engineer. All such modification shall be made
good after use.
Wherever possible the same pile sections, lengths and steel grades shall be stored
in separate stacks clearly marked/colour coded to avoid errors in placement.
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Method Statement
Before the commencement of any piling works, the contractor shall submit
(allowing sufficient time for consideration) to the Engineer for approval a Safety
Policy and a Method Statement which shall include the following information:
Program of the works detailing sequence and timing of individual portions of

the works.
Maximum proposed lead at any stage of driving between a pile and its
neighbour and the limitations of same if hard driving is encountered.
The height, spacing, stability and type of piling guidance system and the
number of piles in each panel if applicable.
Full details of installation plant to be utilised including manufacturers
information, proof of servicing/recent upkeep and assessment of actual input
energy to the piles and a definition of driving refusal for each type of plant
proposed.
Proposed phasing of excavation/filling operations such that designed stresses
in the piles and frames/supports are not exceeded.
Contingency plan in the event of encountering obstructions or reaching
driving refusal to minimise disruption/delay especially when using pitch and
drive methods.
Acceptable noise levels agreed with the Local Authority are XXXX dB(a)
between the hours of XXXX and XXXX etc, and the contractor shall submit
details of the envisaged noise production and his intended method of
complying with the aforementioned limits.
Acceptable vibration levels are XXXX mm/sec measured at a distance of
XXXX from the source of the vibration. The contractor shall submit details of
the estimated vibration levels created by the works and his envisaged
method of complying with the aforementioned limits.
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Pitching & Driving
The selection of the driving and extracting plant shall be made having due regard
to the ground conditions and pile type.
The Engineer shall be notified of the contractors intention to pitch and drive piles
at least 24 hours prior to commencement of the installation works. Prior to
interlocking sheet piles the contractor shall ensure that the locks are undamaged
clean and free from deleterious materials.
Pitch and drive techniques shall be permitted if the following criteria are met:
The rig has sufficient height to adequately support the entire pile during
driving.
The driving will be relatively easy, without hard bands or obstructions which
would dictate the requirement for full support afforded by panel driving
techniques.
The contractor can satisfy the Engineer that the sheet pile structure can be
built to conform with the specified tolerances for verticality and alignment.
In all cases the piles shall be guided and held in position during pitching and
driving. All piles shall be fully interlocked without exception. Overlapping of piles
will not be accepted as a substitute for interlocking piles.
Taper piles shall not be introduced to correct piles which have developed a lean,
unless the approval of the Engineer is first obtained.
Piles which reach refusal before achieving the design penetration shall not be cut
off without the approval of the Engineer. In difficult driving conditions a lead in
excess of XXXX m shall not be allowed to develop between the toe level of the pile
being driven and the level of its neighbouring pile.
[Note: the following two paragraphs, shown in italics, should only be
added to the contract specification at the Engineer's discretion.]
For guidance, where 15m piles are being driven in difficult driving conditions
(where panel driving would be dictated), the typical leads that may be permitted
for each successive drive may be 5m, 4m, 3m, 2m with the final drive having no
more than 1m lead.
The contractor shall do all within his power/experience to avoid driving damage or
declutching. The Engineer shall be notified immediately if any of these occur.
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Percussive piling hammers shall be either freely suspended in which case they will
have suitable leg guides/inserts in sound working order, or leader mounted in
which case the leader must be of suitable rigidity and strength to keep the hammer
stable during driving and moving operations. In all cases the hammer shall be held
in position over the pile such that each blow is directed axially down the centreline
of the pile/pair. (When driving high modulus units the centreline of the hammer
blow shall be positioned as close to the centreline of the combined unit or between
that position and the centreline of the beam unit).
The anvil block shall be of sufficient plan area to cover at least 90% of the pile or
piles being driven and of sufficient thickness to adequately transfer the heaviest
hammer blow evenly to the pile heads. The anvil shall be flat and level, without
substantial wear such that the blow is transferred axially and distributed evenly
over the pile head.
Where sheet piles are driven to a set to indicate vertical load carrying capacity this
shall always be calibrated by maintained load testing on a representative sample of
the piles. The set shall be recorded with a hammer of well defined input energy
such as a gravity drop hammer or an hydraulic drop hammer. Where it is
unavoidable to use hammers of less certain input energy, ie air hammers and
diesel hammers, then the maximum losses must be used in the set calculation ie
assuming approximately 30% hammer efficiency.
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Driving Tolerances
The following tolerances are suitable for general site practice for permanent
structures. However more lenient limits may be applied if difficult driving conditions
are encountered eg obstructions or the works are only temporary:
Deviation perpendicular to theoretical line +/- 50mm.

