Biological Effects of

Radiations

Introduction

Awareness of radiation effects on

human body is vital for radiation
workers.
Interaction of radiations, whether
internally or externally, leads to
biological effects.
The rate and nature of clinical
symptoms of these effects depend on
amount of radiations absorbed (dose),
and their rate.

Following factors count on the biological

effects.

Type of radiation involved

Size of dose received
Rate the dose is received
Part of the body exposed
The age of the individual
Biological differences

There are two

radiation effects.

broad

categories

of

Somatic Appearance of damage in person

Genetic - Appearance of damage in
reproductive organs

Cell Biology

Cell is the basic structure of living things.

A typical animal cell is comprised of
Nucleus,
which
contains
information
regarding its functions and reproduction,
such as DNA and chromosomes
Cytoplasm, which is the bulk of cell and
consists of bodies functioned for cell
nourishment
Outer boundary called cell membrane

All cells reproduce to compensate for cell

deaths.
Life of cell is different in different types of
cells, lasting from several hours to several
years.
Cells reproduce by process of cell division
called mitosis.

Radiation Interaction With Cell

There are four stages of interaction:

Initial Physical Stage

The Physico-Chemical Stage

The Chemical Stage; and

The Biological Stage

Initial Physical Stage

It lasts only a small fraction of time

(~10-16 sec), during which the energy
from radiation is deposited into the cell.

The deposited energy causes ionization in

water molecule
H2O + Radiation H2O+ + e-

THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL STAGE

Duration is 10-6 seconds.

Ions interact with other water molecules.
H2O H2O+ + eH2O + H+ + OH
H2O + e- H + OHOH + OH H2O2
H & OH have unpaired electrons & are
highly reactive.
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) is a strong
oxidizing agent.

THE CHEMICAL STAGE

Lasts for only few seconds.

Reaction products interact with the
organic molecules.
The free radicals & oxidizing agents may
attack the complex molecules of the
chromosomes.
They may attach themselves to a
molecule or break the links in long chain
molecules.

THE BIOLOGICAL STAGE

It may occur over any time span, from

seconds to decades after irradiation.

It may result in
Early cell death
Preventing or delaying cell division
Causing permanent modification
passed on to daughter cells

which

is

Ionising radiation
interacts at the
cellular level:

cell

nucleus

Ionization
Chemical changes
Biological effect

chromosomes

RADIATION EFFECTS

Radiation Damage to
DNA Molecules
Indirect

damage

Water molecule is ionized, breaks

apart, and forms OH free radical.
OH free radical contains an unpaired
electron in the outer shell and is
highly reactive: Reacts with DNA.
75 percent of radiation-caused DNA
damage is due to OH free radical.

Direct

damage

DNA molecule is struck by radiation,

ionized, resulting in damage.

Living Cell Effect

Radiation Effects on Cell

Cells

are undamaged by the dose

Cells

are damaged, repair the

damage and operate normally

Cells

are damaged, repair the

damage and operate abnormally

Cells

die as a result of the damage

Somatic Effects of Radiation

Early Effects

They arise from acute exposure, which is

a large dose received in a short time
(max. few hours).
Early radiation effects occur in period
from a few hours up to few weeks.
These effects are due to major depletion
of cell population in body organs.
There are no well-defined points of risk/no
risk of death.
A reasonable estimate can be made of the
dose which would be lethal for 50% of
exposed population within 30 days time.

30
LD
This estimate is called
has the
50 and
value of 2~3 Gy for humans.
The cause of death for doses around
3~10 Gy (region of infection death) is
loss of white blood cells. It might be
possible to improve the chances of
survival by bone marrow transplantation.
At doses higher than 10 Gy (GI death),
additional
effects
caused
by
gastrointestinal damage will occur causing
death between 3~5 days after exposure.

