214 Spring 2014 PDF

2.14/2.
140 Problem Set 1
Assigned: Wed. Feb. 5, 2014

Due:
Wed. Feb. 12, 2014, in class
Reading: FPE Chapters 1 and 2, review as needed
This problem set is a review of material on modeling and analysis of electrical, mechanical, elec
tromechanical, uid, and thermal dynamic systems. The problems from Franklin, Powell, and
Emami-Naeini, Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 6th Ed. are referenced by FPE Chap
ter.Problem#. The Problem Archive can be downloaded as a complete pdf le from the course
web page; see the problem numbers therein (pdf bookmarks will help you nd them). Note that
the problem archive also contains solutions to many of the problems. Please do not consult these
solutions initially. Refer to the solutions if you are stuck, or to check your analysis.
The following problems are assigned to both 2.14 and 2.140 students.
Problem 1 FPE 2.5
Problem 2 FPE 2.10
Problem 3 FPE 2.15, a only
Problem 4 FPE 2.25
Problem 5 Archive Problem 4.24
The following problems are assigned to only 2.140 students. Students in 2.14 are
welcome to work these, but no extra credit will be given.
Problem G1 FPE 2.9 Write the equations of motion in state-space form in terms of state variables
x, x,
y, and y,
and with input u, and output y. Then eliminate variables in the state equations
to nd the transfer function from input u to output y. What are the locations of the poles
and zeros of this transfer function?
Problem G2 FPE 2.12
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2.14/2.140 Problem Set 2
Assigned: Thurs. Feb. 13, 2014

Due:
Reading: FPE sections 3.23.5
Problem 3 FPE 3.20
Problem 4 FPE 3.28
Problem 5 Consider a motor with the following parameters: torque constant K = 1 Nm/A, rotor
inertia J = 102 kg m2 , and coil resistance R = 5 . A torque disturbance Td acts on the
rotor of the motor in opposition to the motor torque Tm = Ki, where i is the motor coil
current. The voltage at the motor terminals is Vm = iR + K, where is the motor angular
velocity.
a) We consider the motor as a plant with input Vm and output . Draw a block diagram for
the motor system which shows these signals as well as i, Tm , Td , and the back emf voltage
vb = K.
b) Now we ask you to design a proportional speed controller of the form
Vm = Kp (r ).
Here Kp is the proportional gain of the controller, and r is the speed command. Choose Kp
such that the closed-loop system has a time constant of = 1 msec. For this value of Kp
make plots of Vm and when the reference is a unit step r (t) = 1us (t) rad/sec.
c) Now we ask you to design a proportional plus integral speed controller of the form
Vm (s) = Kp (1 +
1
)(r (s) (s)).
Ti s
Here Kp is the proportional gain of the controller, and Ti is referred to as the integral
time. Choose Kp and Ti such that the closed-loop system has a natural frequency of n =
1000 rad/sec and a damping ratio of = 0.4. For these values make plots of Vm and when
the reference is a unit step r (t) = 1us (t) rad/sec.
Problem 6 An ideal linear voice coil actuator is configured as shown below with the actuation axis
oriented vertically. This ideal actuator has no internal mass or electrical resistance. Gravity
acts downward as shown in the figure. For the purposes of this problem, assume that motion
in the x direction is unlimited. The actuator has F = Kf i and e = Kf x.
The actuator mechanical port is connected to a mass m. The actuator electrical port is
connected to a resistance R in series with a switch. Consider the two cases: a) switch open
and b) switch closed. At t = 0, the mass is released with x(0) = 0, x(0)
= 0.
Write the equations of motion for the two cases. Take care with minus signs in your analysis:
note that with the switch closed e = iR. To facilitate this analysis, draw a block diagram
for this system which includes at least the signals e, i, F , x, x,
and which has the acceleration
of gravity g as an input. Use this block diagram to determine the transfer function from input
g to output x.
Solve for the time trajectory x(t)
for the two cases, and plot these as a function of time on

the same axes. How are the initial (t = 0+ ) accelerations (slope) related? Why?
Problem 7 An ideal linear voice coil actuator is configured as shown below with the actuation axis
oriented vertically. This ideal actuator has no internal mass or electrical resistance. Gravity
acts downward as shown in the figure. For the purposes of this problem, assume that motion
in the x direction is unlimited. The actuator has F = Kf i and e = Kf x.
The actuator
mechanical port is connected to a mass m. We consider two cases in which the electrical port
is connected to a capacitor or an inductor.
a) The actuator electrical port is connected to a capacitance C as shown below.
Write the equations of motion. Take care with minus signs in your analysis: note that
2
i = Cde/dt. To facilitate this analysis, draw a block diagram for this system which includes
at least the signals e, i, F , x, x,
and which has the acceleration of gravity g as an input. Use
this block diagram to determine the transfer function from input g to output x.
At t = 0, the mass is released with x(0) = 0, x(0)
= 0. Solve for the time trajectory x(t)
and
plot as a function of time. Write an expression for the acceleration; how does changing the
value of C affect the acceleration? From the viewpoint of the mass, what mechanical element
is it connected to?
b) The actuator electrical port is connected to an inductance L as shown below.
Write the equations of motion. Take care with minus signs in your analysis: note that
e = Ldi/dt. To facilitate this analysis, draw a block diagram for this system which includes
at least the signals e, i, F , x, x,
and which has the acceleration of gravity g as an input. Use
this block diagram to determine the transfer function from input g to output x.
At t = 0, the mass is released with x(0) = 0, x(0)
= 0. Solve for the time trajectory x(t)
and
plot as a function of time, with the axes clearly labeled and dimensioned. How does changing
the value of L affect the trajectory? From the viewpoint of the mass, what mechanical element
is it connected to?
Problem 8 This problem considers an electrical/thermal model of a transistor circuit using an
NPN bipolar junction transistor. This circuit is used in Labs 2 and 3 to give you experience
with a temperature control system. Here we look at the details of the electrical and thermal
models for the circuit. As shown below, an NPN bipolar transistor is a three-terminal device
(base, emitter, collector), with correspondingly defined voltages and currents.
What makes a transistor useful is that it amplifies. For this NPN device, a basic model of
3
this amplification is the relationship iC = iB , where in typical devices 100. Thus a

small input current at the base terminal can be amplified into a much larger current at the
collector terminal. Since the sum of currents entering the device must equal zero, we also
have iE = iC + iB . Further, when iB > 0, we can assume vBE 0.6 V. (This problem only
models the transistor operation in the forward-active region, and omits internal dynamics.
There is significantly more to learn about these devices for general use.)
The particular circuit of interest
drives the transistor with an input Vin through a base resistor Rb . Note also in this circuit
that vCE = Vs > 0.
An equivalent circuit for the transistor is
We will assume that when iB is some positive value, vBE = 0.6 V, and thus require Vin 0.6.
Look at the circuit equations to follow the derivation which shows that the power dissipated
in the device is Pdiss Vs (Vin vBE )/Rb . (The approximation comes in because we ignore
the very small dissipation iB vBE . Why is this reasonable?) Thus we see that the input Vin
can directly control the device dissipation, via the base current, at relatively low input power.
That is the key idea of amplification: large power or signals somewhere can be controlled
by small power input signals. Note that we inherently also assume Vin > vBE , since power
dissipation must always be positive. (If you want negative and positive heat flows from one
device, get a thermoelectric cooler, and go learn more about thermodynamics!)
Now for the thermal side of the model. Assume that the transistor is a lump of material
at uniform temperature. Further assume a linear power flow to ambient proportional to the
difference between transistor Tj and ambient Ta temperatures. The thermal capacitance of
the lump Ct has units of [J/ K], and the thermal resistance Rt has units of [ K/W ]. The
power dissipation Pdiss injects heat into the transistor lump, which connects to ambient via
the thermal resistance.
The thermal capacitance is described by
Ct
X
dTj
(Tj Ta )
=
P = Pdiss
.
dt
Rt
This relationship can be shown in the equivalent thermal circuit, where we equate electrical
current with power flow, and electrical voltage with temperature.
a) Draw a block diagram including at least input Vin , input Ta , Pdiss , Tj .

b) Now (finally!) we consider closed-loop control issues. For this purpose, Tj is the output to be
controlled and Vin is the input for control. In this context, Ta is a disturbance signal.
This thermal plant will be controlled by an on/off controller with hysteresis, as shown
Temperature is measured with a sensor which converts K to volts, via Vs = 0.1(Tj 273) [V].
That is, the sensor measures in degrees Celsius, with a scale factor of 1 Volt per 10 degrees
Celsius.
The hysteresis block has the form
where the switching points are at . For the remainder of this problem, assume the following values of the parameters: Vref = 5 V, = 0.1 V, Rb = 20 k, = 100, Vs = 5 V,
Ct = 1 J/ K, and Rt = 400 K/W . Use these numbers in your dynamic model developed
above.
i) Assume Ta = 25 C, and that the system has been off for a long time, such that Tj (0+ ) = Ta . At
t = 0 the control is engaged and begins operating. Solve for and plot Tj (t) and Vin (t). What
is the steady-state switching frequency and duty cycle (ratio of on time to cycle period)?
i) Now assume Ta = 0 C, and that the system has been off for a long time, such that Tj (0+ ) = Ta .
At t = 0 the control is engaged and begins operating. Solve for and plot Tj (t) and Vin (t).
What is the steady-state switching frequency and duty cycle? Compare with the earlier case.
Does this lower ambient temperature cause any error in the average value of Tj ? You can
answer this question qualitatively on the basis of your time plots. You do not need to formally
compute this average.
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Spring 2014

Due:
Reading: FPE Chapter 5; Lecture notes on PID control and root locus.
For the root locus problems from FPE, attempt to solve them by hand with the root locus sketching
rules. Only use Matlab where requested, or if you cant see an analytical solution. Its very
important that you learn how to sketch moderate order root loci with pencil and paper.
Problem 1 FPE 5.2
Problem 2 FPE 5.3
Problem 3 FPE 5.13
Problem 4 FPE 5.14
Problem 5 FPE 5.22. Use Matlab computational tools to help with all steps in this problem.
Problem 6 The four plots below show the pole and zero locations of the return ratio of a feedback
system, informally called the open-loop poles and zeros. Each of these loops also have a
variable gain K > 0, which is used to move the poles along the root locus branches. For the
four systems shown below, sketch the approximate shape of the root locus plot for K > 0.
Note that you will need to pay particular attention to the angle criteria in the vicinity of the
complex poles and zeros. If the complex pairs are lightly damped, which of these systems
presents a danger of instability as the loop gain is varied? This analysis has practical relevance
for the situation where a notch filter is used to help stabilize a system with a lightly-damped
pair of poles.
Problem 7 The block diagram for a feedback loop has a forward path transfer function G(s) =
Ka(s)/b(s), and a feedback path transfer function H(s) = c(s)/d(s) as shown below. Prove
that the closed-loop zeros are located at: 1) the zeros of the forward path and 2) the poles of
the feedback path, independent of the loop gain K.
Problem 8 FPE 4.23
Problem G1 FPE 5.35

