Dr. Laramie V.

Potts
&
Mr. Stephen Farrell
February 3, 2011

New Jerseys Science &

Technology University

NEWARK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

COURSE DESCRIPTION
This workshop is an introductory course in Hydrographic surveying. It is designed for surveyors,
engineers, survey technicians, dredge operators, and hydrographers. The course focuses on
theoretical principles of hydrographic surveying, project description, operation, and map production.
Attendees will be able to 1) demonstrate a working knowledge of the principles and limitations of
hydrographic surveying, 2) understand the fundamentals of project specifications, and 3) be able to
execute a simple site survey from the conceptual stage to project implementation. The workshop is
divided into four parts. Part 1 introduces the fundamentals of hydrographic surveying. Part II
includes concepts of offshore positioning and geodetic control in the marine environment. Part III
considers depth determination and errors in measurements. Part IV covers the design principles of a
hydrographic survey campaign and data processing.
Contents
1 Fundamentals of Hydrographic Surveying
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Disciplines Associated with Hydrography Surveying
1.3 Basic Measurements and Survey Equipment
1.4 Survey Standards/Specification er
2 Geodetic Control and Tidal Effects
2.1 Geodetic Reference and Coordinate Systems
2.2 Horizontal Positioning
2.3 Vertical Datum and Positioning
2.4 Fundamentals of Ocean Tides
2.5 Methods to Establish Local Datums for Engineering Projects
3 Depth Determination
3.1 Conventional (Manual) Methods
3.2 Acoustic Depth Determination Methods
3.3 Real-time Hydrographic Mapping
4 Field Operations and Surveying Procedures
4.1 Field Operations
4.2 Data Processing
4.3 Coverage and Resolution

Fundamentals of Hydrographic Surveying

Hydrography is the branch of applied science which deals with the measurement and
description of the physical features of oceans, seas, coastal areas, lakes and rivers, as well as
with the prediction of their change over time, for the primary purpose of safety of navigation
and in support of all other marine activities, including economic development, security and
defense, scientific research, and environmental protection. International Hydrographic
Organization June 2009
1.1 Introduction
More than half of the worlds population lives within 100 km of its shores. The effects of
denser coastal population and accelerating climate change can be seen in degraded (and even
disappearance of) ecosystems, coastal erosion, over-fishing, marine pollution, and higher
vulnerability to marine disasters such as tsunami or volcanic activity.
Marine environments (oceans, lake, rivers, swamps, wetlands) cover more than two-thirds of
the Earths surface, and are not easily accessible to direct observations. In the past 20 to 30 years
technological advances have allowed us to discover and map much more detailed coastal and ocean
bathymetry and to delineate shore boundaries , mostly through acoustic remote sensing.
Hydrography is that branch of physical oceanography that deals with measurement and
definition of the configuration of the bottoms and adjacent land area of oceans, lakes, harbors, and
other water bodies on Earth. Hydrographic surveying, in the strictest sense, is defined merely as the
surveying of a water area; however, in modern usage it may include a wide variety of other objectives
such as measurements of tides, currents, gravity, and the determination of physical and chemical
properties of water.
The principal objective of most hydrographic surveys that are conducted by large
government agencies like the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is to
produce nautical charts and mapping. NOAA uses very large vessels to obtain basic data for the
compilation of nautical charts with emphasis on features that affect safe navigation. Other objectives
of NOAA include acquiring the information necessary to produce related marine navigational
products for coastal zone management, engineering, and scientific investigations. Other government
agencies such as the US Army Corp of Engineers (USACE), the Naval Oceanographic Office
(NAVO), the US Geological Survey (USGS), are tasked with hydrographic surveys for a variety of
purposes Some state and local agencies as well as the private sector also have hydrographic survey
capabilities
The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is responsible to collect, process, and map
hydrographic survey data for federally authorized civil and military navigation channels and shore
protection projects throughout the US including Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The main
purpose of collecting hydrographic survey data is to be used by engineers and scientists to monitor
channel shoaling conditions. Survey results in the form of a bathymetric map become a decision
making tool for channel maintenance operations, channel deepening contracts, planning studies,
3

environmental monitoring, near shore engineering

designs, location ( and sometimes removal of
obstructions such as sunken vessels, sediment
transport modeling, and beach nourishment
projects. Other objectives include volume
computations for fair and equitable payment on
dredging contracts. The overarching reason to
perform hydrographic surveys is to ensure safe
navigation conditions for all commercial and public
users within the limits of the federal waterways.
Hydrographic surveys are very complex in terms of
(electronic) equipment integration, logistics on field
operations and costs.

Hydrographic surveys support a

variety of activities including:
nautical charting,
port and harbor operations
(maintenance &
dredging),
coastal engineering
(beach erosion and
replenishment studies)
coastal zone management
offshore resource mapping

On smaller scale local marine environments, the

survey operations can be far less complex. Surveys
conducted in shallow waters, lakes and rivers may invoke conventional (manual) surveying
procedures.
Nautical Charting: Periodic hydrographic surveys must be performed to determine shipping
channel conditions. Minimum controlling depths along with location of shoals and other critical
information regarding safe navigation gets documented. Reports of Channel Conditions are
accessible to waterway users.
Port and Harbor Operations: Survey data are required for effective management of water
resources and harbor estuaries. Operations include maintenance dredging, debris removal for clear
passage of vessels, environmental restoration, marine structural design, and many others.
Coastal Geomorphology: Hydrographic surveys provide data for morphodynamic classification of
coastal areas from sea state (breaking wave heights), bathymetry, tide regimes (F-factor computed
from tide constituents).
Coastal Engineering: Coastal mapping data is required for civil works projects such as
revetments, jetties, and beach nourishments. Hydrographic survey data is used to understand
various processes that shape the coastlines and human interaction with these processes.
Coastal Zone Management: Hydrographic surveys provide data for coastal hazards and
vulnerability assessment of coastal landscapes in relation to climate change, subsidence, glacial
rebound, and others. Bathymetric data provide ancillary information on indicators that capture the
biophysical conditions and morphodynamic classification.
Offshore Resource Mapping: Offshore energy resources include wind, wave, and geologic mineral
(oil, natural gas etc) deposits. Surveys and Geographic Information Systems are invaluable tools to
identify the exploitation of these energy resources.

