Exchange student Civil Engineering

Horsens, 25.09.2012

Daria Maria Biskupska (18 ECTS)

PROJECT NR 11

Foundation for Skyscraper in urban area.

Use diaphragm walls and top & down method

Supervisors:

Sara Kjrgaard 4/5

Sren Fisker 1/5

sakj@viauc.dk

sf@viauc.dk

Tele: + 45 87 55 42 82

Tele: +45 87 55 41 04

Table of Contents

1. General introduction .................................................................................................. 5

1.1. The aim of the project........................................................................................................................ 5
1.2. Localization ....................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3. Construction and general characteristic of the building .................................................................... 6
1.4. Climate .............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.5. Project assumptions/Delimitation ...................................................................................................... 8

2. Geological Analyze .................................................................................................... 9

2.1.General information about soils in Poland .......................................................................................... 9
2.2. Local soils on the site ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.3. Previous drilling in the area ............................................................................................................. 10
2.3.1. Information according to Polish geo - engineering database........................................................ 10
Information according to Geobad ................................................................................................. 13

3.Retaining structures analyze................................................................................. 15

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 15
3.1. Types of earth support systems ...................................................................................................... 16
3.1.1. Diaphragm walls........................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.2. Pile walls ...................................................................................................................................... 19
3.1.3. Soldier pile with wooden lagging walls ......................................................................................... 20
3.1.4. Sheet pile walls ............................................................................................................................ 22
3.2. Comparison ..................................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.1. Best solution................................................................................................................................. 23

4. Types of diaphragm wall analysis and selection the best type ......................... 24
4.1. Cantilever diaphragm wall embedded in soil ................................................................................... 24
4.2. Strutted diaphragm wall .................................................................................................................. 25
4.3. Anchored diaphragm wall ................................................................................................................ 26
4.4. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 27

5.Deep excavation methods analyze ....................................................................... 28

5.1. General introduction about deep excavations ................................................................................. 28
5.2. Types of deep excavations methods ............................................................................................... 28
5.2.1. Bottom-up method........................................................................................................................ 29
5.2.2. Top and down method .................................................................................................................. 29
5.3. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 34

6. Skyscraper in Wroclaw: underground garage stages of construction ............. 35

7.Geotechnical description ......................................................................................... 39

7.1. Introduction to soil properties .......................................................................................................... 39

7.2. Soil physical properties ................................................................................................................... 41
7.3. Soil characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 42
7.3.1. Determination of weight density ................................................................................................... 42
7.3.2. Determination of characteristic undrained shear strenght ............................................................ 43
7.3.3. Determination of characteristic angle of shearing resistance ....................................................... 43
7.3.4. Determination of parameters for soils occurring in the project ..................................................... 43

8. Introduction to calculations .................................................................................... 45

8.1. Introduction Designing foundations by calculation according to Eurocode 7 ................................ 45
8.1.1. Partial factor safety ...................................................................................................................... 45
8.1.2. Geotechnical design by calculation .............................................................................................. 45
8.1.3. Designed values of actions .......................................................................................................... 46
8.1.4. Designed values of geotechnical parameters............................................................................... 46
8.1.5. Designed values of geometrical data ........................................................................................... 46
8.1.6. Designed effects of actions .......................................................................................................... 47
8.1.7. EQU ............................................................................................................................................. 47
8.1.8. GEO ............................................................................................................................................. 48
8.1.9. STR .............................................................................................................................................. 48
8.1.10. GEO/STR Limit States ............................................................................................................... 49
8.2. Retaining wall design ...................................................................................................................... 49
8.2.1. Limit states ................................................................................................................................... 49
8.2.2. Future unplanned excavation ....................................................................................................... 50

9. Diaphragm wall calculations ................................................................................... 51

9.1. General assumptions for project ..................................................................................................... 51
9.2. Descriptions of calculations ............................................................................................................. 52
9.3. Geo5 calculations............................................................................................................................ 75

10. Duration and prices ............................................................................................... 78

11. Safety and organization ......................................................................................... 79
11.1. Safety and organization the building site ....................................................................................... 79
11.2. Temporary dewatering ................................................................................................................... 80

12. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 81

13. References .............................................................................................................. 82
ANNEXES
ANNEX 1. Project description
ANNEX 2. Pictures

ANNEX 3. Soil profiles ( cut sections: I, II, III, IV)

ANNEX 4. Soil classification system according to Eurocode 7
ANNEX 5. PN81-03020
ANNEX 6. PN EN 1997-1 Soil characteristics
ANNEX 7. PN EN 1997-1 Factors for safety, Ultimate limit-State, coefficient
ANNEX 8. PN EN 1997-1 Loss of static equilibrium (Examples)
ANNEX 9. PN81-03010
ANNEX 10. GEO5 graphs for PHASE 5

DRAWINGS
DRAWING NR 1. LAND USE PLAN

1:500

DRAWING NR 2. LAYOUT DRAWING OF UNDERGROUND PARKING

1:100

DRAWING NR 3. CALCULATED CROSS SECTION WITH LOCATION

1:100

DRAWING NR 4. CONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF DIAPHRAGM WALL

1:50

1. General introduction

1.1. The aim of the project

The aim of this project was to analyze geotechnical information about the area, to find proper
retaining structures, to design the construction for chosen structures, to find the best deep excavation
method and organization plan for excavation-works. After few analysis, the best solutions have been
found: diaphragm walls and top & down method. In order to have more clear understanding of the overall problem, there are some more studies in the following chapters of the project.
Equally important task was calculation and dimensioning of diaphragm walls by using software
and also doing calculations by hand. More-over, by doing the most of the calculations by GEO5, it was
possible to find all internal forces in diaphragm walls (in each step of garage building process) and
compare the results in a short period time.
In order to provide continuous work flow in urban area, it is very important to have an
organizational plan for the excavation works - the organization plan was prepared and it is included in
this project. Excavation as a process is a major challenge because of the extent of the work-area and
volumes. It is briefly analyzed and planned in this current project. Important issue in terms of this
particular case is drainage and it is analyzed and possible solutions are presented.
1.2. Localization
This project is about excavation works for Skyscraper in Wroclaw. Wroclaw is the third-largest city in
Poland. More pictures from building site are enclosed as ANNEX 1.
Figure 1.1 Location of Wroclaw

The Skyscraper will be situated in the center of the down, which will make the construction more
complex in many ways, including the excavation works.

Figure 1.2 Location of Skyscraper in Wroclaw.

1.3. Construction and general characteristic of the building

The building is designed as in-situ reinforced concrete frame, with 2 under-ground stories and 11 aboveground stories. The real name of the building is Office building of tax chamber. This Skyscraper is
designed by company AA Studio architects. The roof of the building is planned to be around at the
level of +40,0 meters. The area of the building is 1200m2 and the usable space is 5097m2. The
Skyscraper is established as Geotechnical Category 2. The building is a conventional structures (typical
multistory construction).
Figure 1.3 Skyscraper

1.4. Climate

Study of the climate is very important when carrying out the works, because it changes the conditions of
the works. If the works takes place in a rainy period the problems with the water will be higher, also if it
is a snowy period it will be more difficult to work with the concrete/bentonite.
The graph below shows the Temperature relations in the city of Wroclaw during the year, its essential
that for designed excavation its necessary to pick the months with the temperatures above the freezing
point
Figure 1.4 Average minimum and maximum temperature over the year. The monthly mean minimum
and maximum daily temperature.

Figure 1.5 Average monthly precipitation over the year (rainfall, snow)
This is the mean monthly precipitation, including rain, snow, hail etc.

Precipitation is different throughout the year, Generally, Wroclaw experience precipitation from 2 cm to
8,4 cm with the maximum in July. Snowfall occurs mainly from late November until early March, but
snow cover seldom lasts long. Snow during January and February is common and the average
temperatures for these two winter months are near the freezing point.

Figure 1.6 Average monthly hours of sunshine over the year. This is the monthly total of sunhour

To improve working conditions excavation work should be carried out in good light. The best time is
from May till August.

1.5 Project assumptions/Delimitation

This project is about a Parking under Skyscraper in Wroclaw, and it requires the design of the retaining
structure of the parking basement. Designing process contains: analysis of different possibilities,
calculations of structure and drawings. Also it will be designed the deep excavation method with steps of
formations the structure.
The construction process and management of the groundwater should be treated with special attention,
so the environment is not compromised, following the environmental protection act. The life expectancy
for the retaining structure is 100 years, with the first 25 years without important maintenance works.
The safety of the construction should be guaranteed, as well as limitation for major deformations and
stresses within the structure. The deformations of the retaining structure should be limited, hence not
causing damage to the surrounding buildings. The used materials and design solutions should ensure
proper water tightness. After the project finalization all interior surfaces have to appear dry and without
signs of water intrusion. The basement slab has to be designed to act as a foundation, but it wont be
calculated in this project.

References:
[1] http://forum.investmap.pl/dolnoslaskie-infrastruktura-spoleczna-f77/nowa-siedziba-izby-skarbowejt6129.html
[2] http://www.weather.com/weather/today/Wroclaw+Poland+PLXX0029

2. Geological Analyze
2.1 General information about soils in Poland
In Poland Eurocode 7 is obligatory. Soil classification system according to Eurocode 7 [ PN EN 19971:2004] is enclosed as ANNEX 4.
As this current project is about deep excavations, it is quintessential to have sufficient knowledge about
the soil and characteristics of it. By geological analysis the wider background of current area is briefly
introduced. Geological analysis according to existing information in some circumstances can point out
some aspects that should be focused on during geotechnical drillings.
Soils in Poland
Poland has many different soils. Sandy formations (20% of particles less than 0.2mm in diameter)
occupy about 50 % of the total area. Their water properties depend upon the depth of the ground-water
table, substratum soil profile layers, and content of silt particles less than 0.02 mm in diameter.
Appropriate agrotechnical and land reclamation (water conservation) measures are necessary for the
improvements of these soils. The main type of soils include swampy boulder loam, organogenic soils
developed on peat, alluvial soils, silty and loess formations. More data on soil types in Poland are
shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Parent rock soil types in Poland

2.2 Local soils on the site

In this project, there are two bases of information about soils in the location of designed Skyscrapers
garage.
Sources of knowledge:
Internet : Polish geo-engineering database

comment: datebase has a lot of information about the area of Wroclaw, but not very accurate. It
is not enough to design the foundation.
Geological documentation made by Polish Company GEOBAD
comment: documentation is very detailed, but it was made for other project and the building in
that project was in different location (the distance from that building to the Skyscraper in is less
than 1 km)
Unfortunately, it was impossible to get detailed information about soils in designed area from design
engineer who is engaged in designing Skyscraper in Wroclaw. That kind of documentation is prepared
by specialist and expensive.
It is necessary to assume soils according to available data ( details - point 2.3.1.)
2.3 Previous drilling in the area
2.3.1 Information according to Polish geo-engineering database
The geo-engineering database and the geo-engineering atlas of the Wrocaw agglomeration were
prepared between 2007 and 2008 by Geological Enterprise of Wrocaw PROXIMA and the Polish
Geological Institute in the collaboration with Geological Enterprise of Katowice and the Geological
Company Geoprojekt Szczecin.
Figure 2.1 Wroclaw division of the city according to Polish Internet database.