Problem G2
This problem was used as the ME quals systems written exam in 2005. It considers modeling
and control issues associated with positioning systems driven with a piezoelectric actuator. A
piezoelectric positioner is driven with an electrical input in order to produce a mechanical output
and vice versa.
The figure below shows a model of a system incorporating a piezoelectric device.
Here the electrical terminals of the device are defined as having an input voltage e(t) and an input
current i(t). The piezo crystal is sandwiched between end plates, with the bottom plate connected
to mechanical ground. The motion of the upper plate in the vertical direction is defined as x(t).
A mechanical load consisting of a damper with value b is connected between the upper plate and
mechanical ground. We model the piezoelectric device and plates as massless. Motion is considered
to be constrained to the x direction.
The electrical/mechanical coupling of the device is modeled as shown below
Here, the piezoelectric actuator is modeled internally as a dependent force source F (t) in parallel
with a spring k. The force depends linearly upon the input voltage as F (t) = Ke(t), where K
is a scale factor with units of N/V. The spring k models the internal stiffness of the piezoelectric
actuator. The force F is applied to the massless upper plate which connects the damper and spring.
3
The electrical portion of the model is shown on the left in the figure. Here, a dependent current
source has a value i(t) = K x(t).
The system is driven with a voltage source Vin (t).
a) Calculate the transfer function X(s)/Vin (s). Clearly show the steps in your development.
b) Assume initial rest conditions. Let the input voltage be a unit step: Vin (t) = u(t). Calculate a
closed-form solution for the resulting displacement x(t) and make a graph of x(t) versus time.
c) Develop a closed-form expression for the input electrical power P (t) = e(t)i(t) associated with
the transient you solved for in part b) above, and make a graph of P (t) versus time.
We now learn that the top plate has finite mass, and so the model developed earlier needs to be
augmented. Measurements indicate that the input/output transfer function is now given by
Gp (s)
X(s)
1
= 2 2
.
Vin (s)
10 s + 10s + 106
This experimentally-adjusted model is to be used to design the feedback loop shown below.
The controller for this loop is an integral controller Gc (s) G/s, where G is an adjustable gain
associated with the integrator.
d) Sketch a root locus plot for this control loop as the gain G > 0 is varied. For what range of
gains G is the loop stable?
e) The loop transfer function (sometimes called the return ratio) for this loop is given by L(s) =
Gc (s)Gp (s). Make a careful hand sketch of the Bode plot for L(s), showing the effect of G as
a parameter, and using the numerical representation of Gp (s) given above.
f ) What value of G will result in a loop crossover frequency c = 100 rad/sec? (Recall that the
crossover frequency is the frequency for which the loop transfer function magnitude crosses
through unity, that is, we require |L(j100)| = 1.)
What are the phase margin and gain margin for the loop with this crossover frequency?
Indicate these parameters on a Bode plot for the loop.
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Spring 2014

Due:
Wed. March 5, 2014, in class
Reading: Lecture notes on loop shaping, frequency response, and Bode plots.
Problem 1 Problem Archive 11.5 Pole Zero Plots. Sketch the indicated Bode plots by hand using
the sketching rules presented in the lecture and notes. Do not use Matlab to generate these
plots.
Problem 2 The Bode plot given below is for a notch filter, which can be used as part of compensation for attenuating resonances. This is called a notch filter because it cuts out a range of
frequencies. On the given Bode plot, mark the straight asymptotes, and the phase staircase
function. Use this analysis to determine the filter transfer function and draw a pole-zero map
for the filter.
Problem 3 Archive Problem 13.1 Rooftop Antenna
Problem 4 This problem considers the paint stirrer shown below. A brushed DC motor is used
to stir a bucket of paint as shown in the figure. The motor has a torque constant K [Nm/A]
and the motor plus stirrer inertia is J [kg-m2 ]. The motor is considered ideal in that it has no
inductance and no resistance; the only resistance in the electrical circuit is R as shown. The
rotor is rigidly linked to the stirrer, which has no flexibility; the combined assembly has a
rotational velocity rad/sec. The effect of the paint on the stirrer is modeled as a rotational
damper B [Nms/rad].
a) Solve for the transfer function Gp (s) = (s)/Vi (s) in terms of the system parameters. Now set
the parameter values as K = 0.5 Nm/A, R = 5 , B = 0.15 Nms/rad, and J = 0.2 kgm2 .
For these parameter values, make a hand sketch of the Bode plot for Gp .
b) Now, let the system input Vi be driven by a PI controller of the form

Ki
.
Gc (s) = Kp 1 +
s
This system has a speed reference input r and output as shown in the block diagram below
Choose the controller gain values Kp and Ki to set the loop crossover frequency c =
10 rad/sec, with a phase margin m = 45 . Show your calculations. You should be able
to accomplish this design using hand-sketched Bode plots, and then using Matlab for confirmation.
c) Create a Simulink simulation of the loop with the controller implemented as shown in the block
diagram above. For now, let the integrator have an unbounded output (leave the integrator
limit output box unchecked). Set your simulation to use the variable step solver with a max
step size limit of 0.01 sec, and use the ode45 solver. Note that the standard simulation window
has a simulation stop time of 10 sec. You may want to adjust this value.
Let the input reference r take a step from zero to 10 rad/sec at t = 0, from initial rest
conditions. Run this as a Simulink simulation and record and plot the responses Vi (t) and
(t). What is the maxiumum value of the Vi during this transient? What is the steady-state
value of Vi after the transient has settled?
d) Now set the integrator limits to 1.5 times the steady-state value of Vi from part c), and check
the integrator limit box. (This insures that the integrator term is able to supply the required
steady-state control effort for a speed of 10 rad/sec, but not much more.) Again let the input
reference r take a step from zero to 10 rad/sec at t = 0, from initial rest conditions. Run
this as a Simulink simulation and record and plot the responses Vi (t) and (t). How do these
differ from the unlimited case in part c)?
e) Be sure to keep a copy of your calculations and this model, as we may continue studying it in
the next problem set.
Problem 5 Archive Problem 17.21 Pole Zero Bode Matching
Problem G1 This problem was used as the ME quals systems oral exam in 2003. In the inverted
pendulum system shown below, note that gravity acts in the downward direction as shown.
A rigid massless link constrains the mass M to rotate about the pivot shown. The distance
from the pivot point to the center of gravity of the mass is L m. The mass has negligible
moment of inertia. The horizontal position of the mass in meters is x(t). The system is driven
by a position input w(t) m. The input is connected to the mass via the spring k with units
of N/m, and via the damper b shown with units of Ns/m. In the problem, we only consider
models which describe motions in which x is very small; do not attempt to write models for
large motions.
Position input w(t)
Mass position x(t)
pivot
a) For this system, derive a mathematical model which describes the system for small motions.
The resulting linear model should have an input w(t) and output x(t). Be sure to take into account the effect of gravity. Explain your reasoning. What is the transfer function X(s)/W (s)?
b) For what range of k and b is the system stable?
c) Now consider the controlled pendulum system shown below.
Mass position x(t)
Reference input w(t)
Force output F(t)

M
Controller
pivot
The controller has inputs of the mass position x(t) and reference command w(t). The controller outputs a force F (t) which is applied to the mass as shown. Develop a controller which
provides an indentical small-motion transfer function X(s)/W (s) to that derived in part a)
above. You can feel free to use any linear operation within the controller block. Explain your
reasoning for the controller you develop.
d) Now assume that a time delay of T sec is introduced into the position measurement before it is
received by the controller. How does this affect the stability of the controlled system? Why?
Show your analytical reasoning. Hint: An approach looking at phase margin is the best way
to understand the effect of the time delay.
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Spring 2014

Assigned: Wed. Mar. 5, 2014
Due:
Reading: FPE sections 6.16.8; lecture notes on loop-shaping and the Nyquist test
The following problems are assigned to both 2.14 and 2.140 students. Except where noted,
you are free to use Matlab or any other computational tools to aid your solutions. There are
no additional problems for 2.140 students. Note that Quiz 1 will be held in class on Wed.
3/12, and is closed-book, but you may bring one page of notes, which can be two-sided. Only
hand calculators may be used. Recognize that in Quiz 1, all requested plots will need to be
hand-sketches, so you should work these problems accordingly.
Problem 1 A unity-gain feedback loop is shown below; note that the plant has a pair of poles
located on the imaginary axis.
a) Sketch a root locus plot for K > 0.

b) Use a Bode plot of the return ratio L(s) to choose the controller gain K such that the loop
crossover frequency is 100 rad/sec. What gain K is required? What is the resulting phase
margin m ?
c) Make a Nyquist plot for this loop, which is accurately drawn in the region where m is defined.
Be sure to label the corresponding points on the diagram. Note that your Nyquist analysis
will require detours around the poles at j10. Please clearly show the portion of the Nyquist
contour corresponding to these detours.
d) Make a sketch of the closed-loop step response for your design.
Problem 2 A unity-gain feedback loop is shown below. The controller in this loop is a proportional gain K, but it is implemented on a computer which requires a delay time of T seconds
to produce the control output.
In all of this problem, assume that the time delay has a value of T = 10 msec.
1
a) Use a Bode plot of the return ratio L(s) to determine the maximum controller gain Kmax such
that for 0 < K < Kmax the loop is stable. For this maximal value of K = Kmax sketch a
Nyquist plot for the loop.
b) What value of K < Kmax will result in a stable loop with a phase margin of 20 ? What is the
resulting crossover frequency? What is the gain margin for this loop? For this value of K
sketch a Nyquist plot for the loop which shows this information.
Problem 3 A feedback loop for a linearized magnetic suspension is shown below with a controller
Gc (s). The position of the suspended object is Y , the control reference value is R, and there
is a disturbance D acting on the system.
In this problem, assume the controller takes the form

Gc (s) = K
10 s + 1
.
s + 1
a) Choose the values of K and such that the loop has a crossover frequency of 1000 rad/sec and
a phase margin which is maximized for this controller. Sketch a Nyquist plot which confirms
that the loop is stable.
b) For the value of K determined above, use Matlab to plot the response Y (t) to a unit step in
reference R(t). Also plot the response Y (t) to a unit step in disturbance D(t).
c) This magnetic suspension is open-loop unstable, and thus there is a minimum controller gain
K > Kmin required to stabilize the loop. Using the value of determined in part a), what
is the numerical value of Kmin at this marginally-stable condition? By what ratio can K
be reduced with respect to the nominal design of part a) to bring the loop to the brink of
instability? Note that this ratio can be defined as the gain-reduction margin, as distinguished
over the standard gain margin which is defined as an allowable gain-increase margin.
Problem 4 Archive Problem 11.1 Circuit Bode Plots. It is important to review how to solve
circuits for a particular transfer function. To solve for the requested transfer functions, use
series/parallel and voltage/current divider relationships with impedances representing each
circuit element. Sketch the indicated Bode plots by hand using the sketching rules presented
in the lecture and notes. Do not use Matlab to generate these plots.
Problem 6 FPE Problem 5.5 c,d
Problem 7 FPE Problem 5.7 c,d
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Assigned: Wed. March 12, 2014

Due:
Reading: Lecture notes on Operational Amplifiers
The following problems are assigned to both 2.14 and 2.140 students. The first two problems review some basic circuit calculations. The remainder concern operational amplifier
circuits, and studying the stability of these connections.
Problem 1 For the circuits shown below, calculate the equivalent resistance seen at the indicated
terminals, using the series and parallel resistance formulae.
Problem 2 The circuit shown below is driven by a current source It at the terminals B-B. The
resulting voltage across these terminals is defined as Vt .
a) What is the equivalent resistance Req seen at the terminals B-B ? Viewed another way, what is
the ratio Vt (t)/It (t) = Req ? The easiest way to solve this problem is to use series and parallel
equivalents.
b) Now we modify the circuit by removing the resistor R0 at terminals A-A, and replacing this
with the capacitor C shown in the figure below.
1
What is the equivalent impedance Zeq seen at the terminals B-B ? Viewed another way, what
is the ratio Vt (s)/It (s) = Zeq (s)? Note that here weve switched to the Laplace domain
and work in the more general concept of impedances, since the capacitor adds dynamics to
the system. The easiest way to solve this problem is to use series and parallel equivalent
impedances.
For this circuit, make a sketch of the Bode plot for the negative of the loop transmission L(s).
What are the loop crossover frequency and phase margin? Also, create a Nyquist plot for the
loop, and indicate the loop phase margin and gain margin on your plot. For what value of C
will the loop be marginally stable? (Note that there is a small typo: the variables C and C 0
refer to the same capacitor.)
This circuit can be used as an analog PI controller, for example in a closed-loop currentcontrolled power amplifier (see Problem G1 below). Calculate the transfer function Vo (s)/Vi (s),
under the assumption that the op amp has infinite gain. Use this transfer function to answer
the questions posed in this problem.
Problem 5 This problem considers the op amp circuit shown below
Here the resistors take values of R, R, and R, respectively. The resistors R set the ideal
gain of the circuit, which is 1. The resistor R can be used to detune the bandwidth of
the opamp loop when the amplifier dynamics are too hot for the circuit configuration. In
particular, like all real systems, op amps have additional high frequency dynamics which can
2
give bad stability in some circuits. To understand this, assume