1.2 Disciplines Associated with Hydrographic Surveying

Hydrography relies on a variety of scientific and engineering disciplines. Figure 1 illustrates the core
disciplines like Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Cartography, Global Positioning System, Oceanography,
Tides, Physics and Mathematics. These are the various disciplines that influence the science and
products delivered by hydrographic survey.

Hydrography

Geodesy

Global Positioning
System

Acoustics

Oceanography

Photogrammetry

Dive operations

Cartography

Survey Planning

Tides

Figure 1. Disciplines that Influence the Science of Hydrography

Geodesy is an interdisciplinary science which uses space-borne and airborne remotely sensed, and
ground-based measurements to study the shape and size of the Earth, the planets and their satellites,
and their changes; to precisely determine position and velocity of points or objects at the surface or
orbiting the planet, within a realized terrestrial reference system, and to apply these knowledge to a
variety of scientific and engineering applications, using mathematics, physics, astronomy, and
computer science.
Oceanography is the scientific discipline concerned with all aspects of the worlds oceans and seas,
including their physical and chemical properties, their origin and geologic framework, and the life
forms that inhabit the marine environment. Traditionally, oceanography has been divided into four
separate but related branches: physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, marine geology, and
marine ecology. Physical oceanography deals with the properties of seawater (temperature, density,
pressure, and so on), its movement (i.e., waves, currents, tides), and the interactions between the
ocean waters and land surface waters (rivers and streams).
Remote Sensing: is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of an area
of the earths surface by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance from the targeted
5

area. Various remote sensing techniques of remote sensing include photogrammetry, laser-ranging
such as LIDAR (LIght Detection and Ranging), and RADAR (RAdio Detection And Ranging)
commonly used for acquiring high-resolution land cover topographic data. Photogrammetry has two
distinct branches of application including the metric branch which involves precise measurements
and computations regarding the size, shape, and position of photographic features. The interpretive
branch deals only with recognition and identification of the photographic features.
Cartography is the art, science and technology of making maps. The process of map-making often
involves five steps, that is, selection of a number of features
in the real world, classification of selected features into
groups, generalization (including simplification) of jagged
coastlines, exaggeration of features that are too small to show
at the scale of the map, and symbolization to present the
different classes of features chosen. The cartographic process
greatly enhances the presentation of geographical
information in graphic format. Digital cartography combines
with GIS as an effective tool for coherent data analysis such
as examining the relationship between two or more
distributions - analogous to map interpretation from
transparent overlays of conventional map separates.
Acoustics: is the study of the behavior of sound in water.
Mapping of submerged topography (bathymetry) was made
easier with the advent of electronic depth sounding
equipment (echo sounder). The echo sounder works by
transmitting sound waves toward the submerged topography (or ocean floor). A delicate receiver
interprets the wave reflected from the bottom and a clock precisely measures the pulse travel time to
a fraction of a second. Depth measurement by SOund Navigation And Ranging (SONAR) is
modulated by environmental and chemical conditions of the water column.
1.3 Basic Measurement and Survey Equipment
The basic measurement for hydrographic surveys is depth measurements. Depth
measurement during the pre-1920s was very rudimentary. The photograph shows a surveyor who is
handling a depth measurement or sample sound calibration measurements.
Planning and design of the hydrographic survey must produce an accurate and reliable chart
derived from sufficient data coverage. Figure 1.1 illustrates the basic elements for designing a survey.
The design of the survey must produce an accurate and reliable chart derived from sufficient data
coverage. For example, the production of the bathymetric contour depends on spatial resolution.
By definition, the resolution (S) describes how close two objects can be and still be determined
unambiguously.
Hydrographic surveying (for dredging operations or bathymetric mapping) involves synergy of
three major surveying units. Three major components of hydrographic surveying include the marine
vessel that carries the crew and supplies, the geodetic positioning technology, and the depth

measuring equipment.
1.3.1 Marine Vessel
The size and payload of the marine vessel depends on the extent of the survey project
requirements. Surveys can be classified by vessel size -small scale (from wading to small boats),
medium scale (using medium size boats and acoustic methods), and regional scale surveys using
deep sea research vessels with state-of-the art multi-disciplinary data collection systems. Essential
equipment list for each survey is as follows;
A) Small Surveys:
1. Vessel: Oars, Life jackets, Gas tanks (minimum 2), extra oil, and 10 HP engine
2. Depth and Position: 50 leadline, range poles, and plans. Survey equipment may include
Total Station Instrument (TSI), compensating level as required, prism pole with
extension rods. Deeper water requires a fathometer and transducer installation.
3. Miscellaneous: Radio, 300 ft tape, Navigation chart, staff sheets, Batteries (2), repair kit,
tool box
B) Medium Scale Surveys:
1. Vessel: 25-65 ft vessel, licensed operator.
2. Depth and Position: Echosounder with Transducer and aedquate power from batteries or
generator, tool box, transducers , GPS or TSI positioning, motion reference units (MRU)
3. Miscellaneous: A small vessel for the near-shore shallow water survey system to perform
as rover platform.
C) Regional Scale Surveys:
1. Vehicle: 65 ft and larger research vessels , with competent crew and equipment.
2. Depth and Position: Multi-beam transducer and GPS.
3. Other Equipment: Cameras for stereo imaging (require positioning of frames) Integrated
multi-disciplinary data collection systems (e.g.,
gravity, magnetics), requires accurate in-ship surveys
for
sensor
integration,
calibration,
and
synchronization.
,
4.
1.3.2 Positioning equipment
Offshore positioning equipment has been revolutionized
due to dramatic evolution in sensor technology and computer
science. Traditional offshore equipment includes a sextant,
transit, stadia, and an electronic distance measuring (EDM)
device. Nowadays, several methods for horizontal positioning
include optical, land-based electronic ranging, and space-based
positioning. A basic method of positioning is the resection.
However, the positioning methodology employed on any
project will be evaluated based on site-specific conditions and
project specification.