10

The Atlas of Wrocaw covers the area of Wrocaw City County (293 km2) as well as parts of the
neighbouring communes of Wrocaw County (Dugoka, Czernica, wita Katarzyna, rawina,
Kobierzyce and Kty Wrocawskie Communes) and roda lska County (Mikina Commune). The
total area covered by the maps is 719,8 km2.
The database of the geo-engineering atlas of the Wroclaw contains more than 50 000 boreholes that
come from archives and were also made especially for the purpose of this project. The average density
of survey points were 70 boreholes per km2 of the agglomeration area.
Borehole profiles collected in the database have been used to prepare 6 geo-engineering sections in the
scale of 1:5000 / 1:200 to present the geological structure synthetically.
Figure 2.2 Wroclaw location of building site Scale 1:10000(red place).

Figure 2.3 Wroclaw location of building site scale 1:1000(red place).

The geo-engineering database and the geo-engineering atlas of the Wrocaw shows soils at three
levels:
at a depth of 1 meter
at a depth of 2 meters
at a depth of 4 meters
Maps (print screens) from the database with descriptions are given below:

11

at a depth of 1 meter in Wroclaw city center is : fill (embankment)

Figure 2.4 Building site - soils at 1 meter according to Polish Internet database.

at a depth of 2 meters (Figure 2.5) and a depth of 4 meters (Figure 2.6) in Wroclaw city center is :
glacial till
Figure 2.5 Building site - soils at 2 meters according to Polish Internet database

Figure 2.6 Building site - soils at 4 meters according to Polish Internet database

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2.3.1 Information according to GEOBAD

According to the GEOBAD Polish Company, there have been some previous drilling in the area near
designed skyscraper. GEOBAD is a geo-engineering company, which made research in Wroclaw for
one project in 2011. That project was about multistory building located less than 1 km from designed
Skyscraper. Based on given data, following information are assumed (adopted at my own discretion for
this project):
There are 4 boreholes assumed for this project:
-

Borehole nr 1

Borehole nr 2

Borehole nr 3

Borehole nr 4

Data for boreholes:

Borehole nr 1
Nr

Deep [m p.p.t.]

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

0 1,1

Embankment

Loose

wet

1,1 2,0

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,4

semi dry

2,0 5,2

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,07

semi dry

5,2 6,4

silty sand

siSa

ID=0,5

wet

13

6,4

clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,29

wet

Borehole nr 2
Nr

Deep [m p.p.t.]

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

0 0,9

Embankment

Loose

wet

0,9 1,2

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,33

semi dry

1,2 5,0

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,12

semi dry

5,0 6,1

silty sand

siSa

ID=0,8

wet

6,1

clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,22

wet

Borehole nr 3
Nr

Deep [m p.p.t.]

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

0 1,4

Embankment

Loose

wet

1,4 2,2

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,39

semi dry

2,2 4,8

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,09

dry

4,8

clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,27

wet

Borehole nr 4
Nr

Deep [m p.p.t.]

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

0 1,3

Embankment

Loose

wet

1,3 2,8

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,4

semi dry

2,8 3,8

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,07

semi dry

3,8 4,7

silty sand

siSa

ID=0,5

wet

4,7

clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,29

wet

Using information about boreholes , it is possible to prepare soil profiles, in problematic places where
no drillings are made, it can be estimated what kind of soil is present at this place by using two closest
holes and guessing what is between them.
According to information above, four cut sections are assumed:
- Cut section I (between borehole nr 1 and borehole nr 2)
- Cut section II (between borehole nr 2 and borehole nr 3)
- Cut section III (between borehole nr 3 and borehole nr 4)
- Cut section IV (between borehole nr 4 and borehole nr 1)
Cut sections are enclosed as ANNEX 3
Area of Wroclaw is very poor of water resources. This is a result of geological history. Ground
waters are very deeply located under the ground level and surface waters appear very seldom.
Due to the present conditions, ground water level for this project is assumed at depth of 11,8
meters.

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3. Retaining structures - analyze

In chapter different
types of retaining walls will be described and compared
.In the end there will be the answer for question: Why diaphragm walls are the best
solution according to site conditions?
4.1. Introduction
Urban settings pose unique challenge to the construction Industry. Special features of urban areas are
restricted movements, inadequate space for equipment, soil heterogeneity (including fill and remains of
old foundations or other unexpected obstructions); effects of changes in the water table; foundation
interaction (the detrimental effects of construction of new structures on the surrounding buildings).
Heavy traffic and lack of adequate space has compelled Civil engineers to excavate deeper into the
ground to create additional floor space to meet increasing space requirements for amenities, parking
and for housing of building utilities.
As the number of deep excavations in city is seen to increase exponentially so are the problems
associated with their construction. Structures in the immediate vicinity of excavations, dense traffic
scenario, presence of underground obstructions and utilities have made excavations a formidable task
to execute. Clearly, deep excavations are posing mounting problems that demand a site specific and
tailor made retaining solution.
Unsupported excavations pose several hazards, and the following list gives some of the
important ones:
Very high risk potential of collapse or failure of excavation walls and consequently posing
hazard to workers and equipment
Hazards during excavation due to presence of public utilities, such as electricity, water, gas, or
natural gases and oxygen deficient atmosphere
Dewatering problems
Wet, slushy ground conditions, causing slips, trips, or falls, complicated by limited spaces in
which personnel work
Ground and/or ground water table changes affecting nearby structures.
Support provision for excavation depends on the type of soil in the area, the depth of the
excavation, the type of foundation being built, and the space around the excavation. During excavation,
some soil types pose greater problems than others. Sandy soil is always considered dangerous even
when it is allowed to stand for a period of time after a vertical cut. The instability can be caused by
moisture changes in the surrounding air or changes in the water table. Vibration from blasting, traffic
and heavy machinery movement, and material loads near the cut can also cause earth to collapse in
sandy soil. Clayey soils in general, present less risk than sand; however, soft clay can prove to be very
treacherous. Silty soils are also unreliable and require the same precautions and support provision as
sand.

15

3.1. Types of earth support system

Several in-situ support systems have been deployed for containing deep excavations.
The criteria for the selection of these systems are:
excavation depth,
ground conditions,
ground water level,
allowable vertical and horizontal displacements of adjacent ground,
availability of construction know-how,
cost factors,
subsequent
construction methodology,
working space limitations etc.
One of the key governing factors is the requirement of water tightness of the retaining structure.
Following types of deep support systems are commonly used in metropolitan cities.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Diaphragm walls
Pile walls (Contiguous, Tangent or Secant)
Soldier pile with wooden lagging walls
Sheet pile walls
Composite supporting systems that is, any of the retaining systems (1) to (4) above
strengthened by Anchors, internal strutting etc.
3.1.1. Diaphragm walls

Diaphragm walling is a technique of constructing a continuous underground wall from the

ground level. Diaphragm walls provide structural support and water tightness. These reinforced concrete
diaphragm walls are also called Slurry trench walls due to the reference given to the construction
technique where excavation is made possible by filling and keeping the wall cavity full with bentonitewater mixture during excavation to prevent collapse of vertical excavated surfaces.
These retaining structures find following applications:

earth retention walls for deep excavations;

basements,
tunnels;
high capacity vertical foundation elements;
retaining wall foundations;
water control.
permanent basement walls for facilitating Top-down construction method.

Typical wall thickness varies between 0.6 to 1.1m. The wall is constructed panel by panel in full
depth. Panel width varies from 2.5m to about 6m. Short widths of 2.5m are selected in less stable soils,

16

under very high surcharge or for very deep walls. Different panel shapes other than the conventional
straight section like T, L are possible to form and used for special purposes. Slurry wall technique is a
specialized technique and apart from the crane mounted Grab, other equipment involved are cranes,
pumps, tanks, desanding equipment, air lifts, mixers etc.
Steps involved in the construction of diaphragm wall can be broadly listed as follows:
1.

Guide wall construction along alignment

2.

Trenching by crane operated Grab/ hydraulic grab

3.

Bentonite flushing

4.

Lowering reinforcement cage

5.

Concreting using tremie

The sequence of construction of diaphragm wall panel has been schematically illustrated in Fig.
3.1
It must be remembered that Diaphragm walls are constructed as a series of alternating primary
and secondary panels. Alternate primary panels are constructed first which are restrained on either side
by stop-end pipes. Before the intermediate secondary panel excavation is taken up, the pipes are
removed and the panel is cast against two primary panels on either side to maintain continuity. Water
stoppers are sometimes used in the construction joints between adjacent panels to prevent seepage of
ground water.
Diaphragm wall construction is relatively quiet, and minimum noise and vibration levels
make it suitable for construction in urban areas. The water tight walls formed can be used as permanent
structural walls and are most economical when used in this manner. The finished structural wall formed
prior to excavation allows subsequent construction of the basement in a water tight and clean
environment. Once the diaphragm walls are constructed, work can be planned to proceed
simultaneously above and below the ground level. There is a minimum of space wasted. Work may be
carried out right against existing structures and the line of wall may be adjusted to any shape in plan.
Diaphragm walls however, require the use of heavy construction equipment that requires
reasonable headroom, site area, and considerable mobilization costs. In limited headroom conditions,
smaller cranes can be used though this could compromise efficiency. They are not considered efficient
means in hard and rocky grounds, where the conventional grabs are undeployable.

17

Figure 3.1 The sequence of construction of diaphragm wall panel

18

3.1.2. Pile walls (Contiguous, Tangent or Secant)

Contiguous Pile walls will be described as an example.
There are different types of pile walls (Fig.3.2). Diameter and spacing of the piles is decided
based on soil type, ground water level and magnitude of design pressures. Large spacing is avoided as
it can result in caving of soil through gaps. In Contiguous bored pile construction, center to center
spacing of piles is kept slightly greater than the pile diameter. Secant bored piles are formed by
keeping this spacing of piles less than the diameter. Tangent piles are used when secant piling or
diaphragm walling equipment is not available.

Figure 3.2 Schematic Arrangement of Contiguous Piled Retaining System

Contiguous piles serving as retaining walls are popular since traditional piling equipment can be
resorted for their construction. They are considered more economical than diaphragm wall in small to
medium scale excavations due to reduction in cost of site operations. Common pile diameters adopted
are 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0m. These piles are connected with a Capping beams at the top, which assists
equitable pressure distributions in piles. These retaining piles are suitable in areas where water table is
deep or where soil permeability is low. However, some acceptable amount of water can be collected at
the base and pumped out.
Contiguous piles are suitable in crowded urban areas, where traditional retaining methods
would otherwise encroach the adjoining properties. Provision of Contiguous piles restricts ground
movements on the backfill side, and thus protects the neighboring structures, foundations and boundary
walls from the detrimental effects of the excavation. Contiguous piles facilitate deployment of several
independent sets of equipment and gangs along its alignment which can speed up its execution. They
can be constructed using even the conventional piling equipment, and can be constructed in hard and
rocky sub-soil conditions where diaphragm wall construction is difficult.
Such retaining systems has advantage of employing varying diameter of piles in lieu of change
in sub-surface conditions, or on encountering competent stratum at a depth which is different than that
anticipated during design. Further, unlike the diaphragm wall which relies on the orthogonal geometry
of the excavated area contiguous pile retaining system can constructed to form any shape in the
excavated area.