Deviation of verticality normal to and along the line of the piles, 1 in 100.
Top of finished pile level +/- 20mm.
Deviation from these tolerances will not be acceptable without written
agreement from the Engineer. Forcible correction will not be permitted.
The above tolerances are included for guidance purposes only and should be
altered depending on site specific requirements
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Driving Records
The contractor shall keep complete and accurate piling records. Two signed copies
of these records shall be submitted to the Engineer not more than 48 hours from
the date of the works detailed therein. The pile records shall always be submitted
with sufficient time for the Engineers approval prior to the piles becoming
inaccessibledue to further operations.
The records shall contain the following information:
Pile reference number (correlated to previously accepted works General

Arrangement drawing showing each pile position and reference).
Pile type and steel grade.
Pile length.
Commencing surface level and final toe level.
Depth driven, type of construction plant and times and dates when piles
were driven.
Where required the number of blows to drive each 250mm over the last
2.5m shall be recorded.
Comments regarding unusual/ unexpected driving conditions (both harder,
eg obstructions, or easier, eg increased penetration rates) should be
included.
Where changes in the pile length have occurred due to lengthening or
cutting, all relevant information including offcut length or extension length,
reason for change and on what authority the change was made shall be
included.
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Cutting and Welding
No cutting or welding of piles shall be carried out without prior written approval
from the Engineer. All such cutting shall be carried out by means of Oxyacetylene,
Oxypropane or other approved method. The remaining pile shall be of clean and
even appearance with grinding tools being employed to remove splatter. Cut offs
shall be marked so that it is clear from which pile they came and after agreement
from the Engineer will be disposed of in the pre agreed manner. Cutting must be
carried out in such a way as to prevent damage or distortion to adjacent piles. The
finished level of the cut pile shall be within 20mm of the theoretical level.
When it is necessary to form holes in the sheet piles, they shall be drilled or burnt
using a template, and subsequently dressed flush. The hole size shall be of
sufficient clearance and will include allowance for bolt/tie coatings and inclination if
not horizontal. All holes not required in the finished works which are not sealed in
the pile cap or other such detail, shall be sealed by welding a plate of the same
grade, of thickness not less than the pan thickness to the pile. The minimum plate
overlap shall be 40mm and the minimum continuous fillet weld size shall be 6mm.
All holes shall be within a positional tolerance of +/-10mm.
Holes formed as weep holes to avoid water build up behind the wall shall comply
with the above details.
Only welders who are qualified to the standard set out in the current Code of
Practice/British Standard and have a proven record over the previous six months,
or who have attained a similar standard, shall be employed on the works. Proof of
welder proficiency shall be made available to the Engineer on request.
For manual metal arc and semi-automatic welding of carbon and carbon
manganese steels, welding of piles and steel framework shall be carried out in
accordance with BS 5135, the standard being Quality Category D in accordance
with Appendix H, tables 18 and 19. Defective welds shall be cut out and replaced.
Where steel sheet piles are to be spliced by butt welding, the interlocks shall not
be welded unless a sealing weld is required. Butt welding should only be carried
out if the component ends have been matched together to ensure best possible fit.
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Walings and Tie Rods
Walings shall be secured to each pair of piles with anchor bolts, washers and
bearing plates. All splices, if welded or bolted, shall be at the fifth spacing between
tie rods and splices in walings and shall be staggered by a minimum distance of 5m.
No welding of the tie rods shall be permitted. Tie rods will not be used for earthing
purposes and will be protected against welding splash. Tie rods shall be assembled
with necessary taper washers, washers and bearing plates in accordance with the
manufacturers recommendations.
During installation of the tie rods precautions shall be taken to avoid the following:
Deflection of the tie.