Figure 1.2: Acoustic depth

measurement
7

The preferred method of positioning for-offshore surveys is GPS. Wide- and narrow-lane GPS
observations have proven to be the most efficient and cost effective for offshore hydrographic
surveys.
1.3.3 Depth Sounding Equipment
A transducer initiates a sonic pulse. The sound wave propagates through the water and a
receiver detects the return pulse. A basic technique of depth measurement is using a Single Beam
Echo Sounder (SBES). An echo sounder performs the following operations;

Transmit Sound
Measure round trip travel time.
Use sound speed to get distance
The depth (or distance) is computed from the two-way travel time as

time speed
2
The transducer interfaces with the depth sounder which outputs a profile of the bathymetry
or bottom return. Two important components of depth sounding equipment include the
frequency and the beam divergence (or cone angle).
Distance =

Frequency
Most single frequency sonar units operate in the range of about 24 - 210 kHz (kilohertz). A
few are dual frequency capable, meaning they can use both 50 and 200 kHz transducers. Typically,
high frequency (192 or 200 kHz) sonar units provide the best resolution and definition of
submerged structures and targets. 50 kHz units have much greater depth penetration capability, but
show less definition. 24 kHz transducers also have a much wider cone angle than 192 or 210 kHz
transducers.
It is critical to match the transducer's frequency to that of the sonar unit. For example, a 192
kHz sonar unit requires a 192 kHz transducer.
Acoustic Parameters (Instrument Specific)
Characteristics of echo sounders are determined by transducer;
1) Directivity
2) Beam width
3) Beam steering and side lobes
Table 1.0 lists the depth versus frequency for standard hydrographic sounding surveys. The signal
frequency determines the range (distance) and sound penetration depth into sediments.
The range is inversely proportional to the frequency:

1
,
f
and the penetration depth into sediment is inversely proportional to the frequency:
1
PSEDIMENT .
f
For bathymetric Echo Sounders (Phillipe, 2002) we
R IMAGE

Table 1:0
Property

Depth (m)
<100
<1500
>1500

Sediment

Frequency (kHz)
f 200
12 < f < 50
12 < f < 50
f <8

Other

Beam width depends on the acoustic wave and the size of the transducer
Cone Angle
A transducer's cone angle determines its footprint size and coverage area of the underwater
world. The wider the cone angle the greater the footprint. For example, a 200 kHz transducer can
have either a wide (20) or narrow (3) cone angle. A 24 kHz transducer may come with a standard
19 cone angle. Manufacturers also produce dual frequency echosounders that use 2 separate
transducers for high or low frequency operations.. Generally, it is better to use a wide cone angle for
finding minimum soundings in shallow to medium depths, since the echosounder will record the
first return. The narrow cone will show greater structural detail (spatial resolution) due to its narrow
beam.
The depth capability of a sonar unit
depends on its transmitter power, receiver,
sensitivity, frequency, transducer, and transducer
installation. Other things that effect depth capability
include:

Water depth is the one data type

that is common to all
hydrographic surveys.

1. water conditions and type (in general, SONAR

will show greater depth readings in fresh water than in salt water), and
2. bottom conditions (mud, gravel, morphology, etc.).

The vertical structure of the (oceanic) water column is variable. The water column is
stratified into various layers of various chemical composition. Accordingly, the sound velocity will

change based on these varying conditions. Hydrographic surveying requires specific knowledge of
the physical oceanography
Seawater (or fresh water lakes and rivers) is a medium in which many hydrographic
measurements take place for various engineering projects. Knowledge of seawaters physical
properties and of acoustic wave characteristics is important. Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) waves
are excellent for propagation through the atmosphere or vacuum but hardly penetrate nor propagate
in a liquid. Acoustic waves (sonic or ultra-sonic) achieve good penetration and propagation in a
liquid. Factors affecting wave propagation include:
2. Temperature (T): sound velocity is a function of temperature field distribution. Variation of
1C causes a 4.5 m/s variation in velocity.
3. Salinity (Sy): is the measure of % of dissolved salts and other minerals (= ppt by volume)
4. Pressure (P) is a function of depth. The rate of change of velocity with depth is
approximately 1.6 m/2 per 10 atmosphere
5. Density () is a function of both temperature and pressure. The largest influence on density
is water compressibility with depth.
Other environmental and hydrodynamic processes effect the characteristics of the water
column. Figure 1.3 illustrates most of the major processes that affect the water temperature and
salinity variability of the water column.