19

They are however, not considered suitable for construction in areas of high water table, as retention and
containing water is not possible in contiguous piles. Perfect alignment of piles is often difficult to achieve
at site, and this in turn is found to affect the dimension and alignment of the Capping beams. In design
parlance, only the portion of concrete and steel away from the neutral axis is known to offer resisting
moment. As a result, some concrete and steel area remains under-utilized.

Figure 3.3 Contiguous piles supporting excavation at Worli, Mumbai

3.1.3. Soldier pile with wooden lagging walls
Soldier pile and lagging walls are some of the oldest forms of retaining systems used in deep
excavations. These walls have successfully been used since the late 18th century in metropolitan cities
world over. This type of retaining system involves the following broad based activities:
1. Constructing soldier piles at regular intervals (1 to 3m on center typically)
2. Excavating in small stages and installing wooden lagging.
3. Backfilling and compacting the void space behind the lagging.
Soldier piles are driven/ bored at regular interval and allowed to gain strength. Excavation
proceeds step by step after placement of Soldier piles at the periphery of the excavation. Depending on
the ground conditions, wooden laggings are placed spanning from one soldier pile to another. At some
predetermined levels, horizontal Waling beams and supporting elements (struts, anchors or nails) are
erected. Ground anchors are increasingly used in such supports due to easy access to equipment.
Moment resistance in soldier pile and lagging walls is provided solely by the soldier piles.
Passive soil resistance is obtained by embedding the soldier piles beneath the excavation grade. The
lagging bridges and retains soil across piles and transfers the lateral load to the soldier pile system.

20

Figure 3.4 Soldier Pile and Wooden Lagging System

Soldier pile and lagging walls are the most inexpensive systems compared to other retaining
walls. They are also very easy and fast to construct. These are found to be suitable for soils with some
cohesion and without water table. They are commonly preferred in narrow excavations for pipe laying or
similar works, but are also used for deep and large excavations in conjunction with struts. The major
disadvantages of soldier pile and lagging systems are that they are primarily limited to temporary
construction. They cannot be used in high water table conditions without extensive dewatering. Poor
backfilling and associated ground losses can result in significant surface settlements. They are not as
rigid as other retaining systems. Because only the flange of a soldier pile is embedded beneath
subgrade, it is very difficult to control basal soil movements.

Figure 3.5 Soldier Piles and Wooden Lagging System at Udyog Bhawan, New Delhi

21

3.1.4. Sheet pile walls

A pile is designed to be beaten into the ground next to other piles already set up. Each sheet
pile are set between themselves via lateral veins called locks. The material can be wood, but mostly
steel. Once planted into the ground, their assembly may form a retaining wall or a waterproof screen.
There are several shapes of sheet pile. These differences come from the performance of their joints. In
an urban context, it is more interesting to drive the piles with a hydraulic cylinder: this method, silent and
resulting in no vibration on adjacent structures, requires soil differential settlement in long term state.
The nature of steel sheet tends to concentrate the leak rates in the locks. The locks are the
weaknesses of the sheet pile walls. Use of sheet pile walls to retain contaminated soil requires very
low leakage rates and therefore must necessarily use special fixing at the locks. Besides welding, these
devices are based on the use of bituminous materials, wax or water blowing.
Generally the following permeability is expected:
- Greater than 10-7 m/s with joints without sealant
- 10-7 m/s with tar or wax seals
- 5x10-10 m/s with hydro swelling joints
Traditional sheet pile shapes are Z type and U type. Z-Type (Z): Used for intermediate to deep wall
construction, Z sections are considered one of the most efficient pile available today. Z- piles are
commonly used for cantilevered and tiedback systems. Additional applications also include load bearing
bridge abutments. U Type (U) sheet piles are used for the applications similar to Z- Type.

Figure 3.6 U-Type sheet piles

Figure 3.7 Z-Type sheet piles

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3.2. Comparison
The following table is suitable to summarize the above.
Soldier pile
with wooden
lagging walls

Diaphragm

medium

medium

medium

medium

small

medium

hight

medium

NOISE/ VIBRATION

medium

high

small

medium

WATER TIGHTNESS

TRANSFORMING INTO
BASEMENT WALLS

medium

medium

medium

medium

Sheet pile walls

COST
WEIGHT

TIME OF IMPLEMENTATION

walls

Pile walls (contiguous,

tangent, secant)

3.2.1. Best solution

The problem is that we are in an urban area, with close buildings surrounding, so vibration has to be
avoided. The best solution taking all features into consideration are diaphragm walls and that is why
they will be used in this case (from north, south and west and east site). Parameters of sheet pile walls
and diaphragm walls are almost the same but diaphragm walls are more common in Poland, and that
makes them less expensive.
Benefits of Diaphragm Walls:

Installed to considerable depths

Walls with substantial thickness can be formed
Flexible in plan layout
Easily incorporated into permanent works
Wall (sections) can be designed to carry vertical load
Basement construction time reduced
Economical solution for large, deep basements in saturated and unstable soil profiles
Noise levels limited to engine noise
Vibration-less

23

4. Types of diaphragm wall- analysis and

selection the best type
In chapter different
types of diaphragm walls will be described.
In the end there will be the answer for question: Which type of diaphragm wall is the
best solution according to underground building construction ?
Calculations of three standard designed problems are performed in this point. These cases are:
Cantilever diaphragm wall embedded in soil
Strutted diaphragm wall
Anchored diaphragm wall
Third example concerns an excavation within strutted diaphragm wall method of support of
excavations walls very common in Poland.
4.1. Cantilever diaphragm wall embedded in soil
Cantilever walls are walls that do not have any supports and thus have a free unsupported excavation.
Cantilever walls restrain retained earth by the passive resistance provided by the soil below the
excavation. Many engineers use the cantilever wall term to actually describe gravity walls. In reality both
gravity and vertical embedded walls types can be categorized as cantilever if no lateral bracing support
is provided by means of tiebacks, struts, etc. This sections examines vertical cantilever walls and the
basic design methods used for cantilever wall analysis.

Figure 3.8 Cantilever diaphragm wall with maximum dimensions.

24

Figure 3.9 Example of cantilever diaphragm wall with stress distribution.

Cantilever diaphgram wall is impossible in this case because as we can see in the Figure 3.8,the
maximum length of wall above the ground (Hn) is 4 meter or less. In this project there are 2 floors of
underground garage, so the dimension Hn will be more than 4 meters.
4.2. Strutted diaphragm wall

Figure 3.10 Single and double strutted diaphragm wall with maximum dimensions.

Figure 3.11 Example of single strutted diaphragm wall and stress distribution.

25

Strutted diaphgram wall is recommended for this project. The maximum dimension of the wall above the
ground (Hn) is 12 meters, that means that it is ideal dimension for 2 floors of underground garage. In
this project retaining wall could be strutted by floor slabs.
4.3. Anchored diaphragm wall
Anchored diaphragm walls are often used when securing deep foundation pits, e.g. in built-up areas or
under groundwater levels

Figure 3.13 Anchored diaphragm wall with dimensions

Figure 3.14 Anchored diaphragm wall

26

Anchored diaphgram wall is also recommended for this project. The maximum dimension of the wall
above the ground (Hn) is 12 meters, that means that it is ideal dimension for 2 floors of underground
garage.
4.4. Conclusion
In sum we have to choose between strutted and anchored method. Cantilever diaphragm wall was
excluded. Due to the construction of floors in garage (reinforced concrete slabs), it seems to be the
better idea to use strutted method. The construction of garage will be used in two ways slabs can take
to loads from cars and other object in garage, and slabs can take over the role of struts. The connection
between diaphragm wall and each slab is designed as fixed (rotation of the slab towards diaphragm
wall is impossible)
The best method is strutted diaphragm wall.

Figure 3.15 Under-ground construction

Basement reinforced concrete slabs roles:
1. To transform the load from cars and other objects, to the columns, and
next to the ground.
2. To act as 'strut' and be the support for diaphragm wall.

27

5. Deep excavations methods- analyze

In chapter different types of deep excavations methods (concern diaphragm walls) will be
described and compared.
.In the end there will be the answer for question: Why top & down method is the best
solution in this case?
5.1. General introduction about deep excavations
The construction of deep excavations in the urban environment is a technically challenging problem.
Design and construction typically involves many steps including site characterization, design of
excavation support systems, specification of responses to construction difficulties, preconstruction
surveys of adjacent properties and utilities, field observations during construction, excavation
installation, and structure construction. Adjacent construction may be a nuisance to neighboring property
owners (e.g., right of entry agreements, shoring, underpinning, and/or alterations to operations, dust,
noise, felt vibrations, traffic congestion). Frequently, adjacent property owners claim constructioninduced damage. For deep excavations, this damage may include a combination of building settlement
because of a loss of lateral support, loss of use, business interruption, cosmetic finish distress, and
structural damage.
Although excavations are regulated by federal, state, and local building codes, problems occur in the
process of developing a site due to many factors including design errors, construction errors,
construction accidents, striking unknown utilities, differing site conditions, unforeseen natural events, or
delays in completion.
Correct analyze of deep excavation includes:
Pre- and post-construction condition surveys
Emergency response in the event of a failure
Analysis of the cause of failure
Evaluation of differing site conditions claims
Evaluation of the suitability of temporary shoring and dewatering systems
Analysis of building or ground deformation resulting from a loss of lateral support
Vibration analysis
Evaluation of construction activities and response to construction difficulties
Review proposed excavation plans
5.2. Types of deep excavations methods
It is already known that diaphragm walls are the best solution for this project. Walls can be made
extremely stiff and therefore better resistant to deflection. It is also possible to use effective internal
propping with a diaphragm wall rather than the normal ground anchors. Temporary cut-offs can also be
created using this technique.
There are two main methods of building construction with underground garage:
1. bottom-up method

28

2. top and down method

5.2.1. Bottom-up method
Conventionally, buildings with underground basements are built by bottom-up method where
sub-structure and super-structure floors are constructed sequentially from the bottom of the substructure or lowest level of basement to the top of the super-structure. Though this conventional
method, also called as bottom-up method, is simple in both design and construction, it is not feasible for
the gigantic projects with limited construction time and/or with site constraints.
5.2.2. Top and down method
Top-down construction method as the name implies, is a construction method, which builds the
permanent structure members of the basement along with the excavation from the top to the bottom.
Top-down method is mainly used for two types of urban structures, tall buildings with deep basements
and underground structures such as car parks, underpasses and subway stations. In this case the
basement floors are constructed as the excavation progresses. The top/down method has been used for
deep excavation projects where tieback installation was not feasible and soil movements had to be
minimized. Top-down construction method which provides the significant saving of the overall
construction time has been adopted for some major projects where time factor is of primary importance.
The sequence construction begins with retaining wall installation and then load-bearing elements that
will carry the future super-structure. The basement columns (typically steel beams) are constructed
before any excavation takes place and rest on the load bearing elements. These load bearing elements
are typically concrete barrettes constructed under slurry (or caissons).
PROCEDURE
The typical construction procedure of top down construction is as follows
1. Construct the retaining wall.
2. Construct piles. Place the steel columns or stanchions where the piles are constructed.
3. Proceed to the first stage of excavation.
4. Cast the floor slab of first basement level
5. Begin to construct the superstructure
6. Proceed to the second stage of excavation; cast the floor slab of the second basement
level.
7. Repeat the same procedure till the desired depth is reached
8. Construct the foundation slab and ground beams, etc. Complete the basement
9. Keep constructing the superstructure till it gets finished.