Local bending of tie rod on waling.
Damage to the tie or its protective coating.
Tensioning of ties will be by means of a turnbuckle only and the phasing of
the tensioning will be agreed with the Engineer in advance. Care shall be
taken to avoid damage to the tie rods during subsequent operations such as
backfilling and the contractors proposed procedure to accomplish this shall
be submitted to the Engineer for approval. Where settlement is expected to
occur the ties should be placed inside a tube such that the tube will settle
with the ground but the tie will remain in the correct position
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Formulae and Tables - Corus Piling Handbook
FORMULAE & TABLES

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The Metric System

Miscellaneous Conversion Factors and Constants
Natural Trigonometrical Functions
Bending Moments in Beams
Properties of Sections
Mensuration of Plane Surfaces
Mensuration of Solids
Equivalent of Metres in Feet
Equivalent of Feet in Metres
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FORMULAE & TABLES

The Metric System
Linear Measure
1 inch
= 25.4mm
1mm
= 0.03937 inch
1 foot
= 0.3048
1cm
= 0.3937 inch
1 yard
= 0.9144m
1m
= 3.2808 feet or 1.0936 yds
1 mile
= 1.6093km
1km
= 0.6214 mile
Square Measure
1 sq inch
= 645.16mm
1 cm
= 0.155 sq in
1 sq foot
= 0.0929m
1 m
= 10.7639 sq. ft
or 1.196 sq yds
1 sq yard
= 0.8361m
1 hectare
= 2.4711 acres
1 acre
= 0.4047 hectare
1 sq mile
= 259 hectares
1 hectare = 10,000m
1 km
= 247.105 acres
1 cubic inch = 16.387cm
1 mm
= 0.000061 cubic inch
1 cubic foot
1 m
= 35.3147 cubic ft
or 1.308 cubic yds.
Cubic Measurement
= 0.0283m
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1 cubic yard = 0.7646m
Measure of Capacity
1 pint
= 0.568 litre
1 gallon
= 4.546 litres
1 litre
= 1.7598 pints or 0.22 gallon
Weight
1 oz
= 28.35kg
1g
= 0.0353 oz
1 pound
= 0.4536kg
1 kg
= 2.2046 lb
1 ton
= 1.016 tonnes
or 1016kg
1 tonne
= 0.9842 ton
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Miscellaneous Conversion Factors and Constants
Section Modulus
1 inch
= 16.39cm
1 inch per foot of wall
= 53.7cm per m of wall
1.86 inch per foot of wall
= 100cm per m of wall
Moment of Inertia
1 inch4
= 41.62cm4
1 lb (f)
= 4.449N
1 pound per linear foot
= 1.4881 kg per linear m
1 pound per square foot
= 4.883kg per m
0.205 pound per square foot
= 1kg per m
1 ton (f) per linear foot
= 32.69kN per linear m
1000 pound (f) per square foot
= 47.882kN per m
1 ton (f) per square inch
= 15.444N per mm
1 ton (f) per square foot
= 107.25kN per m
100 pound per cubic foot
= 1602kg per m
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100 pound (f) per cubic foot
= 15.7kN per m
1 ton (f) foot Bending Moment

per foot of wall
= 10kNm Bending Moment

per metre of wall
1m head of fresh water
= 1kg per cm
1m head of sea water
= 1.025kg per cm
1m of fresh water
= 1000kg
1m of sea water
= 1025kg
1 radian
= 57.3 degrees
Youngs Modulus, steel
= 210kN/mm
100 microns
= 0.1mm = 0.004 inch
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Natural Trigonometrical Functions
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Bending Moments in Beams
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Properties of Sections
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Mensuration of Plane Surfaces
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Mensuration of Solids
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Equivalent of Metres in Feet
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FORMULAE & TABLES

Equivalent of Feet in Metres
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References - Corus Piling Handbook
REFERENCES
References
BS 449: Part 2: 1969
Metric Units.
BS 639: 1986
Specification for Covered Carbon and Carbon Manganese Steel Electrodes for
Manual Metal-Arc Welding.
BS 3580: 1964 (1985)
Guide to Design Considerations on the Strength of Screw Threads.

BS 3643
ISO Metric Screw Threads.

BS 4360: 1986 + 1990
Specification for Weldable Structural Steels.

BS 5135: 1984
Specification for Arc Welding of Carbon and Carbon Manganese Steels.

BS 5228
Noise Control on Construction and Open Sites.

BS 5228: Part 4: 1992
Code of Practice for Noise and Vibration Control applicable to Piling Operations.
BS 5268: Part 2: 1991
Structural use of Timber.

BS 5400: Part 3: 1982
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Code of Practice for Design of Steel Bridges.

BS 5930: 1981
Code of Practice for Site Investigations.

BS 6349
Maritime Structures.
BS 8002: 1994
Code of Practice for Earth Retaining Structures.

BS 8004: 1986
Code of Practice for Foundations.

BS 8081: 1989
Code of Practice for Ground Anchorages.