Precipitation and
evaporation
Longshore currents
Glacial melting
Surface water run-off
Water circulation
Solar heating (Steric)
Wind-induced Upwelling
Tide-induced mixing

All these processes may not

occur simultaneously although
a few of them can have an
appreciable affect on the
Figure 1.3 Processes that affect water temperature and salinity
acoustic depth measurements.
Because of this variability, the sound velocity variability must be check frequency as the survey
progress and the sea state changes. Several sound velocity calibrations measurements must be
performed using a CTD

10

1.4 Survey Standards and Procedures

Traditional hydrographic survey, in its most basic form, is an open-ended traverse.
Horizontal positioning has no independent check therefore the survey precision depends on the
measuring method used. The vertical accuracy is more uncontrolled due to variable physical
properties of the water column and the characteristic (morphology and type) of thebottom.
Figure 1.4 shows the corrections that should be applied to acoustic depth measurements.
Instantaneous Sea
Surface
Dynamic Transducer
Draft Correction

n
Transducer Tide Corr

Observed
Depth

Actual
Depth
Sound Velocity
Correction

Chart
Depth

SEDIMENT

Figure 1.4: Corrections to acoustic depth measurements

11

Table 1.0 (taken from Table 3-1 of the USACE Survey Manual EM 1110-2-1003) shows the
technical performance standards for hydrographic surveying activities of the Corps. These standards
are mandatory for navigation and dredging support Surveys. The standards for "Other Surveys and
Studies" are recommended. These standards are designed to reflect current survey instrumentation,
practices, and capabilities; however, it is fully recognized that exceptions to these standards will exist
for some applications, or as technological advances occur.
Table 1.0. Minimum Performance Standards for Corps of Engineers Hydrographic Surveys (Mandatory)
PROJECT CLASSIFICATION
Navigation & Dredging Support Surveys
Bottom Material Classification
Hard
RESULTANT ELEVATION/DEPTH ACCURACY (95%)
System
Manual
Acoustic
Acoustic
Acoustic

Depth (d)
d<15
d<15
40>d>15
d>40

0.25
0.5
1.0
1.0

Soft

Other General Surveys &

Studies (Recommended
Standards)

0.25
0.5
1.0
2.0

0.5
1.0
2.0
2.0

>1 m cube

n/a

n/a

5m (16 ft)

5m (16 ft)

REPORTED FEATURE HORIZONTAL LOCATION ACCURACY (95%)

Plotted depth location
2m (6ft)
5m (16 ft)
Fixed planimetric features
3m (10ft)
3m (10ft)
Fixed navigation aids
3m (10ft)
3m (10ft)
Floating navigation aids
10m (30ft)
10m (30ft)

5m (16 ft)
3m (10ft)
3m (10ft)
10m (30ft)

SUPPLEMENTAL CONTROL ACCURACY

Horizontal control
3rd Order (I)
Vertical control
3rd Order

3rd Order (I)

3rd Order

OBJECT/SHOAL DETECTION CAPABILITY

Minimum object size (95%
>0.5 cube
confidence)
Minimum # of acoustic hits
>3
HORIZONTAL POSITIONING
SYSTEM ACCURACY (95%)

2m (6ft)

WATER SURFACE MODEL

ACCURACY

0.5 depth accuracy

standard

MINIMUM SURVEY
CONVERAGE DENSITY

100% Sweep

3rd Order (I)

3rd Order

0.5 depth accuracy

NTE 200ft (60m)

NTE 500 ft (150m)

2/day
1/project
Required (multibeam)
0.2 ft

1/day
1/project
Optional
0.5 ft

QUALITY CONTROL & ASSURANCE CRITERIA

Sound velocity QC calibration
Position calibration QC check
QA performance test
Maximum allowable bias

>2/day
1/day
Mandatory
0.1 ft

12

Notes:
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14

2 Geodetic Control and Tidal Effects

2.1 Geodetic Reference and Coordinate Systems

Ellipsoid

Y( N)

N
U
E

Greenwich
Meridian

Geoid
COM

SHORE

Equatorial plane

Vessel
X(E)

A) Geodetic Reference System

B) Chart Coordinate System

Figure 2.1: Geodetic and Chart Coordinate Systems

Geocentric Cartesian coordinates, illustrated in Figure 2.1 (A), of a point located by GPS on
the surface of the Earth is based on the WGS84 reference ellipsoid and defined as follows;
X = ( N R + h) cos cos
Y = ( N R + h) cos sin
Z = [ N R (1 e 2 ) + h] sin
where the geometric quantity N R is the radius of curvature at the point and e is the eccentricity of
the WGS84 ellipsoid. The GPS height of the point is given by h=H+N; the sum of the orthometric
height (H) and the geoid undulation (N). On the open sea we can assume that H is zero. The
topocentric coordinates of a point (shown as a plane perpendicular to the ellipsoidal normal) are
described by East, North, and Up (E, N, U) axes. The conversion from geocentric to topocentric
coordinates involves a coordinate transformation. The magnitude of the Up coordinate can be set to
zero in most marine environments.
The chart coordinate system, shown in Figure 2.1 (B), consists of Eastings and Northings (E,
N). The coordinates are derived from rigorous application of the sound principles of map
15

