Vernier scale - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernier_scale

Vernier scale
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A vernier scale is a device that lets the user measure more precisely than could be done unaided when reading
a uniformly divided straight or circular measurement scale. It is a scale that indicates where the measurement
lies in between two of the marks on the main scale. Verniers are common on sextants used in navigation,
scientific instruments used to conduct experiments, machinists' measuring tools (all sorts, but especially calipers
and micrometers) used to work materials to fine tolerances, and on theodolites used in surveying.

Contents
1 History
2 Construction
3 Use
4 Least Count of Vernier scale
5 Examples
6 How a vernier scale works
7 Vernier acuity
8 Zero error
9 See also
10 External links
11 References

History

An enlarged view of the above caliper shows

it has a resolutionor precisionof
0.02 mm. The reading is 3.58 mm. The
3 mm is read off from the upper (fixed) data
scale. The 0.58 mm is obtained from the
lower (sliding) indicating scale at the point
of closest alignment between the two scales.
The caliper has two external and two
internal jaws, which are used to measure
respectively the external and the internal
diameter of a cylinder. The tail is used to
measure the internal depth.

Calipers without a vernier scale originated in ancient China

as early as the Qin dynasty (9 AD).[1][2] The secondary
scale, which contributed extra precision, was invented in
1631 by French mathematician Pierre Vernier (15801637).
Its use was described in detail in English in Navigatio
Britannica (1750) by mathematician and historian John
Barrow.[3] While calipers are the most typical use of Vernier
scales today, they were originally developed for anglemeasuring instruments such as astronomical quadrants.
Mechanical displacement gauges with vernier scales

In some languages, the Vernier scale is called a nonius. It

on wall cracks (Moika Palace, Saint Petersburg).
was also commonly called a nonius in English until the end
of the 18th century.[4] Nonius is the Latin name of the
Portuguese astronomer and mathematician Pedro Nunes (15021578), who in 1542 invented a different system
for taking fine angular measurements. Nunes' nonius was not widely adopted, being difficult to make and also
difficult to read. Tycho Brahe used it on at least one instrument.[4][5][6]
The name "vernier" was popularised by the French astronomer Jrme Lalande (17321807) through his Trait
d'astronomie (2 vols) (1764).[7]

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Construction
In the following, N is the number of divisions the maker wishes to show at a finer level of measure.
Direct verniers are the most common. The indicating scale is constructed
so that when its zero point is coincident with the start of the data scale,
its graduations are at a slightly smaller spacing than those on the data
scale and so none but the last graduation coincide with any graduations
on the data scale. N graduations of the indicating scale cover N1
graduations of the data scale.
Retrograde verniers are found on some devices, including surveying
instruments.[8] A retrograde vernier is similar to the direct vernier, except
its graduations are at a slightly larger spacing. N graduations of the
indicating scale cover N+1 graduations of the data scale. The retrograde
vernier also extends backwards along the data scale.
Direct and retrograde verniers are read in the same manner.

Vernier scale direct vernier

Use
The main use of the vernier caliper is to measure the internal and the
external diameters of an object. To measure using a vernier scale, the
user first reads the finely marked "fixed" scale (in the diagram). This
measure is typically between two of the scale's smallest graduations. The
user then reads the finer vernier scale (see diagram), which measures
between the smallest graduations on the fixed scaleproviding much
greater accuracy.
It is also used in measuring an object to its lowest decimal point.

Animation of a caliper measurement

using a vernier scale. Click to enlarge

Least Count of Vernier scale

Let the measure of the smallest main scale reading, that is the distance
between two consecutive graduations (also called its pitch) be S and the
distance between two consecutive Vernier scale graduations be V such
that the length of (n-1) main scale divisions is equal to n Vernier scale
divisions.Then,

Vernier scale use 0.02 scale

measurement is 19.44 mm

the length of (n-1) main scale divisions = the length of n vernier scale
divisions
or, (n-1)S = nV
or, nS-S = nV
or, S = nS - nV
or, S/n = (S-V)

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or (Pitch)/(Number of Vernier scale divisions) = (Length of one main scale division - Length of one Vernier
scale division)
S/n and (S-V) are both equal to the least count of Vernier Caliper, and are also termed as "Vernier constant".

Examples
On decimal measuring instruments, as in the diagram below, the indicating scale has 10 graduations that cover
the same length as 9 on the data scale. Note that the vernier's 10th graduation is omitted.
On an angular measurement instrument, the data scale might be in half-degrees, with an indicator scale that
provides 30 1-minute graduations (that span 29 of the half-degree graduations).