29

Figure 4.1 Top and down construction method

Step nr 1: Installation of retaining wall

Figure 4.2 Installation of retaining wall

The underground retaining wall which is usually a diaphragm wall, is installed before excavation
commences.
Step nr 2: Excavation and installation of steel strut

Figure 4.3 Excavation and installation of steel strut

30

The soil is excavated just below roof slab level of the underground structure. Struts are installed to
support the retaining walls, which in turn support the soil at the sides
Step nr 3: Construction of underground structure

Figure 4.4 Construction of underground structure part I

The roof slab is constructed, with access openings provided on the slab for works to proceed
downwards. The roof slabs not only provides a massive support across the
Step nr 4: Construction of underground structure

Figure 4.4 Construction of underground structure part II

The next level of slab is constructed, and this process progresses downwards till the base slab is
completed
Step nr 5: Construction of underground structure

Figure 4.5 Construction of underground structure part III

31

The side walls are constructed upwards, followed by removal of the intermediate struts. The access
openings on the roof slab are then sealed
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS REQUIRED FOR TOP-DOWN CONSTRUCTION
Design and construction principles for top-down method primarily call for two major structural elements.
Columns with sufficient capacity must be pre-founded in bored piles or barrettes to sustain the
construction load and to utilize as part of bracing system. Excavation for basement must be carried out
with the support of permanent retaining wall so that basement floor slabs can be utilized as lateral
bracing.
Diaphragm wall of 0.8m to 1.2m in thickness with sufficient embedment in firm soil layers is commonly
used as a retaining wall whereas prefabricated steel columns known as Stanchions embedded in either
large diameter deep-seated bored piles or barrettes are utilized as structural columns. Figure 4.6
illustrates the top-down construction method with utilization of stanchions and diaphragm wall.

Figure 4.6 Top-down construction with stanchion and diaphragm wall

TYPES OF STANCHION AND THEIR APPLICATION

TYPES OF STANCHION

General information

Light stanchion

Material & Example Size

Steel H-beams
350x350x137kg/m

Medium sized stanchion

Steel H-beams
350x350x390 kg/m

Application
For semi top-down
construction
For temporary decking
For semi and full top-down
construction of shallow to

32

Heavy stanchion

Steel H-beams
508x457x738kg/m
Composite steel columns
built up by 2 or more small
to medium size H-beams
Large section pre-cast RC
column (seldom use)
STANCHION INSTALLATION METHODS

medium deep excavation

Full top-down construction in
deep excavation

Stanchion installation method is usually selected by the piling contractor who takes into consideration
three main factors such as installation depth, size of stanchion and size of bored or barrette piles.
Though installation details may be different from one contractor to another, stanchion installation can be
categorized under two main methods, post-concreting or plunging installation and pre-concreting
installation or placing stanchion prior to concreting.
Post-concreting installation or plunging method
In this method, stanchion is installed immediately after completion of bored pile concreting process.
General construction sequence involved in this method is demonstrated in Figure 4.7.
Guide frame is used to install the stanchion at the correct position.

Figure 4.7 general construction sequence of pre-concreting installation method

Pre concreting method
In this method, stanchion is installed immediately after completion of drilling and reinforcement lowering
prior to concreting process. In some projects stanchion is attached to the last section of reinforcement
and installed together with the reinforcement. General construction steps involved in this method are
demonstrated in Figure 4.8.

33

Figure 4.8 general construction sequence of pre-concreting installation method

Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
1. The shortened construction period due to simultaneous construction of the basement and the
superstructure.
2. More operational space gained from the advanced construction of floor slabs.
3. The higher stiffness of floor slab compare to steel struts improves the safety of excavation.
4. It is highly suitable for construction for tall buildings with deep basements to be constructed in
urban areas.
Disadvantages:
1. Higher cost (due to the construction of pile foundation)
2. Since the construction period of the basement is lengthened, the lateral displacement of
retaining wall or ground settlement may possible increase due to the influence of creep if the
soil layers are encountered.
2. The construction quality may influence because of worsened ventilation and illumination under
floor slab.
3. It requires highly skilled supervision and labour force.
5.3. CONCLUSION
From the above chapter we can conclude that top down construction has its suitability for certain kind of
mega structures. It is suitable for structures with deep basements like underground rails, car parks etc. It
is also very efficient way of doing two way construction to save time.
Skyscrapers with deep basements in urban areas should be constructed using top down
method.
But top down construction needs very efficient planning and designing and skilled supervision and
labour force. Top down construction is the need of the hour as it is highly time efficient and is becoming
popular and is coming more and more in practice with every passing day.

34

6. Skyscraper in Wroclaw: underground garage stages

of construction
According to previous chapter, following steps of construction were prepared by GEO5
software.

OPERATIONS PRIOR TO EXCAVATION

The sequence construction begins with retaining wall installation and then load-bearing elements that
will carry the future super-structure.
Retaining wall installation:
First step of retaining wall installation: Guidewall construction , dimensions: height :120 cm, weight 80100 cm , long depending on the building

Second step of retaining wall installation: Panel (vertical segments) excavation

35

Third step of retaining wall installation: Installation of the reinforcement

The last step of retaining wall installation: Bentonite filling

During diaphragm wall installation, the basement columns (steel beams) and concrete barrettes are
made. Basement columns and the concrete barrettes are load-bearing elements that will carry the future
super-structure. The construction process of those elements is beyond the scope of this project.

36

EXCAVATION: STEP NR 1
The top floor slab is constructed with at least on construction (glory) hole left open to allow removal of
spoil material (Figure 4.9)
Top-down construction involves casting the ground floor slab and excavating the ground below while
work on the superstructure above can continue

Figure 4.9 Excavation - Step nr 1 -Ground floor construction

Figure 4.10 Example of whole in a top floor slab

37

EXCAVATION: STEP NR 2
The excavation starting at the glory hole begins once the top floor has gained sufficient strength. Soil
under the top basement floor is excavated around the basement columns to slightly lower than the first
basement floor elevation in order to allow for the installation of the forms for the first level basement
slab. Glory holes are left open within each newly formed basement floor slab and the procedure is
repeated. Each floor rests on the basement columns that were constructed earlier

Figure 4.11 Excavation - Step nr 2 - First level basement slab construction

EXCAVATION: STEP NR 3

Figure 4.12 Excavation - Step nr 3 - Second level basement slab (foundation slab) construction

38

7. Geotechnical description
7.1. Introduction to soil properties
Geotechnical description is the last step of 'theoretical part' before the calculation. The geotechnical
description is important in all kind of project in civil engineering. In this part the subsurface conditions
and materials are investigated. It is necessary to determine the physical and mechanical properties of
materials.
It is really important to have an overview on the surrounding buildings because the Skyscraper
will be located in an urban area, in the heart of Wroclaw. The building site is surrounded by other
buildings, and road - located next to the area which will be excavated and possibly causing the collapse
to these road and buildings as a result of the excavation or dewatering.
Water level is between at depth 11,8 meters under the ground level. So it is not necessary to
perform a temporary dewatering for the excavation (the deep of excavation is 7 meters). In case when
the excavation is at depth e.g. 11 meters, the dewatering should then be arranged so that the water
table is lowered at least 1 meter below the excavation level. There will probably be a dug in clay, in
which case the dewatering of the excavation possibly will be done by simple drainage.
The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil. Understanding
shear strength is the basis to analyze soil stability problems. If the soil fails, the structure
founded on it can collapse.
Figure 4.13 Foundation failure by liquefaction after the 1964 Niigata Earthquake.

Shear strength is a term used to describe the magnitude of the shear stress that a soil can sustain. The
shear resistance of soil is a result of friction and interlocking of particles, and possibly cementation or
bonding at particle contacts. Due to interlocking, particulate material may expand or contract in volume
as it is subject to shear strains. If soil expands its volume, the density of particles will decrease and the
strength will decrease; in this case, the peak strength would be followed by a reduction of shear stress.
The stress-strain relationship levels off when the material stops expanding or contracting, and when
interparticle bonds are broken.

39

According to BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004,5.3,Table 5 the shear strength of soils when measured by Field
or Hand Shear Vane Apparatus, or in the laboratory by Quick Undrained Triaxial compression test,
shall be expressed as below:
Table 4 shear strength of soils
Term based on measurement

Undrained Shear Strength

classification definition C , in kPa
u

Extremely low

<10

Very low

10 - 20

Low

20 - 40

Medium

40 - 75

High

75 - 150

Very high

150 - 300

Extremely high

300 - 600

Shear Strength in Soils:

The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to shearing stresses
It is a measure of the soil resistance to deformation by continuous displacement of its individual
soil particles
Shear strength in soils depends primarily on interactions between particles
Shear failure occurs when the stresses between the particles are such that they slide or roll
past each other
Soil derives its shear strength from two sources:
Cohesion between particles (stress independent component)
1. Cementation between sand grains
2. Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
Frictional resistance between particles (stress dependent component)
Cohesion
Cohesion (C), is a measure of the forces that cement particles of soils

Figure 4.14 Cohesion on soils

Internal friction angle () is the measure of the shear strength of soils due to friction

40

Figure 4.15 Internal friction angle

7.2. Soil physical properties

There are different types of soil in the designed area.
Fill
From the building demolition or base course (mix concrete, sand or asphalt)
Humus
It's the layer of organic matter in soil. Humus, which ranges in colour from brown to black, consists of
about 60 percent carbon, 6 percent nitrogen, and smaller amounts of phosphorus and sulfur. As humus
decomposes, its components are changed into forms usable by plants. Humus is classified into mor,
mull, or moder formations according to the degree of its incorporation into the mineral soil, the types of
organisms involved in its decomposition, and the vegetation from which it is derived.
Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material lcomposed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.
The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the
most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastalsettings
is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
The second most common form of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, which has mostly
been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish.
ISO 14688 (International Organization for Standardization) grades sands as fine, medium and coarse
with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided
into five sub-categories based on size: very fine sand (16 mm diameter), fine sand ( mm
mm), medium sand ( mm mm), coarse sand ( mm 1 mm), and very coarse sand (1 mm
2 mm).
Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal
oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilical
minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clay minerals are
typically formed over long periods of time by the gradual chemical weathering of rocks, usually silicatebearing, by low concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted solvents. These solvents, usually
acidic, migrate through the weathering rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to
the weathering process, some clay minerals are formed by hydrothermalactivity. Clay deposits may be
formed in place as residual deposits in soil, but thick deposits usually are formed as the result of a
secondary sedimentary deposition process after they have been eroded and transported from their
original location of formation. Clay deposits are typically associated with very low energy depositional
environmentssuch as large lakes and marine basins.
Sandy clay
Soil material that contains 35 % or more clay and 45% or more sand.
Gravel

41

Is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle size range and include size
classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments. Gravel is sub-categorized by the Udden-Wentworth
scale into granular gravel (>2 to 4 mm or 0.079 to 0.16 in) andpebble gravel (>4 to 64 mm or 0.2 to 2.5
in). One cubic yard of gravel typically weighs about 3000 pounds (or a cubic metre is about 1,800
kilograms).
Gravel is an important commercial product, with a number of applications.
Many roadways are surfaced with gravel, especially in rural areas where there is little traffic. Globally,
far more roads are surfaced with gravel than with concrete or tarmac; Russia alone has over 400,000
km (250,000 mi) of gravel roads. Both sand and small gravel are also important for the manufacture
of concrete.