projections. The map projection is constrained by conditions (length-preserving, area- and shapepreserving, or conformal) and purpose of the chart. The cylinder is the intermediate mapping
surface for the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection. The UTM coordinate axes are
orthogonal. This projection is preferred by the NATO Armies, Air Forces and Navies for charting
applications.
2.2 Horizontal Positioning
A) Conventional (Manual) Positioning
Pre-electronic positioning includes visual and optical methods of positioning.
Visual methods (obsolete) include Stadia/Azimuth, Sextant Resection, Triangulation, and
Tag line procedures. For example, a three-point hydrographic Sextant fix was obtained from two
measured angles between three points of known geographic position (i.e., onshore monuments).
Other optical methods include shore-based theodolite intersection methods. A minimum of two
control stations must be occupied. This method is labor-intensive and weather-dependent. On the
other hand, this method is advantageous in harbors, rivers and other restricted areas where
electronic measurements are impractical.
Another approach is the Baseline Range Alignment method which involves setting a baseline
along the shore. Stakes are set at even stations along the baseline. Perpendicular offset visual ranges
are placed at even stationing to form an offshore imaginary survey grid. Survey vessel positioning is
by intersecting point projected from the baseline range alignment stations that were previously set
on the shore. This method of positioning is relatively inexpensive, perhaps more economical than
GPS on small projects, and is reliable since no electronics are required. It may be still useful on small
dredging projects.
Optical methods include Triangulation methods.
B) Electronic Positioning:
Electronic Distance measurements include short range, medium range, and long-range in the
Range-Range positioning include
Intersection method
Resection Method
Range-Azimuth positioning may be still in use on some projects using a total station instrument.
Automatic extracting azimuth and range updates facilitate dynamic computing of the vessels
offshore position using the resection method.
Differential Satellite Positioning (DGPS) involves code or phase range measurement. For example, the
pseudorange measurement from one receiver at Station A observing GPS satellite S described as

R AS = AS + c (T ATM ) A + (TTROP ) A + (TION ) A + C A + C S

S

16

where AS is the geometric range, (c T ATM ) A is the atmospheric correction, (c TTROP ) A is the
S

tropospheric delay, (c TION ) A is the ionospheric delay, C A is the receiver clock error, and C S is
the satellite clock error.
S

Observation differencing techniques reduced the correction terms (biases) for high accuracy
position fixes. Furthermore, linear combinations of GPS phase measurements like wide and narrow
land observations.
2.3 Vertical Datum and Positioning
Geodetic Vertical Datum
Tidal Datums
Sea Surface, Lakes, and River Levels
In Figure 2.2, the elevation and state of the Instantaneous Sea Surface Topography (ISST) is
induced by various factors including wind, tides, and currents. Hydrographic surveys provide depth
from ISST and bathymetric contours relative to a vertical datum. The bathymetric survey datum is
the North American Vertical Datum. A vertical datum is a geodetic datum - established by
adjustment of orthometric leveling nets. It is a reference (surface) for national vertical control
networks. Vertical datums include the NGVD of 1929 called the NGVD29.
NGVD29 is derived from adjustment of 1st order level nets of US and Canada 21Tidegagues
(TGs) (US) and 5 TGs (Canada) held fixed. Comparison between the NAVD29 and MSL reveals
spatio-temporal variations due to
1. many unaccounted for physical variables affecting sea level
2. MSL is hourly average height over 19yr period of observations
3. non-linear relationship between mean tide level (MTL) and NGVD29
4. monthly MTL (planes) changes due to major seasonal changes resulting from barometric
pressure, steric level, river discharge and wind effects
ISST

Surface

Chart Datum
NAVD

Geoid

Ellipsoid

Figure 2.2: Geodetic Datums and Sea Level

17

Tidal Datum:
Definition: A plane of reference derived from rise/fall of oceanic tides.
Various datum planes: Mean Higher High Water (MHHW), Mean High Water (MHW), Mean Sea
Level (MSL), Mean Tidal Level (MTL), Mean Lower Water (MLW), and Mean Lower Low Water
(MLLW).
Datums relative to a specific time (i.e., Epoch) can be determined; located on the ground
and mapped. Datums can be determined by observations when needed (i.e., settle dispute,
engineering projects, or scientific investigation). Tidal Datum (TD) are used for engineering
projects, coastal boundary delineation, and nautical charting
(Q. What is the relationship of a TD to the NAVD?)
1) Engineering Design
TD defined by the low water - for safe under keel clearance for safe ship navigation in
harbors
TD required for design of structures in coastal regions including jetty reconstruction,
dredging for under keel clearance, ship navigation, and beach replenishment etc.,
2) Seaward boundary mapping
Establish Seaward Boundary for
1. Offshore oil industry required definition of federal boundary for tax claim revenue
purpose
2. Private-State boundary delineation definition due to coastline variations
Shoreline: is the intersection of the TD plane with respect to the coast (beach topography). A Tidal
boundary is defined by local TD. The amount of error in the Tidal datum (eTD) determination and
the slope angle ( ) of beach have considerable influence in delineating the true location of the
shoreline boundary (See Figure 2.3). The relationship of the error in the shore boundary error line
(SBL) and the beach topography is described as
e SBL = eTD cot( )

Sea Surface

Shore Line
Boundary

Beach Topography

Tidal Datum

Figure 2.3: Seaward Boundary and Tidal Datum

Example: Compute the error in the seaward boundary line (SBL) due to TD error of 1 ft on a
beach slope of 5 degrees
18

Solution:

e SBL = 1.0 cot(5 0 ) = 11.4 ft

3) Nautical Charting
Tide determination by GPS observations is not straightforward. However, RTK provides
convenience in the form of