a(s) =
5 107
.
s(107 s + 1)2
The additional pair of poles represent high-frequency dynamics in the internal opamp circuit.
a) First, we remove the resistor R by letting (infinite resistance is an open circuit).
For this configuration, calculate the loop crossover frequency and phase margin. Use Matlab
to plot the unit step response of the circuit. You should find that this system is unstable.
Compare the ring frequency of the unstable step response signal with the natural frequency
of the closed loop dominant pole pair and with the loop crossover frequency. You should see
that n c . (When making ring frequency measurements on the step response, be sure to
convert from Hz to rad/sec.)
b) Conduct a Nyquist analysis for the loop in part a), which should indicate the loop instability.
Be sure to clearly show the number of encirclements, and resulting number of right half plane
closed-loop poles. Indicate the loop phase margin (negative) and gain margin (less than one)
on the Nyquist plot.
c) Draw a root locus plot for the loop of part a). Indicate the closed-loop root locations for the
nominal design with .
d) Now pick a value of which results in a loop phase margin m = 45 . For this value of , what
is the loop crossover frequency c ? Use Matlab to plot the unit step response of this detuned
circuit. Compare the natural frequency of the closed loop dominant pole pair with the loop
crossover frequency.
e) Conduct a Nyquist analysis for the loop in part d), which should indicate the loop stability.
Indicate the loop phase margin and gain margin on the Nyquist plot.
f ) Draw a root locus plot indicating where the closed-loop poles are located for the value of from
part d).
Problem G1 In the lab you will see power amplifiers used to control the voltage on a load such as
a voice coil or motor. In practice, it is also common to use power amplifiers in a feedback loop
to control the current through a load. This problem investigates the design of such currentcontrolled amplifier configurations. In the circuit shown below, the load is represented by
a coil with inductance Lc and resistance Rc . The load current ic is supplied by the power
amplifier A2. The current is measured by passing it through the sense resistor Rs ; the
voltage Vf is then proportional to the load current. Thus if Vf is kept at a desired level, the
load current can be regulated. The buffer amplifier A3 is used to avoid loading the main coil
circuit; that is, current i2 is supplied by amplifier A3. The control amplifier A1 is used to
compare the reference voltage Vr with the feedback voltage Vb , and then to add dynamics to
the loop via R3 and C. That is, amplifier A1 is the compensation for the current feedback
loop. Note that all the op amps are modeled as having infinite gain. All voltages labeled on
the circuit are with respect to circuit ground.
a) The current feedback loop may be represented in the form of the block diagram shown below.
Develop expressions for each of the transfer functions in the blocks of this block diagram, and
fill them in on your own version of the block diagram. Carefully note the system variables
already shown on the block diagram, and fill in the transfer functions appropriately.
b) Suppose the input Vr has the constant value Vr = V0 . What is the steady-state load current iC
for this constant reference input? Explain your results.
c) Now let the parameters take the values R1 = R2 = R4 = 10 k, R5 = 50 k, Rs = 1 ,
Lc = 100 mH, and Rc = 10 . Chose the values of R3 and C such that the closed-loop
system poles have a natural frequency of n = 1000 rad/sec and a damping ratio of = 0.4.
d) Make a sketch of the Bode plot for the negative of the loop transmission L(s). What are the
loop crossover frequency and phase margin? How do these relate to the closed-loop natural
frequency and damping ratio from part c)?
e) For these parameter values, let the input be a negative unit step Vr = us (t). Make a graph of
the response in current iC (t).
MIT OpenCourseWare
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Spring 2014
Assigned: Wed. Mar. 19, 2014

Due:
Wed. April 2, 2014, in class
Reading: Lecture notes on Operational Amplifiers; section from Chapter 2 of Operational Amplifiers
which describes static nonlinearities in feedback loops.
The full text Operational Amplifiers can be found online at:

http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-6-010-electronic-feedback-systems-spring-2013/.
Video lectures by Prof. Roberge can be found at this same location. In particular, for this problem
set, video lecture 2 may be helpful to understand the effect of feedback on nonlinearities. There
is also a video course manual with blackboards for all the lectures along with solutions to selected
problems from the text.
Problem 1 The circuit shown below implements a first-order all-pass filter. Note that we assume
an infinite gain model for the op-amp.
The term all-pass is used because the circuit response magnitude is unity for all frequencies.
a) Show that the circuit transfer function is
Vo
RCs 1
(s) =
.
Vi
RCs + 1
Note the non-minimum phase (RHP) zero.
b) Make a hand sketch of the Bode plot for this filter. You should see that the phase varies from
+180 at DC to 0 at high frequencies.
c) This circuit can be used as an adjustable phase shifter where R is a variable resistor used to set
the phase. Let C = 0.1F. What value of R will set the phase equal to +90 at a frequency
of 1000 rad/sec?
1
Problem 2 This problem considers a feedback loop with a static nonlinearity as shown below
The nonlinear element has an input/output characteristic given by
The example from Chapter 2 of the Roberge textbook will be helpful in understanding this
problem.
a) Assume that the input Vi takes the form of a unit ramp Vi (t) = t. Calculate and sketch the
resulting waveforms vA (t) and vB (t). These will be piecewise linear waveforms. Be sure to
clearly label the relevant breakpoints. Also label the slope of each line segment.
Problem 3 In the loop shown below, the differential amplifier drives an RC low-pass filter. The
output of the filter is fed back through a unity-gain buffer. Note that we assume an infinite
gain model for both of the op amps in this loop.
a) Draw a block diagram which includes Vi , va , vo , and Vf , and where the blocks have expressions in
terms of the system parameters. Solve for the transfer functions vo (s)/Vi (s) and va (s)/Vi (s).
b) Let R1 = 1k, R2 = 100k, R = 10k, and C = 1 F. Also let the input be a unit step
Vi = us (t). Calculate analytically and plot the closed-loop step responses va (t) and vo (t).
Problem 4 The system shown below is a micropositioner, in which a stage guided by flexural legs
moves in the x direction as driven by the force from a voice coil actuator.
The combined moving mass of the stage and voice coil is m. The flexural legs have a spring
stiffness k. The actuator is assumed ideal, with a force constant K, and thus the actuator
force is F = Ki, and e = K x.
The actuator is driven by a power amplifier with a gain of 3,
through a series resistor R.
a) Draw a block diagram which includes the signals Vi , va , e, i, x, and x.
b) Use this block diagram to solve for the transfer function X(s)/Vi (s) in terms of the system
variables.
c) Assume the system parameters take the following values: K = 10 N/A, R = 10 , k = 107 N/m,
and m = 0.1 kg. Calculate the numerical values of the transfer function X(s)/Vi (s).
d) Let the input Vi take a 1 Volt step, i.e. Vi (t) = 1us (t) V. Use Matlab to calculate and plot the
output step response. What are the system natural frequency and damping ratio?
e) Calculate and plot the system Bode plot for X(s)/Vi (s).
f ) We now design a closed-loop controller for this system of the form
Here, position is measured with a capacitive position sensor, with a gain of 3 V/m. Choose
the value of Go which allows a gain margin of 2. What is the corresponding crossover frequency and phase margin? Construct a Nyquist plot which shows these values. For this
controller, also use Matlab to make a plot of the sensitivity S = (1 L.T.)1 .
g) Because the resonance is so lightly damped, the system closed-loop bandwidth determined above
is quite limited. However, it is possible to phase-stabilize this loop by adding an additional
high-frequency pole. That is, we do not require that the loop transmission remain below unity
magnitude in the vicinity of the resonance if the loop phase is such that the corresponding
loop in the Nyquist plot does not encircle the 1 point. As a way to understand this, assume
we add a compensator pole to the loop. That is, let the compensator become Go /s( s + 1).
For the present analysis, let = 5/n , where n is the plant natural frequency. What is the
largest value of G0 for which the sensitivity curve does not exceed a peak value of 10 dB?
(You can use Matlab to help find this value.) Make a Bode plot of the negative of the loop
transmission L(j), the sensitivity S(j), and also make a Nyquist plot showing how the
1 point is avoided. How many crossings of unity gain are there in the loop transmission?
Compare the accuracy of command following for this phase-stabilized loop with the pure
integral compensated loop from part f). (Hint: the sensitivity curve tells this story.)
Problem G1 The OP77 data sheet is available separately from the course web page. In particular,
the device transfer function a(s) is shown in Bode plot form in Figure 10 on page 8 of the
data sheet. For this problem, assume we connect the OP77 as a unity gain buffer.
a) Consider a model of the form
a(s) =
G0
esT
( s + 1)
where the esT term is a time delay used to model the excess high-frequency phase. What
values of G0 , , and T allow the best fit to the data sheet Bode plot?
b) For the unity-gain buffer configuration, using this model, what are the loop crossover and phase
margin?
c) Use Matlab to simulate the closed-loop step response for this configuration. How is this time
response consistent with the loop crossover and phase margin?
Problem G2 This problem considers the AC-coupled feedback loop shown below.
The loop is referred to as AC-coupled since it has zero gain at DC, due to the zeros at s = 0.
5
a) Sketch a root locus for K > 0. Be sure to indicate key values on the locus, and accurately show
departure and arrival angles.
b) For the remainder of the problem assume that K = 1. Make a carefully-dimensioned sketch of
the Bode plot of the return ratio.
c) Conduct a Nyquist analysis which indicates whether the loop is stable for the value of K = 1.
How does this analysis correlate with your root locus from part a)?
MIT OpenCourseWare
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Spring 2014
Assigned: Fri. Apr. 4, 2014

Due:
Reading: Section 3.5 of Roberges Operational Amplifiers, attached to this problem set.
This excerpt catalogs relationships for time- and frequency-domain parameters.
Problem 1 The circuit shown below is adapted from the Lab 5 circuit to include a resistor Rf
which allows adding a zero to the loop transfer function L(s). This allows independent adjustment of the loop crossover frequency and phase margin. Note that we assume an infinite
gain model for the op-amp. Also, as before we assume that Rs << Ra and thus that ia 0.
a) Draw a block diagram which includes Vi , Vo , Vf , ii , if , and ia . The entries in the various blocks
should be given in terms of the system parameters.
b) Use the block diagram to write an expression for the loop return ratio L(s) for the current
control loop. Draw a pole zero-diagram for L(s) with the singularity locations labeled in
terms of the system parameters.
For the remainder of this problem, assume that Ra = 1 k, Rs = 100 , RL = 100 , and
L = 50 mH.
c) Choose Ri to set the DC gain such that iL = 1 mA/V Vi .
d) Choose Rf and Cf to set the loop crossover at c = 104 rad/sec with phase margin m = 45 .
Show your reasoning; you should be able to do this design with hand calculations. Use Matlab
to create a Bode plot of L(s) which shows c and m for your chosen design values.
e) Use Matlab to compute the transfer functions Vo (s)/Vi (s) and Vf (s)/Vi (s). For this purpose,
use of the series and feedback commands will be helpful. Create Bode plots for these
two transfer functions and explain the asymptotic magnitude characteristics in terms of the
transfer function poles and zeros.
f ) For the input-output transfer function Vf /Vi Bode plot, what is the -3 dB frequency h ? (See
Roberge Figure 3.17) What is the frequency response peaking ratio Mp ? At what frequency
1
p does this occur? What are the closed-loop damping ratio and natural frequency n
of the dominant pair in Vf /Vi ? How do these values compare with those predicted via the
approximations m /100 and n c ?
g) Let Vi (t) = us (t), a unit step. Use Matlab to compute Vo (t) and Vf (t) assuming zero initial
conditions. Explain the character of the two responses in terms of the poles and zeros of
the respective transfer functions. With respect to the response Vf (t) what is the 1090%
rise time tr ? (See Roberge Figure 3.17). What is the ratiometric peak overshoot P0 ? What
rise time would be predicted from tr = 2.2/h (Roberge equation 3.57) on the basis of h
determined in part e) above? How does this compare with the actual step response rise time?
The relationship tr = 2.2/h is extremely useful.
Problem 2 This problem considers a one degree of freedom magnetic levitation system using a
Lorentz actuator as shown below
In this figure, the motion of the levitated mass is given by xs relative to inertial space. The
supporting base which carries the magnet structure moves relative to inertial space as xb . This
base motion can be used to model floor vibration, which is important to consider in precision
applications. We assume no gravity in this problem. The objective of the levitation system
is to control xS to follow a desired trajectory without interference from base vibrations. In
this problem, we consider the effect of using voltage- or current-control for the actuator drive
relative to the effect of base vibrations.
The Lorentz actuator is considered to be ideal, and thus to have no inductance or resistance,
with coil current i and back emf voltage e. The actuator is driven by a voltage source Vi
through a series resistance R. The coupled electromechanical system can be represented as
shown below
a) Voltage Drive Draw a block diagram which includes Vi , i, e, F , xs , x s , x