At very high doses, radiation effects on

the central nervous system will cause
death.
This region is called CNS death.
1-10 Gy
10 - 50 Gy
> 50 Gy
BONE
MARROW

GASTRO
INTESTINAL

CNS
(central nervous
system)

Dose

Erythema (reddening of skin) is another

effect of acute exposure to the skin.
An exposure of about 3 Gy of low-energy
X-rays would cause erythema.
Larger exposures to skin would lead to
effects like pigmentation, blistering and
ulceration.

Blister formation

Ulceration

HYPERPIGMENTATION

DOSE

EFFECTS

DOSE

EFFECTS

Somatic Effects of Radiation

Late Effects

Late effects of radiation exposure may

result in one of the following

Cancer
Cataracts formation
Infertility
Degenerative effects
Life shortening

Cancer is given the name to overproduction of cells in the effected organ.

It may originate due to damage to the
control system of a single cell, causing it
to divide more rapidly.
The defect is transmitted to daughter
cells, so the defected cell population
increases.
After an acute dose, there is a latent
period during which there is no apparent
increase in cancer probability.

The latent
period is
followed by
another
interval
(plateau),
during which
the risk
(cancer
cases/yr for
106 man-rem
dose) persists.

Beyond the risk period, the risk of cancer

drops essentially to zero.

There is a possibility that a threshold exist

below which there is no risk of radiationinduced cancer.

But generally it is agreed that radiological

protection on practical basis is to assume
that any dose may carry some risk.

Cataract is the impairedness in the lens of

eye which result in opacity of vision.

For cataract formation, there is a certain

threshold of dose (~ 2-5 Gy), below which
there is no risk of cataract

Observations
of
human
populations
exposed at high levels indicate that there
is a slight life shortening.
One easy way to visualize risks is by
looking at the number of days or years (of
life) lost out of a population due to deaths
by separate causes, then dividing the time
lost between the population.
Risk comparisons indicate that radiation is
a comparatively small risk compared to
other risks in day-to-day life.

Years of life lost

Car Accidents

207

Alcohol

130

Suicide

115

Murder

93

Air Pollution

77

AIDS

55
50
50

Energy Conservation
Spouse Smoking
Radon

30
24
23
22
20

Drowning
Radiation Worker
Drinking Water
Fire, Burns
Natural Radiation

9.3
7

Natural Hazards

50

100

150
Days

Days of life lost

200

250

Natural Hazards

168
148.8
144

Bicycles

108
Hazardous Waste

60
48 Anti-Nukes

Peanut Butter

24
21.6

Live Near Nuc Plant

8
3
1.2 Government

Nuclear Power

20

40

60

80

100

120

Hours

Hours of life lost

140

160

180

Genetic Effects of Radiation

The genetic effects result from damage to

the reproductive cells.
The Gonads are highly sensitive to
radiation effect, however testes and
ovaries respond differently.
Doses of about 5 Gy are required to
permanently sterilize males (sterility
occurs after several months). Although
lower doses can also cause sterility, the
effect is temporary. Fertility and nearnormal sperm counts return after 1 to 2
years.

Genetic mutations occur from incorrect

repair of damaged chromosomes in egg or
sperm cells.
Genetic mutations may show up in future
generations.
Radiation-caused genetic mutations have
been shown in animal studies at very high
radiation doses (>25 rem).
Radiation-caused genetic mutations have
not been seen in exposed human
populations.

Summary Of Radiation Effects

Effective Dose
<= 0.01 rem

Radiation Source
annual dose living at nuclear power plant
perimeter; bitewing, panoramic, or full-mouth
dental x rays; skull or chest x ray

<=0.1 rem

single spine x ray; abdominal or pelvic x ray;

hip x ray; mammogram

<=0.5 rem

kidney series of x rays; most barium-related

x rays; head CT; any spine x-ray series;
annual natural background radiation dose;
most nuclear medicine brain, liver, kidney,
bone, or lung scans

<=1.0 rem

barium enema (x rays of the large intestine);

chest, abdomen, or pelvic CT

<=5.0 rem

cardiac catheterization (heart x rays);

coronary angiogram (heart x rays); other
heart x-ray studies; most nuclear medicine
heart scans
CT = computerized tomography; a specialized x-ray exam.