b = hGPS + F a
where b is the height different between the BM and the Chart datum, a is the GPS antenna height, is
the hGPS is the geometric height difference between the GPS receiver and the geodetic BM, and F
is the height from the GPS antenna to the transducer. Tide (T) is given by
T = a + b hGPS F
2.4 Fundamentals of Ocean Tides
Oceanic tides result from the gravitational pull of the moon, the sun, and the planets and
from local meteorological disturbances. The tide is the alternating rise and fall in sea level (or water
surface of a tidal lake of creek) produced by the gravitational force of the moon and the sun. Other
non-astronomical factors, such as a meteorological forces, bathymetry, coastline configuration also
play an important role in shaping the tide (NOS, 1976). The planes of the moons orbit around the
earth and the earth orbits around the sun are nearly parallel. It takes 24 lunar hours or solar hours
for the earth to expose the same point to the moon or the sun. During this time interval, the bulge
of tidal forces will pass twice through this point.
Field Measurements
Many hydrographic projects require preliminary analysis of site condition related to the
shoreline and tides. Tidal waters in estuaries have a different behavior than tides at coastal tide
stations where the coastal shoreline if fairly uncomplicated. However there are a few general
measurement strategies that apply equally to field measurements for tidal studies at the open coastal
waters tide stations and for tide ion estuaries
Measuring water levels at coastal stations is fairly straightforward. The equipment includes a
graduated staff although more sophisticated instruments are generally used nowadays. There is a
great variety of meters which purport to measure currents, especially tidal currents. Data from these
monitoring stations are collected and synthesized for a mathematical model that present the tide
height in terms of its constituents.
The purpose in considering the observed tide as a sum of constituent components is that it
allows prediction of tides. If the amplitude and phase lag of any significant constituents are known
for a given location, that information and knowledge of certain astronomic factors allow the
prediction of both the amplitude and time of the tides at that location for years in advance. The

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relative elevation (h) of the water level (i.e., tide) at any time (t) may be represented harmonically by
the following formula
N

h( , ) = H 0 ( , ) + f i H i ( , ) cos[ai (T ) t + (V0 + ) ( , )]

(5.1)

i =1

where
H0(, ): mean height of water level above prediction datum
Hi(, ): mean amplitude of constituent i
ai(T)
: speed of constituent i
fi
: factor of reducing Hi (, ) to prediction year
V0 + : equilibrium argument of constituent i at time t
(, ) :phase angle of constituent i
t:
time reckoned from beginning of prediction year
In equation (5.1), the speed ai(T) of each constituent is known as a function of the period T; and the
factors f and (V0 + ) are available from astronomic tables. The mean sea level, H0, is site-specific.
2.4.1 Geophysical Effects on Water Depth
The relative elevation of water levels are effected by many gravitational effects as described above
and also by geophysical processes inside the earth. The earth is not a rigid non-deformable rock
body but rather it is a visco-elastic planet. Its rheological properties and chemical composition
allows its outer crustal shell to deform under various changes of pressure and temperature. A few of
the external and internal forces (loading) that deforms the earth surface and hence the relative
elevation of surface water levels include

Atmospheric (tidal) loading

Solid Earth Tides
Post Glacial Rebound
Crustal Tectonics
Surface (and Mantle) Mass Wasting

Atmospheric tides manifest themselves by a periodic variation in the barometric pressure over a
give point. The apparent amplitude of this oscillation is caused not by the tidal forces but by the
diurnal heating and cooling of the atmosphere. The amplitude of the true atmospheric tide is on the
order of 0.03 mbars, barely above the limits of resolution of a standard barometer. Such a slight
variation in pressure is easily masked by the much stronger atmospheric disturbances which are
almost always present in mid-latitudes. However, it is relatively easier to measure atmospheric tide
along equatorial regions because along the equator space weather and atmospheric perturbations are
fewer than at low to mid latitude regions.
Solid body tides (i.e., crustal tides) are extremely minute in amplitude, but thanks to the
development of ultrasensitive instrument and GPS they may now be measured to a surprising degree
of accuracy. Everybody is used to the ocean tide. The pull of the Moon and the Sun on the ocean
causes cyclic variations in local sea level that can exceed 10 meters in some places. What is less well
known is that the Earths solid outer surface itself also responds to luni-solar gravitational attraction.

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The solid earth tide (body tide) often reaches +/- 20 cm, and can exceed 30 cm. While ocean tides
can be easily measured relative to the solid Earth, solid earth tides are easily measured only with
satellite systems or sensitive gravimeters. The component of the force perpendicular to the surface
of the earth affects g by about 0.0002 percent (%) while the tilt in the horizontal induced by the tidal
stresses causes a deviation from the vertical of the order of 0.03 of arc. Crustal tides are disturbed
by atmospheric storms and oceanic tides, among other things, so that the instruments devised to
measure them must be housed at the bottom of a mine shaft in order to escape the vibrations and
temperature changes, preferably at a site removed a fair distance from the ocean.
Post-glacial rebound (sometimes called glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA)) is the rise of land
masses that were depressed by the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period, through a
process known as isostasy. It affects, the Great Lakes of Canada and the United States, northern
Europe especially Scotland, Fennoscandia and northern Denmark, parts of Siberia, Canada and in
the southern hemisphere such as Patagonia (southern part of Chile and Argentina), and Antarctica.

2.5

Methods to Establish Local Datums for Engineering Projects

A. Extension from Established or Published Tidal Datum

This is a simple method of extending a known tidal datum from a NOS tide station located near
a project site. This method can be used if the project site is along an open shoreline and less than 1
mile from an NOS tide station located in the same water body, with MHW published on either
NGVD29 or NAVD88. Here it is assumed that all the tidal characteristics at the primary station
applied equally at the subordinate station
B. Extrapolation using Very Short Tide Studies
Short-term study methods consist of simultaneous tide observations at the project site
(subordinate station) and at a NOS control tide station. Short-term tide studies use as few as three
tide cycles to determine a local MHW. Three effective methods can be employed for extrapolating
MHW with short tide studies:
1. Height difference method;

MHWP = HWP ( HWC MHWC )

where MHWP computed mean high water at subordinate tide station; HWP the observed high water
at subordinate tide station; HWC observed high water at the control tide station; and HWCPUBL is the
published (NOS) mean high water at control tide station.
2. Range ratio method;
MHWP = MTLC + TACP + MRC