7.3. Soil characteristics

According to Eurocode 7 and Polish National Standards PN-81 B-03020 (Annex 5) the following
geotechnical parameters have to be known to calculate the underground structure (in this case
underground parking):
g
cu,k
fk

weight density [kN/m3]

characteristic undrained shear strength of soil [kPa]

characteristic angle of shearing resistance [0]

7.3.1. Determination of weight density (g)

Density represents weight (mass) per unit volume of a substance. Soil density is expressed in two well
accepted concepts as particle density and bulk density.
Particle Density: The weight per unit volume of the solid portion of soil is called particle density.
Bulk Density: The oven dry weight of a unit volume of soil inclusive of pore spaces is called bulk density.
The bulk density of a soil is always smaller than its particle density.
According to PN-81 B-03020 (ANNEX 5) :
Table for cohesionless soils:

SOIL

HUMIDITY

Particle
density
gS

dry

Bulk density g
depending on the ID
ID = 1,0 0,68

ID = 0,67 0,24

ID = 0,33 0,0

1,7

1,65

1,6

1,85

1,75

1,7

2,0

1,9

1,85

FSa
semi dry

2,65

siSa
wet

Example:

42

For Fine Sand (dry, ID = 0,5) the particle density equals 2,65 g*cm3 and the bulk density equals 1,65
g*cm3
Table for cohesion soils:
Bulk density g
depending on the IL

Particle
density
gS

SOIL

saclSi

2,68

IL < 0

ID = 0,0 0,25

IL = 0,25 0,5

IL = 0,5 1,0

2,15

2,10

2,00

1,9

7.3.2. Determination of characteristic undrained shear strength [cu,k]

Drained condition occurs when there is no change in pore water pressure due to external loading. In a
drained condition, the pore water can drain out of the soil easily, causing volumetric strains in the soil.
Undrained condition occurs when the pore water is unable to drain out of the soil. In an undrained
condition, the rate of loading is much quicker than the rate at which the pore water is able to drain out of
the soil. As a result, most of the external loading is taken by the pore water, resulting in an increase in
the pore water pressure.The tendency of soil to change volume is suppressed during undrained loading.
The shear strength of a fine-grained soil under undrained condition is called the undrained shear
strength.
Based on Annex 5, picture nr 5 the characteristic undrained shear resistance can be assumed from the
graph.
7.3.3. Determination of characteristic angle of shearing resistance [0]
Angle of shearing resistance is also called internal angle of friction or angle of frictional resistance.
Definition: Angle representing the relationship of shearing resistance to normal stress acting on the
sliding surface within a soil mass during shear; angle between the axis of normal stress and the tangent
to the Mohr envelope at a point representing a given failure-stress condition for the solid material.
Based on Annex 5, picture nr 3,4 characteristic angle of shearing resistance can be assumed from the
graphs.
7.3.4. Determination of parameters for soils occurring in the project.
Borehole nr 1
g[kN/m3]

fk [ ]

Nr

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

Embankment

Loose

wet

18,0

22

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,4

semi dry

16,5

30

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,07

semi dry

21

35

20,7

cu,k [kPa]

43

Silty sand

siSa

ID=0,5

wet

17,5

30,5

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,29

wet

20

28,3

16,6

Borehole nr 2
0

Nr

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

g[kN/m3]

cu,k [kPa]

Embankment

Loose

wet

18,0

22

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,33

semi dry

16,0

28

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,12

semi dry

21

36

20

Silty sand

siSa

ID=0,8

wet

18,5

30,5

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,22

wet

21

30

17,5

fk [ ]

Borehole nr 3
0

Nr

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

g[kN/m3]

Embankment

Loose

wet

18,0

22

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,39

semi dry

16,5

30

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,09

dry

21

36

22,5

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,27

wet

20

27

16,5

cu,k [kPa]

fk [ ]

Borehole nr 4
g[kN/m3]

fk [ ]

Nr

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

Embankment

Loose

wet

18,0

22

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,4

semi dry

16,5

30

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,07

semi dry

21

35

22

silty sand

siSa

ID=0,5

wet

17,5

30,5

clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,29

wet

20

28,3

16,6

cu,k [kPa]

44

8. Introduction to calculations
In chapter following rules will be described and explained: partial factors of safety,
method of geotechnical design by calculation, method of retaining wall design by
calculation.

8.1. Introduction Designing foundations by calculation according Eurocode 7

8.1.1 Partial factor of safety
There are different partials of safety according to EN 1997-1:

Polish Standard PN 81 B 03020 (ANNEX 5) use g for unit weight (weight density)
In calculations designed values are used by combining the characteristic value with the appropriate
factor of safety.
8.1.2. Geotechnical design by calculation
The algorithm below shows the steps of calculations

The algorithm was prepared by Dr Ian Smith from Edinburgh Napier University
8.1.3. Designed values of actions

45

To determine design effects of action we follow the steps:

8.1.4. Designed values of geotechnical parameters

To determine design value of geotechnical parameter we follow the rule:

8.1.5. Designed values of geometrical data

In cases where deviations in the geometrical data have a significant effect on the reliability of a
structure, design values of geometrical data (ad) shall either be assessed directly or be derived from
nominal values using the following equation ( 6.3.4 of EN 1990:2002):

8.1.6. Designed effects of actions

46

During the verification of geotechnical strength (i.e. GEO limit state) some effects of the actions will
depend on the strength of the ground in addition to the magnitude of the applied action and the
dimensions of the structure. Thus, the effect of an action in the GEO limit state is a function of the
action, the material properties and the geometrical dimensions.

During the verification of static equilibrium (i.e. EQU limit state) some effects of the actions (both
destabilising and stabilising) will depend on the strength of the ground in addition to the magnitude of
the applied action and the dimensions of the structure. Thus, the effect of an action in the EQU limit
state, whether it be a stabilising or a destabilising action, is a function of the action, the material
properties and the geometrical dimensions.

8.1.7. EQU
EQU: loss of equilibrium of the structure or the supporting ground when considered as a rigid body and
where the internal strength of the structure and the ground do not provide resistance.

Limit state is satisfied if the sum of the design values of the effects of destabilising actions (Edst;d) is less
than or equal to the sum of the design values of the effects of the stabilizing actions (Estb;d) together with
any contribution through the resistance of the ground around the structure (Td),

47

8.1.8. GEO
GEO: failure or excessive deformation of the ground, where the soil or rock is significant in providing
resistance.

This limit state is satisfied if the design effect of the actions (Ed) is less than or equal to the design
resistance (Rd),

8.1.9. STR
STR: failure or excessive deformation of the structure, where the strength of the structural material is
significant in providing resistance.

As with GEO limit state, the STR limit state is satisfied if the design effect of the actions (Ed) is less than
or equal to the design resistance (Rd),

There are also UPL and HYD limit states.

UPL: This limit state is verified by checking that the sum of the design permanent and variable
destabilising vertical actions (Vdst;d) is less than or equal to the sum of the design stabilizing permanent
vertical action (Gstb;d) and any additional resistance to uplift (Rd).
HYD: This limit state is verified by checking that the design total pore water pressure (udst;d) or seepage
force (Sdst;d) at the base of the soil column under investigation is less than or equal to the total vertical
stress (sstb;d) at the bottom of the column, or the submerged unit weight (G'stb;d) of the same column.
8.1.10 GEO/STR Limit states

48

Three Design Approaches are offered. The design approach followed reflects whether the safety is
applied to the material properties, the actions or the resistances.
Design Approach 1:

Combination 1: A1 + M1 + R1
Combination 2: A2 + M2 + R1

Design Approach 2: A1 + M1 + R2
Design Approach 3: A* + M2 + R3
A*: use set A1 on structural actions, set A2 on geotechnical actions
For axially loaded piles, DA1, Combination 2 is: A2 + (M1 or M2) + R4

POLISH NATIONAL ANNEX STATES THAT DESIGN DESIGN APPROACH NR 2 SHALL BE USED
8.2.

Retaining wall design

8.2.1. Limit states

The limit states are:

loss of overall stability;

failure of a structural element such as a wall, anchorage, wale or strut or failure of the
connection between such elements;
combined failure in the ground and in the structural element;
failure by hydraulic heave and piping;
movement of the retaining structure, which may cause collapse or affect the appearance or
efficient use of the structure or nearby structures or services, which rely on it;
unacceptable leakage through or beneath the wall;
unacceptable transport of soil particles through or beneath the wall;
unacceptable change in the ground-water regime.
And for :
-

Gravity walls:

bearing resistance failure of the soil below the base;

failure by sliding at the base;
failure by toppling;
-

Embedded walls:

failure by rotation or translation of the wall or parts thereof;

failure by lack of vertical equilibrium.

49

EN 1997-1:2004 9.2(1)
Examples:

8.2.2. Future unplanned excavation

In ultimate limit state calculations in which the stability of a retaining wall depends on the ground
resistance in front of the structure, the level of the resisting soil should be lowered below the nominally
expected level by an amount Da.
for a cantilever wall, a should equal 10 % of the wall height above excavation level, limited to a
maximum of 0,5 m;
for a supported wall, a should equal 10 % of the distance between the lowest support and the
excavation level, limited to a maximum of 0,5 m.
EN 1997-1:2004 9.3.2.2

9. Diaphragm wall calculations

50

In this chapter one panel of diaphragm wall will be calculated and designed. The
method of calculations will be explained using cut section I as an example.
Calculations will be made for each step of construction process.