s and xb .
2
Use this block diagram to calculate the transfer function Xs (s)/Xb (s) in terms of the system
parameters. You may assume Vi = 0 to aid in block diagram reduction, but note that this is
not strictly necessary, given that the system model is linear.
On the basis of this transfer function, what equivalent mechanical element is connected between the base and the levitated mass? How does this result in transmission of base vibration
into the levitated mass?
Hand sketch a Bode plot for Xs (s)/Xb (s) with values labeled in terms of the system parameters. Indicate how the base vibration transmission is shown in the Bode plot.
b) Current Drive We now close a current control loop on the coil by driving Vi on the basis of
measurement of coil current i. In this context, we assume that i is directly measured, and
that Vi is a dependent voltage source whose value is set by the current controller, i.e., a power
amplifier. In this simple model, we will assume that the coil has no inductance, and thus that
the current can be controlled by a pure integral controller Gc (s) = g0 /s. Draw a modified
block diagram which includes the same signals as in part a), but adds the current reference
ir , current error ie , and controller transfer function Gc (s) = g0 /s.
c) We will assume that g0 is large enough that the current-loop dynamics are very fast relative to
the mechanical subsystem dynamics. Under this assumption, we assert that the current loop
can be designed with the mass motion set to zero, xs = 0. Calculate the open loop plant
transfer function I(s)/Vi (s), and determine its high-frequency asymptotic behavior. Sketch
a Bode plot and show the high-frequency region.
Use this high-frequency model to write an approximate expression for the current-loop crossover
frequency and phase margin as they depend upon g0 , and thus argue that the current loop
will be stable for this controller and for a wide range of gains g0 .
d) Use your modified block diagram to calculate the transfer function Xs (s)/Xb (s) in terms of the
system parameters with the current control loop active. You may assume ir = 0 to aid in
block diagram reduction, but note that this is not strictly necessary, given that the system
model is linear.
On the basis of this transfer function, what equivalent mechanical element is connected between the base and the levitated mass? How does this this element vary with current loop
gain g0 ?
Hand sketch a Bode plot for Xs (s)/Xb (s) with values labeled in terms of the system parameters, and with several overlaid plots for varying g0 . How does the current loop bandwidth
affect the ability of base vibrations to affect the levitated platform motion xs ?
92
Linear System Response
quency scale in Fig. 3.14a. These factors are combined to yield the Bode
plot for the complete transfer function in Fig. 3.14b. The same information
is presented in gain-phase form in Fig. 3.15.
3.5
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TRANSIENT RESPONSE

AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE
It is clear that either the impulse response (or the response to any other
transient input) of a linear system or its frequency response completely
characterize the system. In many cases experimental measurements on a
closed-loop system are most easily made by applying a transient input.
We may, however, be interested in certain aspects of the frequency response
of the system such as its bandwidth defined as the frequency where its gain
drops to 0.707 of the midfrequency value.
Since either the transient response or the frequency response completely
characterize the system, it should be possible to determine performance in
one domain from measurements made in the other. Unfortunately, since
the measured transient response does not provide an equation for this
response, Laplace techniques cannot be used directly unless the time response is first approximated analytically as a function of time. This section
lists several approximate relationships between transient response and frequency response that can be used to estimate one performance measure
from the other. The approximations are based on the properties of firstand second-order systems.
It is assumed that the feedback path for the system under study is frequency independent and has a magnitude of unity. A system with a frequency-independent feedback path fo can be manipulated as shown in Fig.
3.16 to yield a scaled, unity-feedback system. The approximations given
are valid for the transfer function Va!/Vi, and V, can be determined by
scaling values for V0 by 1/fo.
It is also assumed that the magnitude of the d-c loop transmission is very
large so that the closed-loop gain is nearly one at d-c. It is further assumed
that the singularity closest to the origin in the s plane is either a pole or a
complex pair of poles, and that the number of poles of the function exceeds
the number of zeros. If these assumptions are satisfied, many practical
systems have time domain-frequency domain relationships similar to those
of first- or second-order systems.
The parameters we shall use to describe the transient response and the
frequency response of a system include the following.
(a) Rise time t,. The time required for the step response to go from 10
to 90 % of final value.
108
107
106
105
104
103
102 -
10 -
0.1
-270*
Figure 3.15
-18 0o
Gain phase plot of
-90*
107(10- 4 s + 1)
s(O.1s + 1)(s 2 /101 2 + 2(0.2)s/10
1)'
93
94
Linear System Response
vo
a(s>
10
(a)
sff
V.a
(b)
Figure 3.16
System topology for approximate relationships. (a) System with
frequency-independent feedback path. (b) System represented in scaled, unity-
feedback form.
(b) The maximum value of the step response P 0 .

(c) The time at which Po occurs t,.
(d) Settling time t,. The time after which the system step response remains within 2 % of final value.
(e) The error coefficient ei. (See Section 3.6.) This coefficient is equal
to the time delay between the output and the input when the system has
reached steady-state conditions with a ramp as its input.
2
(f) The bandwidth in radians per second wh or hertz fh (fh = Wch/ r).
The frequency at which the response of the system is 0.707 of its lowfrequency value.
(g) The maximum magnitude of the frequency response M,.
(h) The frequency at which M, occurs w,.
These definitions are illustrated in Fig. 3.17.
Relationships Between Transient Response and Frequency Response
95
For a first-order system with V(s)/Vi(s) = l/(rs + 1), the relationships

are
2.2 = 0.35
(3.51)
t,.=2.2T
(351
fh
Wh
(3.52)
PO = M,= 1
oo
(3.53)
ta = 4r
(3.54)
ei = r
(3.55)
W, = 0
(3.56)
t, =
2
For a second-order system with V,(s)/Vi(s) = 1/(s /,,
+ 2 s/w, + 1)
and 6 A cos-'r (see Fig. 3.7) the relationships are
P0
t7
2.2
0.35
Wh
fh
1 + exp
Wn
V1
#1-2
Wn
M,
, = co
Wh =
1 + e-sane
(3.58)
(3.59)
~on sin6
=(3.60)
(3.61)
=2 cos
(on
4
t,
cos
i=
(357
< 0.707, 6 > 45'
sI
sin 20
1_2
V1
2 =
fn(l-22
w,
N2
V-cos 26
-4
2+
< 0.707, 6 > 450
(3.62)
(3.63)
) 12(3.64)
If a system step response or frequency response is similar to that of an
approximating system (see Figs. 3.6, 3.8, 3.11, and 3.12) measurements of
tr, Po, and t, permit estimation of wh, w,, and M, or vice versa. The steadystate error in response to a unit ramp can be estimated from either set of
measurements.
vo(t)
P0
1
0.9
0.1
ts
tp
tr
t:
(a)
Vit
Vi (jco)
1
0.707
- -- -- -- - --
01
---
C
(b)
vt
V0 (tW
e1
t:
(c)
Figure 3.17 Parameters used to describe transient and frequency responses.

(a) Unit-step response. (b) Frequency response. (c) Ramp response.
96
Error Coefficients
97
One final comment concerning the quality of the relationship between

0.707 bandwidth and 10 to 90% step risetime (Eqns. 3.51 and 3.57) is in
order. For virtually any system that satisfies the original assumptions, independent of the order or relative stability of the system, the product trfh
is within a few percent of 0.35. This relationship is so accurate that it really
isn't worth measuringfh if the step response can be more easily determined.
3.6
ERROR COEFFICIENTS
The response of a linear system to certain types of transient inputs may

be difficult or impossible to determine by Laplace techniques, either because the transform of the transient is cumbersome to evaluate or because
the transient violates the conditions necessary for its transform to exist.
For example, consider the angle that a radar antenna makes with a fixed
reference while tracking an aircraft, as shown in Fig. 3.18. The pointing
angle determined from the geometry is
= tan-'
(3.65)
Line of flight
Aircraft
velocity = v
Radar
antenna ,0
Length = I
Figure 3.18
Radar antenna tracking an airplane.
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Spring 2014
Assigned: Wed. Apr. 9, 2014

Due:
Reading: FPE Sections 7.17.4
Problem 1 This problem revisits the current control circuit from Problem 1 of Problem Set 8. As
before we assume that Rs << Ra and thus that ia << iL .
V_c
a) Write a state-space model for the circuit in terms of state vector x = [Vc iL ], with input Vi and
outputs Vo and Vf . Note that Vc is defined as the capacitor voltage as shown in the figure.
This state-space model should be expressed in terms of the system variables, without any
numerical values.
b) Now use the numerical values as determined in Problem 1 of Problem Set 8, and enter the statevariable model into Matlab. Compute the eigenvalues of the system, and thus the closed-loop
poles. Are these consistent with the crossover frequency and phase margin that was designed
in Problem Set 8?
c) Use Matlab commands to compute the step responses from input Vi (t) = us (t) to outputs Vo (t)
and Vf (t), assuming zero initial conditions.
d) Use Matlab commands to compute the transfer functions Vo (s)/Vi (s) and Vf (s)/Vi (s), and to
plot their respective Bode plots.
Problem 2 This problem revisits the one degree of freedom magnetic levitation system from Problem 2 of Problem Set 8.
For all of this problem, we assume that we close a current control loop on the coil by driving Vi on the basis of measurement of coil current i. In this context, we assume that i is
directly measured, and that Vi is a dependent voltage source whose value is set by the current controller, i.e., a power amplifier. In this simple model, we will assume that the coil
has no inductance, and thus that the current can be controlled by a pure integral controller
Gc (s) = g0 /s.
a) Write a state-space model for this system in terms of state variable x = [xs x s Vi ]. Note that
we have selected Vi as a state since it is the output of the integral controller. This state-space
model will have inputs ir and xb . For the floor vibration, you may assume that you have the
signals xb , x b , and x
b available as inputs. Which of these do you need to use in your state
model? Also, set up your state model to have outputs i and xs .
b) Now assume that the levitation system parameters take the numerical values m = 2 kg, K =
5 N/A, and R = 8 . For these values, and again assuming that the electrical current loop
2
bandwidth is much larger than the mechanical dynamics, choose a value of g0 such that the
current loop crosses over at c = 104 rad/sec. What is the resulting current loop phase
margin m ?
c) For your value of g0 chosen above, enter the state-space model into Matlab, and use Matlab
commands to generate the step responses from the two inputs to the two outputs. That is,
you will generate four step responses, two for the input ir taking a step while xb = 0, and
two for the input xb taking a step while ir = 0.
Problem 3 FPE 7.2
Problem 4 FPE 7.6
Problem 5 FPE 7.18
Problem G1 FPE 7.19

Problem G2 FPE 7.20
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Spring 2014

Due:
Problem 1 FPE 8.1
Problem 2 FPE 8.2
Problem 3 FPE 8.5
Problem 4 FPE 8.6
Problem G1 FPE 8.8
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Spring 2014

Due:
Problem 1: FPE 8.7 For this problem, in part a), calculate by hand the requested magnitude
expression |H(z1 )| where z1 = ej1 T , and 1 = 3 rad/sec. (The problem statement omits the
subscript 1 in the rst sentence.) In part b), you may use Matlab to generate the requested
Bode plots. How do these compare to what you would expect from the continuous-time
system?
Problem 2: This problem considers designing a continuous-time controller for a single-axis mag
netic levitation device. This controller is then mapped into an approximating discrete-time
controller.
The plant to be controlled is a mass driven by a voice-coil actuator. Assume that this plant
has a transfer function
Gp (s) = 1000/s2
a) For this plant, design a continuous-time PID controller using the series-lag-lead form
Gc (s) = Kp 1 +
1
TI s
s + 1
s + 1
to achieve a crossover frequency of c = 1000 rad/sec, with a phase margin of m = 45 .