TR P
,
2TRC

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where MTLC is the published mean tide level at the control station, TACP is the difference between
the peak tide amplitudes at the subordinate station P and at the control station (i.e.,
TACP = TAP TAC ), TAP is the observed peak tide amplitude (i.e., halfway point between low and
high water), and the observed tide ranges TLC and TR P are the high water minus the low water at
the control and subordinate stations, respectively.
3. Amplitude ratio method.
TA
TR P = TRC P
TAC
where TRC is the observed tidal range (high water minus low water) at the control tide stations;
TR P is the computed range of tide at the subordinate tide stations P, and TAP and TAC are the
observed tidal amplitudes at the control and subordinate tide stations, respectively.
C. Interpolation using Very Short Tide Studies
The interpolation method can be used if a project site is located between two NOS tide
stations on the same water body. The tide stations may be separated by several miles if the elevation
of MHW and the mean range of tide at both tide stations have similar values. A linear interpolated
value of MHW at the project site is computed by utilizing published (by NOS) MHW elevations on
either NGVD29 or NAVD88.

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3. Depth Determination
3.1 Conventional (Manual) Methods
The simplest approach uses a winch-powered Tagline for range measurements and a Lead Line
Chain, with a weight attached, for depth measurement. The tag line is anchored on the shore.
Another conventional method of depth (bathymetry) determination involves the use of range pole,
small floating platform (e.g., raft, boat, etc.), and transit. Figure 3.1 illustrates the basic set up using a
prism-mounted range pole.
Prism-mounted
Range pole

TSI

BM
Water Surface

Mudline
SEDIMENT

Figure 3.1: Conventional Bathymetric Surveying

3.2 Acoustic Depth Determination Method
Acoustic methods on water depths determination requires specific knowledge of the physical
oceanography
1. Underwater acoustics
2. Vessel Attitude and Heave
measurements
Measurement Calibration
1. Sound velocity Profiler to
measure the velocity versus
depth (z) through the water
column
2. electronic instrument (CTD)
to measure conductivity ,
temperature, and depth (z)
3. Other complex methods
beyond the scope of this workshop
Underwater range measurements are obtained from
SOund Navigation And Ranging (SONAR)

Figure 3.2: Survey Boat with Acoustic

Measuring Equipment

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The SONAR equation, given as the signal of the return echo energy (EE) level, is described as

S EE = S SL 2 TL ( NL DI ) + S BS S DT
where

S SL is the source level

TL is the signal transmission loss
NL is the noise level
DI is the source directivity index
S BS is the backscatter coefficient, and
S DT is coefficient for the signal detection threshold.
The source level S SL is the acoustic signal intensity of planar wave. The signal transmission
loss, TL , is due to absorption, spherical spreading, and scattering by suspended particulates,
bubbles, and debris etc.,).
The power ( ) of the acoustic pulse is equal to the intensity (I) multiplied by the area (A)
of the ensonified region. The equation is given as;
= I 1 A1 = I 2 A2

where A1 = R12 and A2 = R22 and is the solid angle.

Principles of Single Beam Echo Sounding (SBES)
The transducer transmits acoustic energy into the water in the form of a vertically oriented beam.
Reflected energy (i.e., echo) is sensed by the transducer. The measured depth (z) is given as;

1
t c ,
2
where c is the velocity of sound in water column t is the time interval (in seconds) between pulse
transmission and echo reception. (See Figure 3.2)
z ( m) =

Sources of Errors on Depth Measurements

1) Bottom slop (and roughness). The quantity (dz) depends on beam width and slope
2) Sound velocity variation (spatio-temporal variation)
3) Time measurement
4) Attitude of vessel (where R , P , Y >

)
2
5) Draft: transducer draft depends on coverage load during the survey (fuel and water
consumption during survey will results in variation in measurement) is a function of the float
area at sea surface
6) Recording errors analogue versus digital

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Depth Reduction equation is given as;

DC = d 0 + VD + C SV + C HV + CT ,
where

DC is the final charted depth

d 0 is the uncorrected depth observation
VD is the change in vessel draft
C SV is the sound velocity correction
C HV is the total vessel heave correction
CT is the tidal height correction
Tidal reduction for the vertical datum (co-tidal model or weighted average of the tide Gauge (TG)
measurement
Instantaneous
Sea Surface
Topography

Transducer

Ensonified
Area

SEDIMENT

DW
Footprint

Figure 3.2: Acoustic Beam Characteristics

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Coverage/Footprint
Coverage is defined as the amount of points (point density) per square meters of the
ensonified areas. It refers to the size of the area covered by the footprint on a flat surface. Figure
xxx illustrates the for a single beam
The seafloor coverage (ensonified area) is circular over a flat and horizontal sea bed. Over
inclined or sloping bathymetry, the shape of the ensonified area will resemble more of an ellipse
than a circle the steeper the seabed gradient. The area within the beam is given by the footprint size
(Dw). The diameter of the footprint is

DW = 2 z tan
2
Coverage of the seafloor is a function of several factors including
1) dimension of the ensonified area (footprint)
2) beam spacing across track
3) ping rate
4) vessel speed
5) vessel attitude (i.e., pitch, roll, and yaw)
For multi beam echo sounding (MBES) the swath width (Dw) is defined as

DW = 2 z tan

2
where is angular coverage between the outer beams.
Corrections to echo sounding include the velocity of sound correction, dynamic draft
correction, tide or water level reduction, instrument correction. Figure 3.3 shows the relationship of
these corrections

3.3 Real-time Hydrographic Mapping

Real-time mapping require the expert time synchronization of depth measuring systems and
the three-dimensional positioning systems. In addition, a critical element in dynamic mapping is the
correct integration of various technologies. Figure 3.3 illustrates the various corrections that require
successful real-time dynamic hydrographic mapping.