How a vernier scale works

The vernier scale is constructed so that it is spaced at a constant fraction
of the fixed main scale. So for a decimal measuring device each mark on
the vernier is spaced nine tenths of those on the main scale. If you put
the two scales together with zero points aligned, the first mark on the
vernier scale is one tenth short of the first main scale mark, the second
two tenths short, and so on up to the ninth markwhich is misaligned by
nine tenths. Only when a full ten marks are counted is there alignment,
because the tenth mark is ten tenthsa whole main scale unit short, and
therefore aligns with the ninth mark on the main scale.
Now if you move the vernier by a small amount, say, one tenth of its
fixed main scale, the only pair of marks that come into alignment are the
first pair, since these were the only ones originally misaligned by one
Vernier scale How a vernier scale
tenth. If we move it two tenths, the second pair aligns, since these are
works
the only ones originally misaligned by that amount. If we move it five
tenths, the fifth pair alignsand so on. For any movement, only one pair
of marks aligns and that pair shows the value between the marks on the fixed scale.

Vernier acuity
Vernier scales work so well because most people are especially good at detecting which of the lines is aligned
and misaligned, and that ability gets better with practice, in fact far exceeding the optical capability of the eye.
This ability to detect alignment is called 'Vernier acuity'.[9] Historically, none of the alternative technologies
exploited this or any other hyperacuity, giving the Vernier scale an advantage over its competitors.[6]

Zero error
Zero error is defined as such a condition when a measuring instrument registers a reading when there should not
be any reading. In case of vernier calipers it occurs when a zero on main scale does not coincide with a zero on
vernier scale. Rather the zero error may be of two types i.e. when the scale is towards numbers greater than zero
it is positive else negative. The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula:
actual reading = main scale + vernier scale (zero error). Zero error may arise due to knocks that cause the
calibration at the 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other.

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Positive zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws
of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a
positive reading away from the actual reading of
0.00mm. If the reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is
referred to as +0.10 mm.
Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws
of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a
negative reading away from the actual reading of
0.00mm. If the reading is 0.08mm, the zero error is
referred to as 0.08mm. If positive,the error is
subtracted from the mean reading the instrument
reads.Thus if the instrument reads 4.39 cm and the error
is +0.05,the actual length will be 4.39-0.05=4.34 cm. If
negative, the error is added from the mean reading the
instrument reads.Thus if the instrument reads 4.39 cm
and as above the error is -0.05 cm, the actual length will
be 4.39+0.05=4.44 cm. (Considering that,The quantity is
called zero correction which should always be added
algebraically to the observed reading to the correct
value.)
Zero Error (Z.E) = + or- n* Least Count(L.C).

See also
Micrometer
Nonius device invented by Pedro Nunes
Transversal (instrument making) technique in
use prior to vernier scales

External links
Use of vernier scale in inch - simulator of measurement and
interpretation (http://stefanelli.eng.br/en/vernier-caliperinch-fractional-measures-use.html)
How to read a vernier caliper (http://www.miniphysics.com
/how-to-read-a-vernier-caliper.html)
Calculation of Least Count in Metric & Imperial Scales of Vernier
Caliper (http://vernierscaliper.com/vernier-caliper-calculationof-least-count-in-metric-imperial-scales-213.html)
Classroom activity on the Vernier scale at Wikiversity

When the jaws are closed and if the

reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is
referred to as +0.10mm. The method
to use a vernier scale or caliper with
zero error is to use the formula 'actual
reading = main scale + vernier scale
(zero error)' thus the actual reading is
19.00 + 0.54 (0.10) = 19.44 mm

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When the jaws are closed and if the

reading is 0.08mm, the zero error is
referred to as 0.08 mm. The method
to use a vernier scale or caliper with
zero error is to use the formula 'actual
reading = main scale + vernier scale
(zero error)' thus the actual reading is
19.00 + 0.36 (0.08) = 19.44 mm

References
1. Colin A. Ronan; Joseph Needham (24 June 1994). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: 4. Cambridge
University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-521-32995-8. "adjustable outside caliper gauge... self-dated at AD 9". An
abridged version.
2. "Bronze Caliper of the Wang Mang Regime". Retrieved 26 November 2013.
3. Barrow called the device a Vernier scale. See: John Barrow, Navigatio britannica: or a complete system of
navigation (London, England: W. and J. Mount and T. Page, 1750), pp. 140142 (http://books.google.com
/books?id=u5CBsgTxtIMC&pg=PA140#v=onepage&q&f=false), especially page 142.
4. Daumas, Maurice, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers, Portman
Books, London 1989 ISBN 978-0-7134-0727-3
5. 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article on Navigation (http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Navigation). Accessed
April 2008
6. Kwan, A. (2011). "Vernier scales and other early devices for precise measurement". American Journal of Physics
79 (4): 368. doi:10.1119/1.3533717.
7. Lalande, Jrme (1746), Astronomie, vol. 2 (Paris, France: Desaint & Saillant), pages 859-860
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Z6I-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA859#v=onepage&q&f=false).
8. Davis, Raymond, Foote, Francis, Kelly, Joe, Surveying, Theory and Practice, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966
LC 64-66263
9. Vernier acuity definition (http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?Vernier+acuity) at the Online Medical Dictionary

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