Your continuous-time design is to meet specications for the specied continuous time plant,
with no consideration of the later sampling operation when implemented as a discrete-time
approximation. You should be able to accomplish this design using hand-calculations and
Bode plot sketches. Clearly show your design eort. Indicate the loop crossover frequency,
phase margin and gain margin.
b) Now map this controller to discrete-time using the Tustin transformation, and assuming a
sample rate of 6 kHz. We recommend using the operator notation introduced in class to
aid in this step. Show your hand calculations that give the discrete-time controller. We
recommend that you discretize the three terms of the PID controller separately: 1) gain, 2)
lag, 3) lead. This will be easier than discretizing the full second-order controller. Give a
block diagram for the discrete-time controller showing the transfer functions in this block
diagram. What are the resulting dierence equations for each element? Carefully show your
design approach and calculations. (For the purposes of this problem, do the approximations
by hand, rather than directly using Matlab to generate the transformations.)
c) Use Matlab/Simulink to simulate the step response of your closed-loop system with i) the
continuous-time PID controller, and ii) the approximating discrete-time controller which you
designed. Please include plots of the control signal (plant input) and the plant output for
each case. How do these responses compare?
Note that you will need to choose the integration solver routines and sample times in Simulink
to properly simulate the continuous-time loop. That is, dont use a xed-step solver with 6 kHz
1
in Simulink when you want to simulate the continuous-time loop. If these considerations are
unfamiliar, please consult any of the online Simulink tutorials to understand the solvers and
time-steps used to simulate continous-time and mixed discrete-time/continuous-time systems.
In your Simulink simulations, reduce the discrete-time sample rate from 6 kHz, and comment
on the eect of longer sample times in the resulting signals. Include relevant plots to show
these eects. At about what reduced sample rate does the system go unstable?
Recognize that you can implement the Simlink model block diagram in the series lag lead
form, replacing each block with its discrete equivalent.
When we ask you to simulate the continuous-time loop, this should be done with the continuoustime controller. When we ask you to simulate the discrete-time loop, use discrete-time transfer
functions in Simulink, and input the dierence equation parameters that you calculate when
discretizing.
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Spring 2014
2.14/2.140 Final Design Problem
Assigned: April 28, 2014

Due:
week of May 12, 2014, at checkoffs
Overview
This problem considers the control of a fast tool servo (FTS), and is based upon the work done by
Xiaodong Lu in his Ph.D. thesis. A copy of this thesis is available on the course web page. The
design problem focuses on:
High-bandwidth current controller for driving the actuator.
Identification of the electromechanical plant dynamics from a measured Bode plot.
Design of a controller to minimize following error for a sinusoidal reference trajectory, in the
presence of sensor noise.
(2.140 students only) Design of an add-on Adaptive Feedforward Cancellation (AFC) control block at the reference trajectory frequency in order to eliminate following error at that
frequency.
We do not give you exact specifications for the servo performance. Rather, you are to apply your
best effort to get good performance. The measure of perfomance in this problem is reduction of
the following error due to the reference trajectory and to sensor noise.
The problem starts with designing the controller for the current loop, and then moves on to design
of the FTS position controller.
Current control loop
The current control loop circuit is shown in Figure 1. The circuit includes the back emf voltage
from the actuator as a dependent source. The force supplied by the actuator is F = Kf ic , and the
corresponding back emf voltage is Vbemf = Kf x.
A simple model of the electromechanical system
of the FTS is shown in Figure 2, with the actuator force F applied to the mass m1 .
In this problem, assume the following component values: Rc = 4 , Lc = 2104 H, Kf = 20 N/A.
In designing the current controllers for power amplifiers, it is typical to neglect the actuator back
emf in the current loop dynamics. (The back emf is quite important in modeling nonlinear issues
such as amplifier saturation, but we do not consider that issue in this problem.) We ask you in this
section to show that the back emf can be ignored, and then to design a current loop controller on
that basis.
Calculate the plant transfer function for the current loop with the back emf voltage included.
Note that in this model, the FTS mechanical dynamics will be reflected into the electrical
transfer function.
Calculate the plant transfer function for the current loop with the back emf voltage assumed
equal to zero. Under this assumption, the FTS mechanical dynamics will have no effect on
the electrical transfer function.
Show that for high frequencies, both transfer functions are equal. Explain physically why this
is the case.
On this basis, recognize that you can design the current control loop assuming the back emf
voltage is zero.
Design the current control loop such that the crossover frequency is c = 6105 rad/sec, with
a phase margin m 60 . We also require that an input voltage of Vset = 10 V will result
in a steady-state coil current of ic = 5 A. That is, the current drive has an input/output DC
gain of Ga ic /Vset |DC = 0.5 A/V. For these design specifications, what are the resulting
values of R2 , R3 , C1 , and C2 ? Note that R1 is given as 10 k. Further note, as shown on
the schematic, that we assume that no current enters the input resistors of the differential
amplifier, since these resistors are large compared with the 0.2 sense resistor.
Provide a Bode plot for the loop return ratio showing the crossover frequency and phase
margin.
Actuator model
The actuator conceptual model is shown in Figure 2. Here, the actuator force F = Kf ic acts on a
spring/mass/damper system representing the moving components of the fast tool servo.
A block diagram for the plant dynamics is given in Figure 3. Position x is measured with a
capacitance probe with a gain of G1 = 5 105 V/m. The sensor has an associated noise voltage
Vn .
From this point on in the problem, we assume that the current drive dynamics are so fast that
there is a static gain coefficient Ga A/V which relates Vset and ic . That is, we now assume that
there are no dynamics associated with the current drive. This is shown on the block diagram where
ic depends statically upon Vset via the gain Ga .
Plant measured Bode plot
The measured plant Bode plot is shown in Figure 4. As we see from the Bode plot, the plant
dynamics are more complicated than would be expected from the simple model of Figure 2. The
lowest mode in the Bode plot is due to the spring/mass/damper system, but there are higher
frequency modes and a time delay.
This Bode plot and associated data files for magnitude and phase are available on the course web
page in the .zip file GpPlantFrequencyData.zip. Use these data files as part of your model bulding
process. In the data file, we have included a .mat file for entry into Matlab. This file includes the
column vectors Gpmag, which is the magnitude of Gp (j) in straight magnitude units, Gpphase,
which is the phase of Gp (j) in degrees, and ww, which is the associated frequency vector in rad/sec.
On the basis of the low-frequency dynamics and first mode, what are the values of m1 , b1 ,
and k1 ?
Fit a dynamical model to the measured Bode plot. Provide a pole-zero plot for your model,
and show a Bode plot of your model frequency response overlaid on the measured frequency
response. (In extracting data from the Matlab bode command, you will notice extra dimensions, which can be eliminated with the squeeze command.)
You will use this model to design your controller in the following section.
Controller Design
The control loop configuration is shown in Figure 5. The controller configuration is shown in
Figure 6. Here, the integrator is explicitly shown, and transfer function Cls (s) is a loop shaping
controller of your design.
Throughout this problem, we assume
xref = 105 sin 3000t [m].
We also assume throughout that
Vn = 5 102 sin 105 t [V].
Design a controller with as good performance as you can achieve. The controller must minimize the following error xe due to the reference trajectory and the sensor noise.
You must show us Bode, Nyquist, and Sensitivity plots for your FTS controller design. Of
course, the loop must be stable! Also, the Sensitivity magnitude plot must be under +10 dB
for all frequencies. These plots are for the loop broken at the plant input Vset .
3
Also provide time-domain plots of the position error xe (t). What is the magnitude of the
error due to the reference trajectory xref (t)? What is the magnitude of the error due to the
sensor noise Vn (t)? How have you addressed minimizing these errors in your loop design?
Also, you must run a live simulation on Matlab during checkoffs to answer questions about
the loop. Thus, you will need to have a Matlab-based model of the FTS position control loop
running at your checkoff, so that we can ask you questions about its performance. Please
come to lab in advance of your checkoff in order to have time to get your model running
before the checkoff starts.
A template in the form of an m-file (Template.m) has been posted on Stellar. You are required
to use this template to present your design during the check-offs on Monday, May 12, and
Tuesday, May 13. A checkoff signup sheet will be posted in advance of checkoffs. To use the
template, download a copy of it from Stellar. Please read the instructions provided below as
well as the comments within the m-file on how to use the template.
Within the template, we have defined the parameters values given in the problem set, such
as LC and Rc. The controller and plant transfer functions, which need to be designed and
identified by you, have been declared as blank ( [] in MATLAB). You must initialize these
transfer functions by adding your own code to the m-file. Once you have initialized the
transfer functions, all of the plots required for the check-off can be generated by running the
Template.m file. You can add your design code to this file. It is important that you use the
exact same variable names declared within the template. You are allowed to declare your
own variables but do not overwrite any variables already in use by the template. Please test
your code on either your own laptop or the lab computers ahead of time and confirm that it
runs correctly before your check-off.
For 2.140 students, you will need to document your design as it works without the AFC, and
then document with AFC. For this purpose, please prepare two models from the template
file, or provide some means to switch between models so that we can see the effect of using
or not using AFC.
Your design project grade will depend upon your checkoff results, and upon our evaluation
of the quality of your design efforts. Please prepare a lab report detailing your design work,
and showing how you went about optimizing the design for the given specifications. Include
relevant calculations, data, and plots.
AFC Controller Design (2.140 students only)
This section is only to be completed by 2.140 students.

In order to eliminate steady-state following error, we can add an Adaptive Feedforward Cancellation
control block. A reference for the design of this type of controller is given in the Ph.D. thesis of
Xiaodong Lu, which is available on the course web page. In particular, look at section 7.3 of Lus
thesis. The controller you will implement will use only one AFC block, in the topology shown in
Figure 712b of the thesis. The controller configuration with a single AFC control block is shown
in Figure 7.
4
Figure 1: Current loop circuit.

Here, the transfer function A1 (s) is a resonator with a natural frequency chosen to match the input
position reference frequency of 3000 rad/sec. That is,
A1 (s) =
K1 s
,
+ 12
s2
where K1 is an AFC gain to be chosen for adequate stability, and 1 = 3000 sets the resonator to
lie at the reference trajectory frequency.
Design the AFC-based controller, and show that the following error at 3000 rad/sec is eliminated. Show plots of the loop Bode, Nyquist and sensitivity curves. The sensitivity must
remain below +10 dB for all frequencies. All these plots should be for the loop broken at the
plant input Vset .
Make a Bode plot of your controller including AFC; you should see that the controller gain
is infinite at the resonant frequency.
The approach given in section 7.3.3 of Lus thesis, and in particular the design rule on page
244 will help you with this design task. Explore the rate of error convergence as K1 is varied;
how does K1 affect convergence? What is the upper limit of K1 for loop stability?
Figure 2: Model of actuator driving fast tool servo.
Figure 3: Block diagram of fast tool servo with current setpoint input Vset , sensor noise input
Vn , position output x, and sensor output voltage Vsense . Plant dynamics including flexibility are
represented in Gp (s).
Bode plot for FTS plant transfer function Gp(jw)

60
80
Magnitude (dB)
100
120
140
160
180
0
90
180
Phase (deg)
270
360
450
540
630
720
810
900
2
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Figure 4: Experimentally-measured plant transfer function for Gp (j). This plot and associated
data files for magnitude and phase are available on the course web page.
Figure 5: Control loop configuration.
Figure 6: Controller configuration with isolated integrator.
Figure 7: Controller configuration with isolated integrator and a single AFC controller block.
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Instruction for Dynamic Signal Analyzer (DSA)