9.1. General assumptions for project.

With the vertical cross section of the soil and the characteristics values, it is possible now to calculate
the necessary diaphragm wall.
Calculations will be performed using following methods:
Dependent pressures method, according to Polish Code PN-83/B-03010 Design of retaining
walls,
Dependent pressures method, according to Eurocode 7.
Dependent pressures method was chosen because of its simplicity and as it is very common
in European and Polish design practice. According to Eurocode 7 retaining walls should be designed at
limit states (GEO). Point 2.4. of Eurocode 7 specifies 3 Design Approaches with combinations of partial
safety factors referring to surcharges, material coefficients and soil resistance (Previous chapters).
Calculations will be performed using one combination of partial safety factors from the second Design
Approach DA2 (practiced in Poland). Third DA(DA3) was ignored, because of the similarity in the values
of partial safety factors, as well as First DA (DA1)
Calculations employing dependent pressure method were performed using software GEO5
Sheeting check. The method of evaluation of subgrade reaction modulus (kh) based on nomogram of
Chaidesson was chosen. Representative values of actions were calculated assuming the value of
coefficient = 1.00, according to PN EN 1990 Basis of structural design. Design values of actions were
calculated applying partial safety factors according to Polish Code (PN) or Eurocode 7. Analysis were
performed determining minimum penetration of the diaphragm wall below the bottom of the excavation
(D) and maximum bending moments (Mmax). In addition, maximum lateral displacements of the wall
(Umax) were calculated and compared.
Important information about the project:
The deepest excavation is 7,5 meters measured from the existing ground.
There are four retaining walls in the project. All are designed as diaphragm walls.
Water level for designed area is assumed as at the depth 11,8 meters.
Surrounding buildings are in the danger zone.
It is considered the load distribution angle in soil is 45o, so danger zone is around 10 meters
around the perimeter of construction area. As can be seen from in Annex A2 ( Pictures from the
building site) the surrounding buildings are in the danger zone.
It is necessary to strengthen the construction or surrounding buildings ( this is not a part of this
project)
There can be some temporary distributed load right behind the retaining structure. It can me
machinery on the construction site, normal traffic on streets and so on. Therefore additional
load p=5 kN/m2 (characteristic value) is applied in every calculation. The safety factor for
temporary distributed additional load is 1,5.
9.2. Description of calculations.
The geometry of the analyzed case is shown on Figure 9.1 In this example following soil parameters are
considered:

51

Nr

Layer

Symbol

Density

Humidity

Depth

Thickness

Embankment

Loose

wet

0,0 1,1

1,1

Fine sand

FSa

ID=0,4

semi dry

1,1 2,0

0,9

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,07

semi dry

2,0 5,2

3,2

Silty sand

siSa

ID=0,5

wet

5,2 6,4

1,2

Clayey silt

saclSi

IL=0,29

wet

6,4 great depth

Characteristics values of: soil parameters, active earth pressure coefficient (Ka), passive earth pressure
coefficient (Kp) are given below in the table. Earth pressure coefficient are taken from ANNEX 7 page
126.
g[kN/m3]

f'k [ ]

Ka

Kp

22

0,48

2,5

16,5

30

0,31

3,2

saclSi

21

35

20,7

0,46

2,3

Silty sand

siSa

17,5

30,5

0,31

3,2

Clayey silt

saclSi

20

28,3

16,6

0,41

2,0

Nr

Layer

Symbol

Embankment

18,0

Fine sand

FSa

Clayey silt

4
5

cu,k [kPa]

Table : Characteristic values of soil parameters for DA2

9.3. Designed values.

52

In the DA2 (A1 + M1 + R2 ) partial safety factor for reduction of soil resistance in front of the wall
gR = 1,4 will be considered in further calculations.
Soil nr 1 Embankment

1,k= 18,00 kN/m3

1,d= 1,k/ 1, = 18/1,0 = 18,00 kN/m3

f1,k = 22,00o
f 1,d =arc(tg f 1,k / )= arc(tg22,00 / 1,00 ) = 22,0 o

C1= 0,00 kPa

Soil nr 2 FSa

2,k= 16,50 kN/m3

2,d= 2,k/ 2, = 16,5/1,0 = 16,50 kN/m3

f 2,k = 30,00o
f 2,d =arc(tg f 2,k / )= arc(tg30,00 / 1,00 ) = 30 o

C2= 0,00 kPa

Soil nr 3 saclSi

3,k= 21,00 kN/m3

3,d= 3,k/ 3, = 21,0/1,0 = 21,00 kN/m3

f 3,k = 20,70o
f 3,d =arc(tg f 3,k/)= arc(tg20,70 / 1,00 ) = 20,70 o

C3,k= 35,00 kPa

C3,d= C3,k/ 3,c = 35,00/1,00 = 35,00 kPa

Soil nr 4 siSa

4,k= 17,50 kN/m3

53

4,d= 4,k/ 4, = 17,50/1,0 = 17,50 kN/m3

f 4,k = 30,50o
f 4,d =arc(tg f 4,k/ )= arc(tg30,50 /1,00 ) = 30,50 o

C4= 0,00 kPa

Soil nr 5 saclSi

5,k= 20,0 kN/m3

5,d= 5,k/ 5, = 20,00/1,0 = 20,00 kN/m3

f 5,k = 16,60o
f 5,d =arc(tg f 5,k/ )= arc(tg16,60 /1,00 ) = 16,6 o

C5= 2Sp8,30 kPa

C5,d= C5,k/ 5,c = 28,30/1,00 = 28,30 kPa

Following construction stages are considered:

Stage 1: excavation to level 0,3 m b.g.s.
Stage 2: installation of reinforced concrete slab at level 0,3 m b.g.s.

PHASE 1

Stage 3: excavation to level -3,55 m b.g.s.

Stage 4: installation of reinforced concrete slab at level -3,55 m.b.g.s

PHASE 2

Stage 5: excavation to level -7,00 m.b.g.s.

Stage 6: installation of reinforced concrete slab at level -7,00 m.b.g.s.

PHASE 3

All phases will be calculated by GEO5 software. PHASE 3 will be calculated manually.

PHASE 3 - MANUALLY CALCULATION

STATIC MODEL

54

Designed wall height:

According to Eurocode 7 point:{9.3.2.2(2)} the designed height of the diaphragm wall (Ho) equals:

Active earth pressure from weight of the soils (permament load):

characteristic values of active earth pressure : eak
designed values of active earth pressure : ead
Formulas according to PN EN 1997 - 1:

eak = i,d * z * Kai [kN/m2]

ea, k, i = i,d * z * Kai 2 * Ci,d* [kN/m2]

for cohesive-less soil

for cohesive soil

for z= 0,0m ( top of the first soil layer)

ea,k, (0,0) = 18 * 0 * 0,46 = 0 kN/m2
ea,d,(0,0)= ea,k,0 * E = 0 *1,35 = 0 kN/m2
for z=1,10m ( the bottom of the first layer)

55

ea,k, (1,1) = 18 * 1,1 * 0,46 = 9,11 kN/m2

ea,d, (1,1) = ea,k,1* E = 9,11 *1,35 = 12,29 kN/m2
for z=1,10m ( top of the second soil layer)
ea,k,(1,1) = 18*1,1 * 0,31 = 6,14 kN/m2
ea,d,(1,1)= 6,14 *1,35 = 8,28 kN/m2
for z=2,00m ( the bottom of the second layer)
ea,k, (2,0) = (18*1,1+16,5*0,9) * 0,31 = 10,74 kN/m2
ea,d,(2,0)= 10,74*1,35 = 14,5 kN/m2
for z=2,0m (top of the third soil layer)
ea,k (2,0) = (18,0*1,1+16,5*0,9) * 0,46 2 * 28,30 * = 2,47kN/m2
ea,d(2,0)= 2,47 *1,35 = 3,33 kN/m2
for z=5,20m ( the bottom of the third layer)
ea,k (3,2) = (18,0*1,1+16,5*0,9+21,00*3,2) * 0,46 2 * 28,40 * = 38,52 kN/m2
ea,d(3,2)= 38,52*1,35 = 52,01 kN/m2
dla z=5,20 m ( top of the fourth soil layer)
ea,k (5,2) = (18,0*1,1+16,5*0,9+21,00*3,2) * 0,31 = 31,58 kN/m2
ea,d(5,2)= 31,58 *1,35 = 42,64 kN/m2
dla z=6,4 m (the bottom of the fourth layer)
ea,k (6,4) = (18,0*1,1+16,5*0,9+21,00*3,2+17,5*1,2) * 0,31 = 38,08 kN/m2
ea,d(6,4) = 38,08 *1,35 = 51,41 kN/m2
dla z=6,4 m (top of the fifth soil layer)
ea,k (6,4) = (18,0*1,1+16,5*0,9+21,00*3,2+17,5*1,2) * 0,41 2 * 28,30 * = 14,12 kN/m2
ea,d(6,4) = 14,12 *1,35 = 19,07 kN/m2
dla z=7,5 m (the bottom of the fifth layer)
ea,k (7,5) = (18,0*1,1+16,5*0,9+21,00*3,2+17,5*1,2 + 20,00*1,1 ) * 0,41 2 * 28,30 * =
23,14 kN/m2
ea,d(7,5) = 23,15 *1,35 = 31,24 kN/m2
for z=7,5 m + t

56

IMPORTANT : t is the dimension of the wall under the excavation level, that means that
7,5 m +t = total height of the wall.
ea,k (7,5 +t) = 14,12 + 0,41 * 20,00 *(t + 1,1) = 8,2 t + 23,14 kN/m2
ea,d (7,5 +t) = 14,12 + 1,35 *0,41 * 20,00 *(t + 1,1) = 8,2 t + 31,24 kN/m2
To calculate the resultant value of active earth pressure from permanent load (RBg,k )we assume

static model with one strut :

Graph 1. Active soil pressure from permament load

57

-(0,5*9,11*1,1*2,66) (6,14*0,9*1,85) ((10,74-6,14)*0,5*0,9*1,7) (RBgk * (4,1+0,5t)) +

(2,47*3,2*0,2)+((38,52-2,47)*3,2*0,5*0,73)+(31,58*1,2*2,4)+((38,08-31,58)*1,2*0,5*2,6)
+(14,12*(t+1,1)*(3,6+0,5t) +(((8,2t+23,14)-14,12)*(t+1,1)*(4,1*0,67t) = 0
RBgk * (4,1+0,5t) = 185,71 + 139,19t + 52,76t2 + 5,49t3
the resultant value of active earth pressure from permanent load
RBgk =

(5,49t3 + 52,76t2 + 139,19t + 185,71)

Active earth pressure from weight of the surrounding buildings and machines (temporary load):
load from the surrounding buildings = 115 kN/m2
load from the machines = 5 kN/m2
Total temporary load = 120 kN/m2
characteristic value of active earth pressure : eakn
designed value of active earth pressure : eadn
Formula according to PN EN 1997 - 1:

eakn = pk* Kai [kN/m2]

In first soil layer:

eakn,1 = 120 * 0,48 = 57,6 kN/m2
eadn,1 = 57,6 * 1,5 = 86,4 kN/m2
In second soil layer:
eakn,2 = 120 * 0,31 = 37,2 kN/m2
eadn,2 = 37,2 * 1,5 = 55,8 kN/m2
In third soil layer:
eakn,3 = 120 * 0,46 = 55,2 kN/m2
eadn,3 = 55,2 * 1,5 = 82,8 kN/m2
In fourth soil layer:
eakn,4 = 120 * 0,31 = 37,2 kN/m2
eadn,4 = 37,2 * 1,5 = 55,8 kN/m2

58

In fifth soil layer

eakn,5 = 120 * 0,41 = 49,2 kN/m2
eadn,5 = 49,2 * 1,5 = 73,8 kN/m2

Graph 2. Active soil pressure from temporary load

59

Water pressure was ignored, because of the high depth of ground water level (- 11 m GWL).
Passive earth pressure from weight of the soil layers (permanent load):
Formula according to PN EN 1997 - 1:

eph,k=Kph (*z +p)+2ck(Kph )0,5

where p=0
For fifth soil layer (saclSi) following parameters are assumed:
5,k= 20,0 kN/m3 , f 5,k = 16,60o , C= 28,30 kPa , Ka,5 = 0,41, Kp,5 = 2,0
eph1,k=2*28,30*(2,0)0,5=80,04 kN/m2
eph2,k=2,0*20,0*t+80,04= 40t+80,04
Eph,k=(eph1,k+eph1,k)*0,5t=80,05t+20t2