BS EN 10025: 1993
Hot Rolled Products of Non-Alloy Structural Steels. Technical Delivery Conditions.

BS EN 10210: 1995
BS EN 10248: 1996 Parts 1 & 2
Hot rolled Sheet Piling of Non-alloy Steels. British Standards Institution.

Bell A L
Earth Pressures. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Vol. 199. 1915
Bond A J
ReWaRD User Manual 1st Edition 1992

BS Publication
Accelerated Low Water Corrosion of Steel Sheet Piles.

BS Publication
Splice Welds in Steel Piles.

Burland J B, Potts D M & Walsh N M (1981)
The Overall Stability of Free & Propped Cantilever Retaining Walls, Ground
Engineering, 14 (5), 28 - 38.
Caquot A & Kerisel J (1948)
Tables for the Calculation of Passive Pressure, Active Pressure and Bearing
Capacity of Foundations, Gauthier - Villars, Paris.
Clough W G & ORourke T D (1990)
Construction Induced Movements of Insitu Walls, Proc. Speciality conf. on Design &
Performance of Earth Retaining Structures, Cornell, ASCE, Geotechnical Special
Publication No. 25, Lambe P C & Hansen L A (eds), 439-470.
Clough W G, Smith E M & Sweeney B P (1989)
Movement Control of Excavation Support Systems by Interactive Design, Proc.

ASCE Found. Engng., Current Principles & Practices, Vol. 2, 869-884.
Code of Practice No. 2 (1951)
Earth Retaining Structures, Institution of Structural Engineers, London.

Day R A & Potts D M (1989)
A Comparison of Design Methods for Propped Sheet Pile Walls, Steel Construction
Institute (Publication 077).
Eurocode 1: EN1991
Basis of Design & Actions on Structures.

Eurocode 3: EN1993
Part 5 Piling.
Eurocode 7: EN1997
Geotechnical Design.
Federation of Piling Specialists
Specification for Steel Sheet Piling.

ICE Specification (1988)
Institution of Civil Engineers, Specification for Piling.

Nyaoro DL (1982)
Analysis of Soil-Structure Integration by Finite Elements.

Padfield C J & Mair R J (1994)
Design of Retaining Walls Embedded in Stiff Clay, Report 104, Construction

Industry Research & Information Association, London 146pp.
Peck R B, Hanson W E & Thornburn T H (1974)
Foundation Engineering, John Wiley, New York.

Pile Buck (1987)
Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual . Pile Buck Inc.

Potts D M & Burland J B (1983)
A Parametric Study of the Stability of Embedded Earth Retaining Structures,

Transport & Road Research Laboratory, Supplementary Report SR 813.
Potts D M & Fourie A B (1985)
The Effect of Wall Stiffness in the Behaviour of a Propped Retaining Wall,

Geotechnique Vol. 35, No. 3, 347-352.
Rowe P W (1952)
Anchored Sheet Pile Walls, Proc. Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1. No. 1, 27-20.
Steel Construction Institute (1997)
Steel Bearing Pile Guide.

Steel Construction Institute (1997)
Integral Steel Bridges Design Guide.

Tamaro G J & Gould J P (1982)
Analysis & Design of Cast-in-Situ Walls (diaphragm walls), Proc. Conf. on Retaining
Structures, Cambridge, ICE, Thomas Telford, London (in press).
Technical European Sheet Piling Association of Steel Sheet Piles.
Timoshenko/Rourke
Concrete Walings.
Tomlinson M J (1980)
Foundation Design & Construction, 4th Edition, Pitman, London, 793pp.

Williams B P & Waite D
The Design & Construction of Sheet Piled Cofferdams, Special Publication 95,
Construction Industry Research & Information Association.
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CORUS PILING HANDBOOK

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Product Information - Corus Piling Handbook

BS20 BS7 BS22

180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70

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Product Information - Corus Piling Handbook

Mass = 17.3 kg/m

Mass = 15.4 kg/m

Mass = 6.3 kg/m

Mass = 10.3 kg/m

Examples of other types of LX and Larssen junction piles

Examples of other types of LX and Larssen corner piles (bent or welded)

Examples of other types of Frodingham junction piles

Examples of other types of Frodingham corner piles

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CORUS PILING HANDBOOK

Piling Handbook Internet Edition (2001)

Disclaimer - Corus Piling Handbook

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LX and Larssen piles

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Product Information - Corus Piling Handbook

section dimensions per

sectional mass combined elastic

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