1. Make your closed loop system stable by implementing controller, such as P or PI, and wait until
it settles down to steady state (Fig.1).
Figure 1 Closed loop system stabilized with proportional control
2. Go to the Dynamic Signal Analyzer tab (Fig. 2) and fill out specifications.
Figure 2 Dynamic Signal Analyzer tab
Dynamic Signal Analyzer (blue circle in Fig. 3) can measure frequency response of a system that
you are interested in experimentally. It generates one output signal (SRC) to excite the loop, and
takes two input signals (CH1 and CH2) to measure frequency response of a system between the
two channels. DSA compares CH1 and CH2 signals to calculate magnitude ratio and phase
difference between them, which tells you the frequency response of a system between two
channels.
Figure 3 - DSA implemented in the Block Diagram
SRC can be injected into the loop through any summing junctions; in this particular lab, we are
injecting it through a summing junction for reference and feedback signals (the left most red circle
in Fig. 3). And we are tapping two signals from CH1 and CH2 to measure frequency response
between the two channels. For example, if you want to measure frequency response of thermal
plant (Tout/Vin), you can wire control effort signal to CH1 and temperature signal to CH2 (other red
circles in Fig. 3). If you want to measure loop return ratio (Tout/E), then you can wire error signal
to CH1 and temperature signal to CH2.
Frequency Range
We recommend use 0.1 Hz for initial frequency, 1 Hz
for final frequency, and 10 for number of bins. If you
want, you can put more bin numbers and wider
frequency range, which will give you finer result but
take more time.
Figure 4 - Specification of DSA
Amplitude
For linear system, its frequency response does not
change with respect to sinusoid amplitude. However,
2
you cannot put too large value because it could saturate the actuator, which makes the whole
system nonlinear. Also, you might not want to put too small value because that leads to poor
signal to noise ratio.
Cycles
To measure frequency response of a system, it needs to be in steady state, so DSA spends several
settling cycles to get to steady state. After that, DSA takes several cycles to calculate averaged
value.
CH1 and CH2 Offset
We recommend you subtract DC offset manually from CH1 and CH2 signals to get better result.
(Typical DSA do that automatically, but current version of LabVIEW DSA does not have that
functionality)
3. Now, hit the RUN button!! Then you can see a pop-up window as below.
Figure 5 Identification Window of DSA
4. Once it finishes the analysis, you can right click each plot to export data to excel.
Figure 6 - Export data to Excel
5. Import the data to MATLAB to design the controller by loop shaping. Please refer to
LoopShaping.m example file for the next steps.
Appendix A: Troubleshooting if your dont see a pop-up window

1) If you have trouble seeing the pop-up window, its possible that your computer is blocking the
server that opens up this VI. You can resolve this by going to Tools >> Options (Figure A-1)
Figure A-1: Options menu
2) Under Categories on the left-hand side, select VI server. Make sure TCP/IP box is checked
(Figure A-2)
Figure A-2: Configuring VI Server
3) Scroll down the menu to Machine Access. Type an asterisk (*) in the Machine name/address
box (see blue circle in Figure A-3), make sure Allow access is chosen, then press the Add
button (see yellow circle in Figure A-3). Do the same thing for Exported VIs. You should see a
check mark next to an asterisk under Machine access list (see red circle). Its okay if you have
other items listed.
Figure A-3: Configuring machine access
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Instructions for installing LabVIEW software for 2.14 labs

1. Go to http://www.ni.com/academic/download.htm. You should see the screen in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Website for software download

2. Expand the categories and download the software highlighted in red in Figure 2
Figure 2: Software to download

3.
Once youve downloaded the myRIO DVD 1 and DVD2, run the setup executable of DVD1.
Install the components as seen in Figure 3. During the install, you will be asked for a serial #. If
you havent been provided with one in class, choose evaluation mode, otherwise, use the
serial # youve been given.
Figure 3: Items to install during myRIO Software Suite setup

4.
Run the ELVISmx installer and install ELVISmx. You are done!
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2.14/2.140 Lab 1
Assigned: Week of Feb. 10, 2014

Due:
Week of Feb. 17, in your lab session
For Lab 1, we ask that you install and run Labview on your own laptop computer. You will also
need to install the CD&Sim and Mathscript RT modules. Please see instructions posted on the
course web page.
Please load and run the le URACTLR.vi. This le lets you implement on/o and linear control of
4 dierent plants. You can also test automatic (machine) on/o and linear control. The system
runs as a 10 second simulation. During this run, your goal is to use the control input to keep
the plant output at a level of 0.5. Deviations from 0.5 are errors; the square of these errors is
integrated over the 10 second run, and displayed on a gauge and as a numerical output. The lower
the integrated square error, the better.
By the end of the lab session, conduct your own experiments with this control system. Look at
how each system is controlled by the machine automatic control. How well do you (human) control
the 4 dierent systems? How well does the machine control work? For the second-order system,
explore changes in n and , and see how these aect the control. Before leaving lab, meet with
one of the lab sta one-on-one to explain what youve observed. Be prepared to explain the loop
behavior in light of the plant dynamics for each plant.
A report documenting your experiments is due the following week (week of Feb 17) at the start
of your assigned lab session. Reports will not be accepted more than 10 minutes late, i.e., after
2:15 pm. We will not accept reports turned in to other lab sections. This report should show time
traces from some of your best runs and for your best tunings of the automatic controller in on/o
and linear modes for each of the four plants. Explain the observed signals (control eort and plant
output) in terms of the plant dynamics and controller charcteristics.
Your Lab grade will be based 50% upon your understanding as shown to in the face-to-face lab
meetings and 50% upon the data and understanding shown in your written report. Grades for each
of these components will range from 0 (worst/not there) to 5 (excellent) for a total lab grade of 0
to 10.
We will not make up lab sessions. If you miss a lab session, except for medical or emergency
reasons, your lab grade will be 0.
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2.14/2.140 Lab 2
Assigned: Week of Feb. 24, 2013
Due:
Week of Mar. 3, in your lab session.
Lab 2 studies a thermal control loop. The mechanical configuration of the thermal plant is shown
below.
Here a thermistor is attached to a 2N3904 NPN transistor. The thermistor is packaged in a round
epoxy bead; we have sanded off one side of the bead in order to create a flat spot to improve heat
transfer. The joint thermal conductivity is improved by using thermal grease in the joint. The pair
is held together with heat-shrink tubing, and then a styrofoam bead is used as thermal insulation.
The electrical configuration is shown below
This system will be the focus of the next two labs. The goal of the control system is to regulate the
measured temperature to 40 C. This is done by maintaining the transistor heating at a correct
value using the control input at the base resistor. When operating at 40 C, for small changes
the system can be viewed as linear, since temperature can be increased and/or decreased using the
control input. (Strictly speaking, the changes of the control input are linearly related to the changes
of the temperature, where these changes are measured relative to the steady-state operating point
values.)
For this week, we ask you to do the following:
1. In open loop, manually adjust the control effort so as to set the steady operating temperature
at 40 C. Experimentally save and plot the step response for small control changes about
this equilibrium. How well does the measured step response match a fitted first order step
response?
2. Experiment with human ON/OFF control. Try this with and without the styrofoam insulation in place. Save and plot an interesting set(s) of data (both control effort and resulting
temperature).
3. Experiment with machine ON/OFF control. Try this with and without the styrofoam insulation in place. Save and plot an interesting set(s) of data (both control effort and resulting
temperature).
4. Experiment with human linear control. That is, you manually move the control effort slider
to control the measured temperature to a setpoint of 40 C. Notice how the control effort
must be actuated to make a relatively fast change in the controlled temperature. Try this
with and without the styrofoam insulation in place. Also notice the effect of disturbances
such as blowing air on or touching the transistor with the insulation removed. Save and plot
an interesting set(s) of data (both control effort and resulting temperature).
5. Experimentally tune P and PI linear controller. First tune the loop with only a P term. Then
add in an I term. Can you see the effect of the integral control? Save and plot the closed-loop
step response to reference temperature changes of the loop operating with these controllers
(both control effort and resulting temperature), and record the control gains used. Also,
impose some disturbance on the system, for instance, by removing the styrofoam insulation,
or putting your fingers on the transistor, or blowing on the device, etc. Save and plot some
interesting set(s) of data (both control effort and resulting temperature).
6. For graduate students only: Create a thermal model competent to explain the observed
dynamics. Estimate the thermal mass on the basis of the system dimensions and some
reasonable assumptions of specific heat. Use experiments to determine the thermal loss
modeled as a resistance to ambient, both with and without the styrofoam peanut insulation.
Fit parameters to this model and compare with your experimental step measurements.
Checkoff in lab session: In this weeks lab session demonstrate to one of the teaching staff
your working controller and some experimental results. Progress shown in this checkoff will count
towards half of your lab grade.
Answer sheets: At the start of next weeks lab session you must submit your lab writeup. These
write-ups are due at the start of the lab session, and will not be accepted late. Please attach to
this lab assignment clearly labeled answers and plots for all the questions above. This lab report
will count towards half of your lab grade.
It is key that you submit your lab report on time at the start of the lab session next week, as we
will begin work on Lab 3 during that session.
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1.1. FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
21
Figure 1.15: Sketch of bulb and relevant thermal elements.
1.1.4
Thermal first-order system
For an example thermal system we study the desk lamp shown in the picture
(to be added). This lamp bulb is electrically heated via the bulb filament.
The resulting bulb temperature is measured with the infrared sensor shown
in the figure (to be added). A sketch of the light bulb in the lamp is shown
in the line drawing of Figure 1.15.
We left the lamp on for a long enough time to reach steady state, and
then turned o the lamp and measured the decay of temperature back to
ambient. Data taken from this system is shown in tabular and graphical
form in Figure 1.16. By inspection of this data, the bulb system is well-fit
by a first-order model of the form of (1.1). An estimate of the associated
time constant is about 3 minutes. But we need to have in seconds, so the
system time constant is formally given as = 180 sec.
An abstraction to a lumped model of this system is shown in Figure 1.17.
Here the thermal capacitance of the bulb is summarized by the block of
material labeled with the capacitance Cb with units of [J/ K]. The block
is assumed to have a uniform temperature Tb [ K]. This block has a total
stored thermal energy Wb = Cb Tb [J]. The change of thermal stored energy
happens via heat flow
dWb
dTb
qb =
= Cb
.
(1.23)
dt
dt
Here qb in units of watts represents heat flow into the bulb. As shown in
the figure, we assume that the block is insulated on three sides, and so the
22
CHAPTER 1. NATURAL RESPONSE
Figure 1.16: Data from light bulb cooling experiment.
#
B
4B
2B
44A

4HERMALRESISTANCE
TOOUTSIDEWORLD
"ULBTHERMALCAPACITANCE
Figure 1.17: Lumped model for bulb cooling experiment.
23
1.1. FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
heat flow through those sides is zero. The block is connected to the outside
ambient temperature via the thermal resistance Rb , such that
qb =
Ta
Tb
Rb
(1.24)
This resistance represents the flow of heat into the bulb as a linear function of
the temperature dierence4 between the ambient and the bulb temperatures.
Setting equality between the last two equations gives
Cb
dTb
T a Tb
=
.
dt
Rb
(1.25)
Now, its convenient to define a variable to represent the temperature difference between the bulb and ambient: T Tb Ta . Since the ambient
temperature is constant, dT /dt = dTb /dt. Making these substitutions and
multiplying (1.25) through by Rb yields
Rb Cb
dT
+ T = 0.
dt
(1.26)
If we define = Rb Cb , this is in the form of (1.1). The natural response is

thus as calculated in section 1.1, with its associated figures. Specifically, if
the initial temperature dierence of the bulb is defined as T (0) = T0 , then
the temperature dierence as a function of time varies as
T (t) = T0 e
t/Rb Cb
[K].
(1.27)
If you want to convert back to the absolute temperature of the bulb, remember that Tb = T + Ta .
1.1.5
Fluidic first-order system
A fluidic system which can be modeled with a first-order dierential equation