Determination of requirement anchorage length t

Model:

60

To find dimension 't' formula according to PN EN 1997 1 is used:

RB,d < Eph,d
For Second Designed Approach (DA2) the formula assumes the form :
RB,d = Rbg,k* gG + RBp,k* gQ + RBp,w* gW < Eph,k / gR
According to DA2:
gG = 1,35
gQ = 1,5
gW= 1,4
RBp,w* gW was ignored, because of the high depth of ground water level (- 11 m GWL).
Formula above assumes the form:

Using Mathcad software 't' is searched by method of successive approximations :

t=2

F(t) = 18,83

t=2,5

F(t) = 7,29

t=2,8

F(t) = 0,25

t=2,9

F(t) = -2,10

t=3

F(t) = -4,46
Assumed value t=2,8m,

According to Eurocode PN EN 1997-1, assumed value should be increased by:

t= 2,8 m + hn=2,8+0,5= 3,2 m

Checking the compatibility between earth pressure and wall displacement

The scheme of wall displacement is shown in picture below :

61

scheme of wall displacement

According to PN-83/B-03010 Designing of retaining wall formule nr 20 :

[Annex 9]

f=p;gr*t/2=0,5p*t/2
According to PN-83/B-03010 graph nr 9 :
for:
f 5,k = 16,60o

and for :

t = 2,8 m

f=(0,5*0,072*280)/2=5,04 mm
The minimum value of the wall displacement in relation to the soil behind the wall:
A=5,04/(410+280)=0,0073
For soils, appearing behind the wall according to graph 8 PN-83/B-03010:
for:
f = 30,50o
and for:
h = 10,7 3,4 = 7,3 m
Referring to obtain parameters:
A=0,0073 > a=0,002
CONCLUSION
Wall anchorage length can be considered as sufficient.

Determination of earth pressures for total length of the wall :

62

Requirement anchorage length t is assumed as 3,2 m according to previous calculations, that gives
the total length of diaphragm wall equals 10,7 m.
Active earth pressure from weight of the soil layers (permanent load) at level z=7,5 m + 3,2 m
ea,k (6,4 +3,2) = 8,2 *3,2 + 23,14 = 49,38 kN/m2
ea,d (6,4 +3,2) = 49,38 * 1,35 = 66,66 kN/m2
Passive earth pressure from weight of the soil layers (permanent load) at level z=3,2 m under the
excavation level
eph2,k= 40t+80,04=40*3,2+80,04=208,04 kN/m2
eph2,d=208,04/1,4 = 148,6 kN/m2
Reaction from active pressure from temporary load
RBpk = 1/(4,1+0,5*3,2)(24,6*3,22 + 204,18*3,2 + 97,95) = 176,01 kN/m
RBpd = 176,01 * 1,5 = 264,15 kN/m
Reaction from active earth pressure from permanent load
RBgk = 1/(4,1+0,5*3,2) (5,49*3,23 + 52,76*3,22 + 139,19*3,2 + 185,71) = 183,34 kN/m
RBgd = 183,34 * 1,35 = 247,5 kN/m
Graphs of the eart active and passive pressures are given below.

63

Graph 3. Active and passive soil pressures - characteristic values (from temporary and permanent
loads)

64

Graph 4. Active and passive soil pressures - designed values (from temporary and permanent
loads)

Determination the resultant pressure under the excavation level

65

K*=(Kp-Ka)*g;
K*u= ed 0,5*C

earth active pressure from the weight of the soil at the bottom level of excavation:
ea,k (7,5) = (18,0*1,1+16,5*0,9+21,00*3,2+17,5*1,2+20,00*1,1) * 0,41 2 * 28,30 * =
23,14 kN/m2
ea,d (7,5) = 23,14 * 1,35 = 31,24 kN/m2
earth active pressure from the temporary load at the bottom level of excavation:
ea,k2 (7,5) = 49,2 kN/m2
ea,d2 (7,5) = 49,2 * 1,5 = 73,8 kN/m2
earth passive pressure from the weight of the soil at the bottom level of excavation:
ep,h1k = 80,04 kN/m2
ep,h1 d = 80,04 / 1,4 = 57,17 kN/m2
Resultant pressure at the bottom level of the excavation
ed = 57,17 - (73,8 + 31,24 ) = - 47,87 kN/m2
At the bottom level of excavation , the resultant earth pressure on the wall equals - 47,87 kN/m2 ('-' in
this case means the active pressure)
Resultant earth pressure value at the depth of -3,2 m under the excavation level .
148,6 - (73,8 + 66,6 ) = 8,2 kN/m2

At a depth of 3,2 m under the excavation level, the resultant earth pressure on the wall equlas 8,2
kN/m2 ('+' in this case means the passive pressure)

66

Graph 5. Resultant values of earth pressures - characteristic values

67

Graph 6. Resultant values of earth pressures - designed values

68

Location of '0' point (where resultant of passive and active earth pressure equals zero)
According to the graph 6 'u' value (zero point) is assumed at the depth of 2,7 m under the excavation
level.
Determination of resultant forces of active and passive earth pressures (designed values)

The graph of results from the table above is given on page 70. According to the graph , the Ra
force can be determined from thr scheme:

69

Graph 7. Resultant forces of earth pressures - designed values

70

Determination of reactions
According to:

Graph 7. Resultant forces of earth pressures - designed values

y = 0;

-101,79 60,45 353,50 123,39 108,85 - 64,62 + 96,92 + Ra = 0

Ra = 718,8 kN

The diaphragm wall was divided into 9 sections, according to locations of resultant forces. Then, all
parameters were introduced to the mathematical software RM-WIN (Polish engineering software) to
obtain the graphs:

Graph 8. Shear forces

71

Graph 9. Bending moments

In addition to making graphs, the software gives the normal forces, shear forces and bending moments.
All parameters are given in the table:

The maximum shear force according to table from software equals 555,506 kN and the maximum
bending moment -401, 585 kNm.
The maximum bending moment manually calculated according to graph 7:
Mmax1= - 101,79 * (0,98+1,85) - 60,45*1,85 + 353,50*0,2 +123,39*2,41 + 108,85* (1,07+2,41) - 96,5* (1,98 +
1,32 + 1,07 + 2,21 +0,2) = - 401,6 kNm

The difference between bending moments from manually calculation and software calculation
equals 0,015. The manually calculation can be considered as correct.

72

The method of calculation diaphragm wall with one strut is already known. To calculate the diaphragm
wall in 5.phase (with 3 struts) we have to only change the static model and add two additional reactions.

First step is to find the relations between different reactions:

MA = 0;

-18,64 * 0,57 16,51 * (0,98 + 0,57 - 0,2) 121,66 * (0,57 + 0,98 + 2,05 0,2)
-64,8* (0,57 + 0,98 + 2,05 + 2,21) 37,82 * (1,07 +2,21 + 2,05 + 0,98 +0,57
0,2) + 80,36 * (2,5 + 1,07 +2,21 + 2,05 + 0,98 + 0,57) + RC *7,35 + Rb * 3,2 = 0
3,87 +7,35 Rc = - 3,2 Rb
Rb = -1,2 2,29 Rc

MB = 0; Ra*3,2 - 18,64 * (3,2 0,57) - 16,51 * (3,2 + 0,57 - 0,98) 121,66 * 0,2 - 64,8 *
(2,21 +0,2 ) - 37,82 * (1,07 +2,21 +0,2) 80,36 * (2,5 + 1,07 + 2,21 + 0,2) Rc
* 3,95 = 0
Ra = 1,23 Rc - 88

73

MC = 0; 18,64 * (3,2 + 3,95) + 16,51 * (2,05 + 2,21 + 1,07) + 121,66 * (2,21 + 1,07) 64,8 * 1,07 + 37,82 * 0,1 + 80,36 * 2,5 + Rb*3,95 +Ra * 7,15 = 0
Rb = 1,81 Ra + 395,2
X = 0;

-18,64 - 16,51 - 121,66 - 64,8 - 37,82 - 80,36 + Rc +Rb +Ra = 0

Rc = -Rb Ra + 339,79

Using relations between different reactions it is possible to find the values of forces:
-1,2 2,29 Rc = 1,81(1,23 Rc 175) + 191,31
Rc = -76,80 kN
Ra = - 1,23 Rc 88 = 1,23* -76,80 88
Ra = - 6,04 kN
Rb = 1,81 Ra + 395,2
Rb = 465,4 kN
Then, all parameters are introduced to the mathematical software RM-WIN to obtain the graphs. The
method of calculation are analogous to previous ones, but more complicate due to number of unknown
reactions.

Graph 10. Shear forces

Graph 11. Bending moments

74

9.3. Geo 5 calculations

Assumptions for Geo5 software:
calculation according to PN EN 1997:1
Design Approach 2*
Active earth pressure according to: Coulomb
Passive earth pressure according to: Caqout Kerisel
Methods for the evaluation of the modulus of subsoil reaction: Chadeisson
water level and soils then same as for manual calculation
height of the construction 10,7 m
thickness of diaphragm wall h = 80 cm
Struts: fixed
Results:
PHASE 1
Max. shear force

161,46 kN/m

Max. bending moment

508,20 kNm

Max.displacement

1,2 mm

PHASE 2
Max. shear force

351,35 kN/m

Max. bending moment

537,97 kNm

Max.displacement

8,6 mm

PHASE 3
Max. shear force

513,90 kN/m

Max. bending moment

864,8 kNm

Max.displacement

18,5 mm

PHASE 4
Max. shear force

531,93 kN/m

Max. bending moment

828,47 kNm

Max.displacement

4,0 mm

PHASE 5
Max. shear force

546,61 kN/m

75

Max. bending moment

861,42 kNm

Max.displacement

3,6 mm

9.4. Determination of reinforcement

The reinforcement will be designed according to maximum bending moment. The maximum bending
moment in this case is 864,8 kNm, so phase nr 3 of construction process is decisive.
Assumptions:
Thickness

h=0,80 m

Total height of the wall

H=10,7 m

Ribs cover

c=0,05m

Concrete class

C30/37

Steel AI,

St3Sx, fyd =210 MPa

Steel AIII-RB400W

fyd = 350 MPa

Assumed reinforcement :

horizontal 1= 12 mm, construction 2= 40 mm

fctd=1,33 MPa

Ecm=32 GPa

Calculations:
cover:

a=c+c+1+0,5*2

a = 50+10+12+0,5*40=92 mm
d = h-a
d= 80 9,2 cm = 70,8 cm
Reinforcement As1

According to Eurocode 2 (PN EN 1992-1-1) following formula is used:

where Msd is maximum bending moment

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Determination of minimal reinforcement As1

According to Eurocode 2 (PN EN 1992-1-1) following formulas are used:

According to Eurocode 2 (PN EN 1992-1-1) following parameters are assumed:

The results are given below:

Assumed reinforcement :
The value 85,59 cm2 is a reinforcement that we need for 1 linear meter of wall.
In this project diaphragm walls are mostly made of panels that are 750 cm length. Required
reinforcement for 750cm length panel is:

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As1=85,59 *7,5=642,12 cm2

All dimensions of panels are given in the Drawing nr 2 (Annexes with drawings)
There is one panel that has 1000 cm length. This panel probably will be split in 2 shorter panels
- 500 cm per each one. Required reinforcement for 750cm length panel is:
As1=85,59 *5,0=427,11 cm2 ,
for this panel it can be assumed 34 40 in 15 cm ( As1=427,16 cm2)
Reinforce of the panel 500 cm is shown in DRAWING NR 4.