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S2

S3

S1

Elapsed Time Depth

Dynamic
Transducer
Draft Corrn
Instr. Corrn

Actual Depth

Datum

Tide
Reduction/Corrn

hGPS

Chart Depth

BM

Instantaneous
Sea Surface
Topography

SEDIMENT

Sound Velocity
Correction
Figure 3.3: Acoustic Hydrographic Survey

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4. Field Operations and Survey Procedures

Field operations and survey procedures

Data Processing

4.1 Field Operations

Two common methods include manual (conventional) and automated. Manual depth
measurement techniques may use a lead line for depth and tagline for position. A sounding pole
with a prism may also be used with a TSI to obtain bottom elevations. Automated depth
measurement systems involve streaming positioning data from a GPS or robotic TSI, depth data
from an electronic echosounder, and motion data from an MRU into a computer to be integrated
and recorded.
4.1.1

Conventional Surveys

Manual hydrographic surveys can use a

small marine vessel (e.g., less than 20 ft boat
Boat). A minimum of two-man crew is
needed to perform this survey. A robotic TSI
or RTK gps setup can reduce this survey to a
one-man operation, however, safety must be
considered if working alone on the water.
The advantage of this conventional
approach is that it is cheaper to obtain the
equipment and much simpler to calibrate. It
also provides direct measurement of the
bottom. The disadvantages are that this
method can be error prone, labor-intensive, time consuming, and yield limited coverage.
Project specifications typically dictate the method to be used to obtain a hydrographic survey. As
with any survey, the purpose of the hydrographic survey to be performed is a strong consideration
in the planning process. Field reconnaissance and survey design are always required for medium and
large scale surveys.

4.1.2

Equipment Calibration

Equipment calibration is a critical element of hydrographic surveying. From the smallest and
simplest platforms to large surveying ships, it is critical that all equipment is properly calibrated.
Calibration includes the measurement of offsets between all peripheral equipment. Each vessel has
its own coordinate system. The center of mass is typically used as the origin. The relative location
of singlebeam and multibeam transducers, the inertial motion unit, gps antennas, any prisms
mounted must be measured and accounted for prior to collecting data. Typically the keel is used as

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one axis, a line 90 degrees to the keel passing through the center of mass is used as the second axis.
The third axis is vertical while the vessel is at rest.
It is ideal to survey the vessel while it is out of the water and on blocks. This allows careful
measurements to be taken without the vessel rising or falling due to tide, or moving horizontally due
to current or wind. Once all offset measurements are completed, further calibration is still needed.
The BAR CHECK is a mandatory calibration procedure that should be performed prior to any
critical survey as well as on a regular basis. This applies to both Single and Multi Beam surveys.
There are different methods for completing a bar check. If a velocity probe is available, a velocity
cast is taken. A bar or plate is then suspended in the water a known distance below the transducer.
Correcting for draft, the distance reported by the echosounder is compared to the known distance.
The velocity probe should also be tested by taking readings in distilled water of a known
temperature and comparing the readings to theoretical readings.
Latency tests are performed with single beam systems to measure the difference in time between
positions and depths. PATCH tests are performed on multibeam systems to calibrate vessel pitch,
roll, yaw, and latency measurements. If real time kinematic GPS is used for tide determination at the
vessel, the values must be compared with an independent measurement such as a tidestaff.
4.2 Data Processing
Conventional surveys require post processing of total station (distance, Azimuth, and vertical angle)
data to compute time-stamped intersections (x, y, Depth) points.
Electronic (acoustic) methods require automated data processing. Complex data analysis includes
tidal correction, the application of the depth reduction equation, removing artifacts from the dataset,
setting beam angles, sorting parameters, and various other parameters. Data processing converts
data from a raw state into various user defined products.

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Figure 3: Ellipsoid-Geoid Separation Correction

Bathymetric chart (contour) lines are generated by a suitable interpolation method using the depths
at the grid nodes.
Industry standard software include HYPACK etc. The main features of hydrographic data
processing and mapping softwares should include
1. Survey Preparation Module that allow
Loading of background charts
Selection of geodetic parameters (ellipsoid datum, Projection, datum Transformation)
Planning and designing ship lines
Hardware and vessel setup controls
2. Data Collections (Survey) Module
On-the-Fly display of profiles
Display vessel parameters (tracking etc)
Data entries (tide, draft, sound velocity corrections etc)
3. Post Processing and Mapping Module
Data thinning and editing
Logging events in survey
Contouring (generate TIN model)
Areas and volumes Computations

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4. 3 Survey Coverage and Resolution

The spacing between stations is project and site specific. For example, a 50-ft nominal grid
spacing interval spacing may be insufficient to map the structural or morphological details of an
unexpected submerged structure or dumping mound. Higher spatial resolution sounding may be
required in the vicinity of the feature to be mapped. Single beam line spacing may vary from 10 feet
to over 1000 feet. Lines run in the opposite direction may also be required to fully define an area or
for QC purposes. Multibeam line spacing may vary due to depth, beam angle, and overlap required.
For example, if 45 degree either side of nadir is used, the coverage will be 2x the water depth.

COAST LINE

Ensonified Seafloor Area

Lane
Width

Voyage (Taglines) Tracks

Survey Vessel

Survey Grid

Figure 4.1: Survey Design and Field Campaign for Single beam

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COAST LINE
Ensonified Seafloor Area
Vessel Tracks

Lane
Width

Sounding
Overlap

Vessel Direction

Ping rate

Figure 4.1: Survey Design and Field Campaign for Sweep Multibeam Surveys

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