is shown in Figure 1.18. Here a tank filled with liquid drains through a long,
thin pipe. The height of the liquid above the pipe inlet is defined as h. If we
assume that the liquid has a density of [kg/m3 ], then the pressure Pt at
4
In real systems, more exact and likely nonlinear models can apply, but a linear model
gives a first understanding of this system response, and is well able to match the measured
behavior. For example, pure radiative cooling varies as temperature dierence to the
fourth power, which is highly nonlinear. There will certainly be radiative heat flow in
this system, however, the experimental data fits well to a linear heat flow model which
suggests that radiative cooling is not highly significant at the bulb envelope temperatures
of 100 C and down to ambient.
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2.14/2.140 Lab 3
Assigned: Week of Mar. 3, 2014
Due:
Lab 3 continues with studies of a thermal control loop. You will design PI and PID controllers
via experimental loop shaping. First, carefully measure the plant transfer function. Use this
experimental data to design PI and PID controllers that achieve a phase margin of 45 5 with
as high a crossover frequency as you can achieve. Experimentally measure the return ratio transfer
function to conrm your designs crossover frequency and phase margin.
Note that you do not need to create a parametric model of the plant, but can work directly from
the plant experimental magnitude and phase measurements. To do this, bring your plant data
into Matlab as vectors of frequency, magnitude, and phase. On the basis of this data, design a
controller that you think will work. Then use the Matlab command [mag,phase] = bode(sys,w),
where w is the vector of frequencies at which you have experimental plant data. This allows
you to compute the controller magnitude and phase at all the experimentally measured frequen
cies. Then the return ratio magnitude is the controller magnitude multiplied by the plant mag
nitude frequency by frequency. In Matlab, you will use the dot multiply to do this: magloop =
magcontroller .* magplant. Similarly, the return ratio phase is the controller phase added to the
plant phase frequency by frequency. In Matlab, you will use the vector add to do this: phaseloop
= phasecontroller + phaseplant. Then you can use plotting commands loglog and semiologx
to make the return ratio magnitude and phase plots.
Specically, we ask you to:
1. Experimentally measure an accurate plant transfer function. Try this measurement at several
amplitudes so as to be condent that you are not seeing nonlinear eects. Document your
measurements.
2. Use Matlab to design a PI controller to meet the specications above for the measured plant
data. Document your design approach and show return ratio Bode plots indicating the
expected loop crossover and phase margin.
3. Experimentally implement your PI controller. Measure the closed loop small-signal step
response. Also measure the return ratio Bode plot. How do your crossover frequency and
phase margin compare with the design values?
4. Use Matlab to design a PID controller to meet the specications above for the measured
plant data. Document your design approach and show return ratio Bode plots indicating the
expected loop crossover and phase margin.
5. Experimentally implement your PID controller. Measure the closed loop small-signal step
response. Also measure the return ratio Bode plot. How do your crossover frequency and
phase margin compare with the design values?
6. For graduate students only: Create a pole-zero-gain (PZK) model for the plant. (See
Matlab help les for this model type.) Note that you may need to add some amount of
time delay to your model to allow matching the phase. To match a fractional-order Bode
plot magnitude roll-o, you can add sets of pole/zero doublets on the real axis. The relative
spacing of these doublets sets the fractional order. Fit parameters to this model and compare
with your experimental frequency response measurements to show the quality of the t. Use
this model to predict the closed-loop step response for your loops with the PI and PID
controllers. How do these predictions compare with the measured step responses?
Checko in lab session: In this weeks lab session demonstrate to one of the teaching sta
your working controller and some experimental results. Progress shown in this checko will count
towards half of your lab grade.
Answer sheets: At the start of next weeks lab session you must submit your lab writeup. These
write-ups are due at the start of the lab session, and will not be accepted late. Please attach to
this lab assignment clearly labeled answers and plots for all the questions above. This lab report
will count towards half of your lab grade.
It is key that you submit your lab report on time at the start of the lab session next week, as we
will begin work on Lab 4 during that session.
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2.14/2.140 Lab 4

Due:
Lab 4 concerns the op-amp circuit shown below. You will use the NI myDAQ kit and protoboard
to build and test this circuit, and compare your measured results against theory.
Build this circuit on the protoboard of your myDAQ kit. Be sure to connect power to the op amp
and use the indicated bypass capacitors. For this circuit:
Calculate the closed loop transfer function from reference Vr to output Vo . For this purpose,
model the 741 op amp with the transfer function Voutput (s) = (6 106 /s)(v+ (s) v (s)), i.e.,
a(s) = 6 106 /s, where Voutput is the amplifier output voltage at pin 6.
Analytically calculate the closed-loop step response. (Do not use any numerical program such
as Matlab.)
Make a carefully labeled and dimensioned Bode plot for the closed loop response. (Do not
use any numerical program such as Matlab.)
Use the scope and signal generator VIs in Labview to measure and plot the closed-loop step
response. Compare with the analytical result from above.
Use the scope and signal generator VIs in Labview to measure and plot the closed-loop
frequency response. Compare with the analytical result from above.
Checkoff in lab session: In this weeks lab session demonstrate to one of the teaching staff your
working circuit and some experimental results. Progress shown in this checkoff will count towards
half of your lab grade.
Answer sheets: At the start of your lab session during the week of March 31 you must submit
your lab writeup, including the completed Lab 4 answer sheet. These write-ups are due at the start
of the lab session, and will not be accepted late. Please include in your lab report clearly labeled
answers and plots for all the questions above. This lab report will count towards half of your lab
grade.
It is key that you submit your lab report on time at the start of the lab session.
2.14/2.140 Spring 2014 Lab 4 Answer Sheet
Name:
Please complete this answer sheet and include it with your lab report. This will be the primary
document that we will use to grade your work on Lab 4, so please be sure to fill in all requested
information.
1. The closed-loop transfer function from reference Vr to output Vo is:
2. The closed-loop poles are located at:
with natural frequency n and of:
3. An analytical expression for the closed loop step response is:
The following requested plots should be attached to this answer sheet:
1. A carefully labeled and dimensioned sketch of the analytical closed-loop step response. (This
should be a hand-sketch. Do not use any numerical program such as Matlab.)
2. A carefully labeled and dimensioned Bode plot for the closed loop response. (This should be
a hand-sketch. Do not use any numerical program such as Matlab.)
3. A well-scaled experimental step response acquired using the scope and signal generator VIs
in Labview. List the measured n and on the basis of the step response and explain how
these were measured. Compare with the analytical result from above.
4. A well-scaled experimental Bode plot of the frequency response acquired using the scope and
signal generator VIs in Labview. List the measured n and on the basis of the frequency
response and explain how these were measured. Compare with the analytical result from
above.
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2.14/2.140 Lab 5

Due:
Week of Apr. 7 , in your lab session.
Lab 5 concerns the op-amp circuit shown below. This circuit implements a current-control loop,
which regulates the current iL passing through the inductor. Such current control circuits are
widely used, e.g., to drive actuators such as motors in order to control torque/force. The focus of
this lab is on the feedback dynamics of the current control circuit.
Unlike Lab 4, here we will assume that the op amp has infinite gain. The reason for this assumption
is that the feedback capacitor C1 sets the op amp dynamics such that the internal a(s) model is
not needed to accurately model the loop operation relative to the current control dynamics. Also,
since the capacitor looks like a short-circuit at high frequencies, the op-amp feedback has unity
gain and zero phase shift at high frequencies, and thus the internal loop will be stable. Thus, the
internal amplifier dynamics are stable, and much faster than the current control dynamics, and so
we can ignore them for our present purposes.
Real inductors have internal resistance, due to the non-zero resistance of the wire used to form the
coil. In this circuit, the inductor resistance is represented by RL . The inductor current iL passes
through the sense resistor RS , which gives a voltage Vf = iL Rs . We set Ra >> Rs , and thus we
can assume that all of iL passes through RS , and thus that ia 0. This lets us ignore the loading
from Ra when computing Vf .
You will use the NI myDAQ kit and protoboard to build and test this circuit, and compare your
measured results against theory.
For this circuit, we ask you to analyze the loop dynamics as they depend upon the choice of
component values. Specifically:
1. Derive and draw a block diagram representation for the circuit. As part of this block diagram,
include the signals Vr , ii , ia , iC , Va , Vf , and the inductor current estimate iL = Vf /RS .
2. Use your block diagram to calculate the closed-loop transfer function Vf (s)/Vr (s). This
transfer function should be in terms of the component values as variables. Do not substitute
in any numbers at this point. What is an expression for the closed-loop DC gain?
3. Solve for the closed-loop n and of the poles of Vf /Vr in terms of the parameter values.
4. For the remainder of this problem, let Ri = 20Ra , C1 = 1 nF, L = 47 mH, RL = 100 ,
and RS = 100 . Show that these values result in a closed-loop DC current gain of iL =
0.5 mA/V Vr .
5. The only component left unspecified so far is Ra . Compute the three values of Ra which give
closed-loop natural frequencies of 103 , 104 , and 105 rad/sec, respectively. For each of these
three values, create Bode plots of the loop return ratio. What are the crossover frequency c
and phase margin m for each of the three values? How do these compare with the closed-loop
n and ? (Recall the approximations n c and m /100.)
6. For each of these three values, use Matlab to compute and plot the closed-loop step response
of Vf to a 2 volt step in Vr . Also, for each of these three values, compute and plot the
closed-loop Bode plot from input Vr to output Vf .
The experimental part of this lab uses the values for n = 104 , as computed above. For these
values, build this circuit on the protoboard of your myDAQ kit. Be sure to connect power to the
op amp and use the indicated bypass capacitors. For this circuit, use the 47 mH inductor we have
provided, and use a 741 op amp. Measure the coil resistance RL of the inductor; this should be
close to the value given above. Recompute your predicted step and frequency responses for the
measured component value. (Extra credit: Design an experiment to measure the inductance value
L, and use this measured value in your calculations below.)
1. Use the myDAQ with the scope and signal generator VIs in Labview to measure and plot the
closed-loop step response of Vf to a 2 volt step in Vr . Also record the control effort Va . Be
careful that the response is in the linear regime, i.e. no saturation in the control effort Va . If
necessary, reduce the amplitude of the input square wave such that the response is in a linear
regime.
For this linear response, what are the measured closed-loop 10-90% rise time, percentage peak
overshoot, natural frequency n , and damping ratio ? Compare with the Matlab result from
above.
2. Use the Bode Analyzer VI in Labview to measure and plot the closed-loop frequency response
from input Vr to output Vf . Be sure to use enough frequency points to see any resonance
clearly. Be careful that the response is in the linear regime, i.e. no saturation in the control
effort Va . If necessary, reduce the amplitude of the input sine wave such that the response is
in a linear regime.
2
From the frequency response, estimate the closed-loop natural frequency n , and damping
ratio . Compare with the Matlab result from above.
To learn how to use the Bode analyzer, you might want to first measure a simple circuit such
as an RC low-pass filter, which can be easily compared with theory. You also could use the
Bode analyzer to measure the plant frequency response Vf /Va as a way to experimentally
measure the inductor resistance and inductance, assuming a known value of RS = 100 .
Checkoff in lab session: In this weeks lab session demonstrate to one of the teaching staff your
working circuit and some experimental results. Progress shown in this checkoff will count towards
Answer sheets: At the start of your lab session during the week of April 7 you must submit your
lab writeup, including answers to all the questions in the lab assignment. These write-ups are due
at the start of the lab session, and will not be accepted late. Please include in your lab report
clearly labeled answers and plots for all the questions above. This lab report will count towards
It is key that you submit your lab report on time at the start of the lab session.
MIT OpenCourseWare
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Spring 2014
2.14/2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control

Systems
Laboratory Assignment 6: Servomotor Velocity Control
Assigned: Week of April 7, 2014
Due: Week of April 14, in your lab session
Lab overview
In this laboratory, we study velocity and position control of a D.C. motor. Each station is equipped
with a D.C. motor, with an integral tachometer to measure angular velocity, a single turn poten
tiometer to measure angular position, and a power amplier to drive the motor. First, we develop
a model for the motor. This model is then used to design velocity controllers. For the purpose of
this lab, controller design is done using continuous time methods, and the Labview-based controller
emulates these with discrete time algorithms.
Initial experiments focus on velocity control. A proportional velocity controller is implemented
rst. Resulting steady-state errors are observed and the eect of increasing gain on steady-state
error is seen. Next we implement a PI velocity controller to remove steady-state errors. Problems
with integral windup are observed and an anti-windup scheme is implemented.
Power Amplier Connections
Each station is equipped with a D. C. motor and a power amplier. It is important that you
read these instructions carefully so that you do not destroy the power amplier! As
shown in Figure 2 the power amplier provides a voltage gain of 2 for the signal from the DAC.
(Verify this.) We will study this power amplier in more detail in the next lab.
Note: The power ampliers have an absolute maximum of 25 volts. Irreversable
damage will occur above this level. The supplies in the lab can provide more than 30
volts and thus are capable of destroying the amplier. Therefore, before shutting o
or turning on the supply always set it to 0 volts on both sides.
Supply connections: In the following, we refer to the two 030 volt supplies available on the
Tektronix power supply. The unit also has a 5 volt supply which we do not use in this lab.
The supplies in the lab have been furnished with jumpers and connected for series operation by
depressing the appropriate push button on the front panel of the supply. Please keep the supply
in this conguration throughout the laboratory. In this mode, the right-hand voltage control sets
the voltage output for both supplies. Never set the power supply to more than 17 V. As
connected, the right-hand supply provides +Vcc at its positive terminal, and the left-hand supply
provides Vcc at its negative terminal. Common is taken from the jumpered center connections (the
negative terminal of the right-hand supply and/or the positive terminal of the left-hand supply).
1
Left-hand supply
Black
Right-hand supply
Bare
Wire
Common
Vcc
Red
+ Vcc
Figure 1: Amplier/supply connections