10. Duration and prices

Duration
For the duration of the implementation of the diaphragm wall all the quantities have to be
detailed.
The detailed dimensions of one diaphragm wall are known from previous calculations
(wall in cut section I : 4000 cm length x 80 cm thickness x 1070 cm height).
Other walls haven't been calculated but the total height of each one will be assumed as 1070 cm too.
For all walls, the hydraulic grab will have to excavate :
(40m +40m+ 30m +30m)* 0,80 m * 10,70 m =1198,4 m 3.
It bucket has a capacity of 1.2m3. The grad will have 998.7 cycles.
The duration of a cycle is around 6 minutes (Information from website).
It gives a result of 7190 minutes, that equals 119 hours (10 days when the work day = 12 hours).
At the beginning of the excavation a cycle is quick, but when the hydraulic grab has to go down to 7
meters it takes much more time. Finally to excavate 1198,4m 3, around 2 weeks is needed.
Price
The hydraulic grab will cost 4000 zlotys (Polish currency) per one day. The concrete costs 395 ZL/m3,
this price includes the reinforcement. For additional materials 200 ZL/m3 can be assumed. The mud
costs 50 ZL/m3.
2 weeks are needed to create the diaphragm walls. The total amount of concrete is approximately
1200m3 , around 200m of other materials. It is the same amount of mud than concrete.
Steel fixer and people to help take around 100 ZL /day.
About 5 people are needed.
4000x14 = 56000 ZL
395x1200 = 474000ZL

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200x200 = 40000ZL
50x1200 = 6000 ZL
5x100x14 = 7000ZL
The global price : 56000+474000+40000+6000+7000 =583000 ZL = 1 166 000Dkk

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11. Safety and organization

11.1. Safety and organization the building site.
Every year, people are killed or seriously injured when working in excavations. Excavation work has to
be properly planned, managed, supervised and carried out to prevent accidents.
Before digging any excavations, it is important to plan against the following:
collapse of the sides;
materials falling onto people working in the excavation;
people and vehicles falling into the excavation;
people being struck by plant;
undermining nearby structures;
contact with underground services;.
access to the excavation;
fumes;
accidents to members of the public.
It is necessary to make sure the necessary equipment needed such as trench sheets, props, baulks,
etc, is available on site before work starts.
Materials falling into excavations
It is not recommended to store spoil or other materials close to the sides of excavations. The
spoil may fall into the excavation and the extra loading will make the sides more prone to
collapse.
It is recommended to make sure the edges of the excavation are protected against falling
materials. Provide toe boards where necessary.
Wear a hard hat when working in excavations
People and vehicles falling into excavations:
Take steps to prevent people falling into excavations. If the excavation is 2 m or more deep,
provide substantial barriers, eg guard rails and toe boards.
Keep vehicles away from excavations wherever possible. Use brightly painted baulks or barriers
where necessary.
Where vehicles have to tip materials into excavations, use stop blocks to prevent them from
over-running. Remember that the sides of the excavation may need extra support.
People being struck by plant:
Keep workers separate from moving plant such as excavators. Where this is not possible use
safe systems of work to prevent people being struck.
Plant operators should be competent. Undermining nearby structures
Make sure excavations do not affect the footings of scaffolds or the foundations of nearby
structures.
Walls may have very shallow foundations which can be undermined by even small trenches.
Decide if the structure needs temporary support before digging starts. Surveys of the
foundations and the advice of a structural engineer may be needed.
Avoiding underground services:

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It is recommend to :
look around for obvious signs of underground services, eg valve covers or patching of the road
surface.
Use locators to trace any services. Mark the ground accordingly.
Make sure that the person supervising excavation work has service plans and knows how to
use them. Everyone carrying out the work should know about safe digging practices and
emergency procedures.
Access
It is recommend to provide good ladder access or other safe ways of getting in and out of the
excavation.
Fumes
Exhaust fumes can be dangerous. Do not site petrol or diesel-engined equipment such as generators or
compressors in, or near the edge of, an excavation unless fumes can be ducted away or the area can
be ventilated.
Protecting the public
Fence off all excavations in public places to prevent pedestrians and vehicles falling into them.
Where children might get onto a site out of hours, take precautions (eg backfilling or securely
covering excavations) to reduce the chance of them being injured.
Supervision
A competent person must supervise the installation, alteration or removal of excavation support.
People working in excavations should be given clear instructions on how to work safely.
Inspecting excavations
A competent person must inspect excavations:
- at the start of each shift before work begins;
- after any event likely to have affected the strength or stability of the excavation;
- after any accidental fall of rock, earth or other material.

11.2. Temporary dewatering

For the excavation it is necessary to perform a temporary dewatering. Dewatering should then be
arranged so that the water table is lowered at least 0.5 meters below the excavation level.
There are four different methods to control the groundwater table in connection with a building or
construction project:
* Water is allowed to seep into the excavation and is removed by bilge pumping (possibly with drain)
* A temporary or permanent dewatering is established, whereby the groundwater table is drawn down to
below the construction/excavation level
* The groundwater movement is cut off with tight walls, for example sheet pile walls, slot walls, freezing,
injection
* The water pressure is withheld with air pressure, for instance in tunnels and caissons.
For this project the dewatering of the excavation will be done by simple drainage. This is the simplest
and cheapest form of groundwater draw-down, which consists of pumping water with a system of drains,
from the bottom of the excavation and rejects excessive water to another place.

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12. Conclusion
This project was about excavation works for Skyscraper in Wroclaw (Poland) . Because the
foundations have been designed using Polish methods and Standards, the aim was to provided to
Danish companies an idea about how the other European countries (in this case:Poland) work and how
they design foundations. The designed elements are relevant to be able to start the construction and
the drawing provide an easy way to build the structure diaphragm walls. The Polish way to calculate
the structural element are probably different from the Danish way but thanks to the Eurocodes we are
going to move to a standardization of the construction rules to make the international projects as that
one more accessible to European companies.
Deep excavations in urban areas require retaining structures to ensure the slopes and protect
surrounding buildings. Geological and geotechnical analysis were made at first. According to assumed
soil layers and water level in the area, all calculations have been done.
An important issue of this project was determination of retaining structures. For all sides of the
constructions site, the best solution diaphragm walls were chosen. The main reason was the proximity
to other existing buildings. The next step was to find proper type of diaphragm wall (in this case: strutted
method ) and to analyze deep excavation methods. The best solutions for Skyscraper occurred top and
down method very fast one.
Calculations for dimensioning the walls were made in two different ways: by hand and Polish
engineering software RM WIN, and by GEO 5 . Calculations were made by using safety factors from
relevant parts of Eurocode 7 and some Polish Standards. Calculation methods and equations are found
mainly from study materials from Polish geotechnic' books .
For dewatering, the method called Simple Drainage was selected, because it is suitable in clay soils.
To conclude, the estimation of the price and of the duration were done.

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13. References
CONSULTATIONS WITH LECTURERS
Consultations with Sara Elisabeth Kjrgaard - emails
COURSES AT WARSAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Bsc of Civil Engineering with specialization : geotechnics
BOOKS AND LITERATURE
[1] Wysokiski L., Kotlicki W., Godlewski T., Projektowanie geotechniczne wedug Eurokodu 7, Instytut
Techniki Budowlanej, Warszawa 2011
[2] Kosiski B. Projektowanie obudw gbokich wykopw. Seminarium GBOKIE WYKOPY NA
TERENACH WIELKOMIEJSKICH, Warszawa 19 listopada 2011
[3] Kotlicki W., Wysokiski L. Ochrona zabudowy w ssiedztwie gbokich wykopw. Wydawnictwo ITB
nr 376/2002.
[4] Siemiska-Lewandowska A., Grzegorzewicz K., Kosiski B. Problemy budowy gbokich podziemi
budynkw uytecznoci publicznej. Konferencja Naukowa KRYNICA 2003.
[5] Siemiska-Lewandowska A., Mitew-Czajewska M., Design of deep excavations according to
Eurocode 7, Warsaw University of Technology, Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, Vol. XXX, No. 12,2008
[6] Siemiska-Lewandowska A., Aktualne problemy budowy i projektowania gbokich wykopw, cz.1.
Nowoczesne Budownictwo Inynieryjne, Marzec - Kwiecie 2010.
[7] Siemiska-Lewandowska A., Aktualne problemy budowy i projektowania gbokich wykopw, cz.2.
Nowoczesne Budownictwo Inynieryjne, Maj - Czerwiec 2010.
[8] Rychlewski P., Gbokie wykopy w zabudowie miejskiej, GEOINYNERIA drogi mosty tunele
03/2006 (10)
[9] Florkiewicz A., cigao J., Problemy projektowe wymiarowania gbokich budowli podziemnych,
GEOINYNERIA drogi mosty tunele 04/2005 (07)
[10] Krasiski A., Obliczanie i projektowanie cianek szczelnych. Katedra Geotechniki, Geologii i
Budownictwa Morskiego, Wydzia Inynierii Ldowej i rodowiska Politechniki Gdaskiej, Gdask 2007.
[11] Warunki techniczne wykonywania cian szczelinowych. Instytut Badawczy Drg i Mostw,
Informacje, Instrukcje zeszyt nr 35 Warszawa 1992.
[12] Wiun Z. Zarys geotechniki. Wydawnictwa Komunikacji i cznoci, wydanie 7, Warszawa 2005.
[13] Pisarczyk S. Mechanika gruntw. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, wydanie III,
warszawa 1999.
[14] P.B Yurkevivh, DEVELOPMENT TOP-DOWN METHOD OF UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION
OR HI-TECH IN RUSSIAN, Yurkevich Engineering Bureau ltd, Moscow, Russian Federation
STANDARDS:
[15] PN EN 1538:2002 Wykonawstwo specjalnych robt geotechnicznych. ciany szczelinowe
[16] PN - EN 1997 -1:2008 Eurokod 7 Projektowanie geotechniczne. Cz 1:Zasady oglne

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[17] PN EN 1997-1:2008/AC:2008 Eurokod 7 Projektowanie geotechniczne. Cz 1:Zasady oglne

[18] PN EN 1997-1:2008/Apl:2010 Eurokod 7 Projektowanie geotechniczne. Cz 1:Zasady oglne
[19] PN-81 B-03020 Grunty budowlane, posadowienie bezporednie budowli, obliczenia statyczne i
projektowanie
WEBSITES:
[20] http://www.menardbachy.com.au
[21] http://www.bacsol.co.uk
[22] http://www.docstoc.com
[23] http://www.skycrapercity.com
[24] http://www.keller.pl
[25] http://www.diaphragmwallconstruction.com

SOFTWARES:
[26] GEO 5
[27] RM-WIN
[38] Autocad 2009
[29] MS Office

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