Set the current limits on both supplies to the maximum. Whenever you are about to turn on the
supply, rst adjust both voltage controls to zero. Set the right-hand meter to monitor voltage. Set
the left-hand meter to measure current. Then power up the supply. At this point you may increase
the supply voltage up to the desired 17 volt level. (The reason for choosing this voltage is that it
is comfortably below the ampliers absolute maximum rating of 25 volts.) The amplier should
be wired to the supply as shown in Fig. 1.
D.C. Motor model
Each station has a D.C. motor and a power amplier. Please follow the above precautions before
powering up your setup. The D.C. motor has a tachometer to measure velocity and a potentiometer
to measure angular position. The motor parameters are :
R = 7.5
L = 5.55 mH
L
= 0.7 ms
e =
R
KT = 0.024 Nm/A
J
= 1.5 105 Kgm2 (all loads referred to motor shaft)
Ktach 0.023 V/rad/sec

Vpp
Kpot =
0.5 V/rad (of motor)
2 (gear ratio)
No. of teeth on pinion = 36
No. of teeth on driven gear = 216
Gearing ratio, N = 6
JR
m =
200 ms
KT2
m (s)
1
=
Vm (s)
KT (m s + 1)
(1)
In this derivation, we are assuming that the motor inductance is low enough to be ignored, i.e., L c
0. How can this assumption be justied? Please show how the simplied transfer function above
2
results from this assumption.
AIN0+
AIN0-
connection to
power amp
ground
+
+
power amplifier
--
return to
power amp
ground
10 k
10 k
tachometer
vt
AOUT0
AGND
pinion
flywheel
DC motor
CCW
-15V
1.5 k
vp
wiper
AIN1+
AIN1+15V
1.5 k
CW
potentiometer, 5 k
gear
Figure 2: Connections for the DC motor setup.

The connection of the motor setup is shown in Figure 2. For the purposes of this lab, the refer
ence signal r is generated within the Labview-based controller. As shown, we have connected the
tachometer signal to AIN0, and the potentiometer signal to AIN1. These are dierential inputs,
but for this lab the negative input is connected to analog ground. We have also connected the
analog output of AOUT0 to the input of the power amplifer as the command voltage.
In order to match the A/D input range, we connect the potentiometer to operate at a little less
than 10 volts (9.4 V). To do this, we use the 15 volt power source from the protoboard, and
use a pair of resistors to reduce the voltage to the desired value. The value of the potentiometer
resistance is 5 k, thus the pair of voltage dropping resistors are chosen as 1.5 k. These resistors
are soldered in place on the motor setup, within insulating heat-shrink tubing.
a) Draw a block diagram model which represents the power amplier, motor, tachometer, and
potentiometer using the parameters given above. Throughout this lab, we will drive the
motor with the power amp congured for a voltage gain of 2 as shown in the gure.
b) Derive the transfer functions of the system from input u to outputs vt and vp . That is, calculate
the transfer functions vt (s)/u(s) and vp (s)/u(s). First calculate these in terms of the variables
dened above, then substitute in the numerical values. Use Matlab to plot the frequency
response for these transfer functions in Bode form.
3
Velocity control
We now use the motor model developed in the previous section for designing velocity control of the
D.C. motor. The tachometer output is used as the feedback signal. In this and subsequent sections
of the lab, we use a sampling time of 1 msec for the implementation on the real-time hardware.
This is fast enough that the eects of sampling are negligible.
a) Design a proportional velocity controller of the form G1 (s) = Kp , which realizes a closedloop system time constant of = 20 ms. (Set Ki = 0 in this section to disable integral
control. Implement this controller on the real-time hardware. Collect step response data and
compare with the predicted step response. What mechanical impedance (i.e., what equivalent
spring/mass/dashpot) is created at the output shaft? Why? (You can sense this impedance
most easily at the potentiometer shaft, since the gearing makes this the higher stiness point
in the drivetrain.)
b) What happens as you increase the gain Kp above its nominal design value? What limits the
achievable bandwidth? What physical mechanisms might explain this?
(Note: In the lab you will see that the tachometer voltage has signicant ripple when the
motor is spinning. This is due to the brushed construction of the tachometer.)
4.1
PI velocity control
Next, we implement PI control which removes the DC errors that were present with a proportional
controller. Use a PI controller of the form
Ki
G2 (s) = Kp 1 +
s
The proportional gain Kp and the integral gain Ki are chosen to meet specications on the response.
The presence of an integrator in your control law can lead to integrator windup. This can be noticed
if you cause the error to accumulate in spite of saturation of the actuators. The integrating action
of the controller keeps accumulating the error and leads to large overshoots. You can observe
this by setting a constant velocity command, and by imposing a velocity error on the ywheel by
clamping it with your hand. Be careful not to get yourself hurt while doing this (i.e., Keep your
ngers out of the gear mesh). When you release the ywheel, you should be able to see a rather
large overshoot. For the purpose of observing windup, use the DC oset of the signal generator to
set the velocity to an essentially constant level. Note that the size of the overshoot is dependent
on the time for which you hold the ywheel stationary.
It is also interesting to conduct this experiment with the velocity command set to zero. Here you
can directly feel the response torque as you move the motor. Keep in mind that the feedback is on
velocity, which is the derivative of position.
a) Design a PI velocity controller which nominally creates closed-loop roots with = 0.5 and
n = 30. Explain how you calculated the necessary values of Kp and Ki . What is the
4
resulting crossover frequency and phase margin for this design? Include a Bode plot for the
return ratio in your lab report, showing the predicted crossover frequency and phase margin.
Implement this controller on the real-time hardware. Note that a saturation limit of 10 is
required to limit the DAC output voltage to 10 V, which is near the saturation value.
For a non-zero DC velocity reference, and with the integrator saturation limits set to innity,
clamp the ywheel with your hand for some period of time, and notice the large overshoots
when you release it under a constant velocity reference. Modify the integrator saturation
limits to prevent windup and re-run the program. Again, impose velocity errors by holding
the ywheel with your hand. Notice the greatly improved recovery performance when the
integral term is bounded. Explain the dierence in the response. What is the best value for
the saturation limit? Why?
b) What mechanical impedance (i.e., equivalent spring/mass/dashpot) is created at the output
shaft under PI velocity control? Why? How does this impedance change when anti-windup is
implemented? Why? This impedance is best sensed with the velocity command set to zero.
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

Spring 2014
2.14/2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control

Systems
Laboratory Assignment 7: Servomotor Position Control
Assigned: Week of April 14, 2014
Due: Week of April 21, in either Wed. or Thurs. lab sessions. (Monday 4/21 and Tuesday 4/22
are MIT holidays. There will also be no new lab assignments after this one, so you really only need
to show up to lab to hand in your report, and be sure that we have back from you the myDAQ,
thermal plant, and any other hardware.)
Position control
Position control is in some sense more dicult than velocity control, due to the additional integrator
in the transfer function. In position control, feedback is taken from the potentiometer. We use a
one-turn 5 k servo potentiometer in this setup. The term servo potentiometer means that it is
specied for continuous rotation with a reasonable life time. Conventional pots will have a rotation
stop at the extreme of rotation, and also will not endure continuous mechanical operation. Given
the selected 1.5 k series resistors, and for the 15 V supplies, the potentiometer voltage output
varies from 9.4 to +9.4 volts. There is a discontinuity at the end of the range as the voltage
transitions from the maximum negative to the maximum positive.
We have used the above information when developing the relationship between potentiometer out
put voltage and motor shaft angle. This also depends upon the gear ratio of the drive train. Due to
the way the potentiometer is connected, the motor angle is 6 times the potentiometer angle, which
is what you measure. In the model, we refer all variables to the motor shaft.
A lead-lag compensator with its lag pole at s = 0 can be written as
G3 (s) = K
(1 s + 1) (2 s + 1)
(2 s + 1)
1 s
(1)
The compensator parameters are to be chosen to satisfy the system requirements.
a) Design a lead-lag compensator as given above to implement a position controller which achieves
a crossover frequency of 50 rad/s and a phase margin of 45 degrees. Implement this controller
on the real-time hardware. Record the system step response and compare with that predicted
in your paper analysis.
b) Use the supplied Dynamic Signal Analyzer (DSA) in Labview to experimentally measure the
loop return ratio Bode plot, and include this plot in your report. What are the experimentallymeasured loop crossover frequency and phase margin? How do the loop shape and crossover
frequency and phase margin compare with your design from part a)?
b) With the controller running, notice the eect of increasing the gain K on the servo stiness.
Do you notice any deterioration of position stability with increasing loop bandwidth? What
might this be due to?
c) With the controller running, and with a xed reference position, try manually rotating the
potentiometer shaft away from a xed reference point. Notice the restoring torque of the
servo increases with time due to the integral control term. Record the transient response of
1
recovery from this induced position error. Can you see the rather large overshoots caused
by integral windup? Turn on anti-windup in your controller and repeat this experiment.
Comment on the dierence with anti-windup in place.
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2.14/2.

140 Problem Set 1

Assigned: Wed. Feb. 5, 2014

2.14 / 2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems

2.14/2.140 Problem Set 2

Assigned: Thurs. Feb. 13, 2014

Solve for the time trajectory x(t)

for the two cases, and plot these as a function of time on

At t = 0, the mass is released with x(0) = 0, x(0)

= 0. Solve for the time trajectory x(t)

At t = 0, the mass is released with x(0) = 0, x(0)

= 0. Solve for the time trajectory x(t)

this amplification is the relationship iC = iB , where in typical devices 100. Thus a

a) Draw a block diagram including at least input Vin , input Ta , Pdiss , Tj .

2.14 / 2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems

2.14/2.140 Problem Set 3

Assigned: Wed. Feb. 19, 2014

Problem 8 FPE 4.23

Problem G1 FPE 5.35

The system is driven with a voltage source Vin (t).

2.14 / 2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems

2.14/2.140 Problem Set 4

Assigned: Wed. Feb. 26, 2014

Problem 3 Archive Problem 13.1 Rooftop Antenna

Mass position x(t)

Mass position x(t)

Reference input w(t)

Force output F(t)

2.14 / 2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems

2.14/2.140 Problem Set 5

a) Sketch a root locus plot for K > 0.

In this problem, assume the controller takes the form

2.14 / 2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems

2.14/2.140 Problem Set 6

Assigned: Wed. March 12, 2014

give bad stability in some circuits. To understand this, assume

2.14 / 2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems

2.14/2.140 Problem Set 7

Assigned: Wed. Mar. 19, 2014

The full text Operational Amplifiers can be found online at:

The nonlinear element has an input/output characteristic given by

2.14 / 2.140 Analysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems

2.14/2.140 Problem Set 8

Assigned: Fri. Apr. 4, 2014

a) Voltage Drive Draw a block diagram which includes Vi , i, e, F , xs , x s , x

Linear System Response

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TRANSIENT RESPONSE

Gain phase plot of

Linear System Response

System topology for approximate relationships. (a) System with

frequency-independent feedback path. (b) System represented in scaled, unity-

(b) The maximum value of the step response P 0 .

These definitions are illustrated in Fig. 3.17.

Relationships Between Transient Response and Frequency Response

For a first-order system with V(s)/Vi(s) = l/(rs + 1), the relationships

and 6 A cos-'r (see Fig. 3.7) the relationships are

< 0.707, 6 > 45'

< 0.707, 6 > 450

If a system step response or frequency response is similar to that of an

Figure 3.17 Parameters used to describe transient and frequency responses.

One final comment concerning the quality of the relationship between

The response of a linear system to certain types of transient inputs may