COURSE CODE:

PET 314

COURSE TITLE:

DRILLING ENGINEERING I

LECTURER:

JAMES A. CRAIG, B.Sc. (Ibadan), M.Sc. (Trondheim)

COURSE OUTLINE:

1. Introduction

Rig Personnel

Types of Contract (Day-Rate and Turnkey)

Classification of Wells

2. Drilling Technology

Rig Equipment (Rig Types, Prime Movers, Drillstrings, Drill Bits, Blowout Preventers)

Rig Operations (Hoisting, Circulating, Rotary, Cementing, Fishing)

3. Drilling Fluid Technology

Types and Composition (WBM, OBM, Gas, Continuous Phase, Solids, Chemicals/Additives)

Functions

Rig Maths

4. Directional Drilling

Types

Applications

Planning and Calculations (Build and Hold, Build-Hold and Drop, Continuous Build)

5. Basic Well Control

Concept of Pressure

Pore Pressure (Abnormal Formation Pressure, Prediction of Abnormal Pore Pressure)

Fracture Pressure

Pressure Losses in Circulating System

Bottomhole Pressure

Equivalent Circulating Density

Kicks and Blowout (Causes of Kicks, Basic Well Control)

-1-

 1.

INTRODUCTION

Drilling is basically boring hole into the earths crust. It started with a percussion method called Cable-tool
drilling, in which a sharply pointed bit attached to a cable is repeatedly picked up and dropped to penetrate the
rock. This has given way to the current method called Rotary drilling, in which a rotary style is employed.
In a drilling project, two main objectives are to be achieved, viz.: safety and costs. The first is to avoid personal
injuries and keep the environment safe (the HSE health, safety and environment concept). The second is to
complete the well with minimum cost.

1.1

DRILLING PERSONNEL

The Operator
To drill a well, the operating company (the operator) acquires the right from the land owner (in case of Nigeria,
the Federal Government) and then run a tender, whereby various drilling contractors are invited to bid. The
operator will then employ the successful drilling contractor to drill the well.
The Drilling Contractor
The drilling contractor owns and maintains the drilling rig and employs and trains the personnel required to
operate the rig.

Company Man
This is the operators representative on the rig. He is in direct charge of all the companys activities on
the rig site. He is responsible for the drilling strategy as well as the supplies and services in need. He
will be in daily contact with his drilling superintendent who will be based in the operators head
office.

Tool Pusher
This is the leading man of the drilling contractor on location. He supervises all drilling operations and
also coordinates company and contractor affairs.

Driller
He operates the drilling machinery on the rig floor and is the overall supervisor of all floormen. He is
directly responsible to the tool pusher and is the person who is most closely involved in the drilling
process. He manipulates from his position at the control console on the rig floor brakes, switches, levers
and other related controls that influence the drilling parameters. In case of a kick he is the person to take
action by moving the bit off the bottom and close the BOP.

-2-

Derrick Man
Also called a monkey man, the derrick man works on the monkeyboard (a small platform up in the
derrick, usually 90 feet above the rotary table). When a connection is made or during tripping
operations he is handling and guiding the upper end of the pipe. During drilling operations he is
responsible for maintain and repairing the pumps and other equipment as well as keeping tabs on the
drilling fluid.

Floormen
Also known as rotary helpers or roughnecks, they are responsible for handling the lower end of the
drillpipe as well as operating tongs and wrenches to make or break connection. They also maintain
equipment, keep it clean, do painting and in general help wherever it is needed.

Roustabouts
They are general labourers.

Other workers on a rig include mechanics, electricians, crane operators, and cooks.

The Drilling Service Companies

These service companies provide specialize skills or equipment in the course of drilling the well, e.g. cementing
operation, mud logging, wireline logging, LWD and MWD, surveying and directional drilling, geological
analyses, etc.

-3-

Fig 1.1: Typical drilling rig organizations.

1.2

CONTRACT TYPES

There are two main types of contracting strategy. The most common type is a day-rate contract. In both cases,
the drilling contractor is responsible for maintain the rig and the associated equipment.

Day-Rate
The operator prepares a detailed well design and program of work for the drilling operation and the drilling
contractor simply provides the drilling rig and personnel to drill the well. The contractor is paid a fixed sum of
money for everyday that he spends drilling the well. All consumables (e.g. bits, mud), transport and support
services are provided by the operator.

-4-

Turnkey
The drilling contractor designs the well, contracts the transport and support services and purchases all the
consumables, and charges the oil company a fixed sum of money for the whole operation. The operator only
specifies the targets, the evaluation procedures, and establishes the quality control on the final well.

1.3

WELL CLASSIFICATION

According to a wells final depth, it can be classified as follows:

Shallow well:

< 2,000 m [6,562 ft]

Conventional well:

2,000 m [6,562 ft] 3,500 m [11,483 ft]

Deep well:

3,500 m [11,483 ft] 5,000 m [16,404 ft]

Ultra deep well:

> 5,000 m [16,404 ft]

-5-

 2.

2.1

RIG EQUIPMENT

A.

Rig Types

DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

Rigs are where drilling operations are carried out. Rigs are designed for onshore, offshore and arctic
environments. Examples of onshore rigs are land rigs ad portable mast. Examples of offshore rigs barges,
jackups, drillships, submersibles and semi-submersibles.

Fig: 2.1: Classification of rotary drilling rigs.

For all rigs, the depth of the planned well determines the basic rig requirements like hoisting capability, power
system, circulation system, and the pressure control system. For offshore rigs, factors like water depth, expected
sea states, winds and currents as well as location (supply time) have to be considered as well.
Rig rate (rental cost of rig) is one of the most influencing cost factors to the total cost of a well. Careful
selection of the proper type and capacity of a rig is vital. Another important factor that affects the rig rate is the
current market situation (e.g. oil price, drilling activity, rig availabilities, location, etc.)

-6-

Fig: 2.2: A typical land rig location.

-7-

Fig: 2.3: A jackup rig.

Fig: 2.4: A semisubmersible rig.

Fig: 2.5: A drillship.

Fig: 2.6: A tension leg platform (TLP).

-8-

B.

Prime Movers

These are machines designed to generate power and energy required on the rigs. They are usually internalcombustion diesel engines (like generators). The power system supplies the rotary system, hoisting (lifting and
lowering of the drillstring, casings, etc) system, circulating system, and other auxiliaries like the BOP, boilerfeed water pumps, lighting system, etc. The hoisting and the circulating systems are the largest consumers.
Fortunately, they are not used simultaneously, so the same engines can perform both functions. The prime
movers performance is characterized by the output horsepower, torque and fuel consumption for various
engine speeds.

2 N
P

T
33, 000

Qi 0.000393W f f H
Et
where: N [rev/min]

P
100 %
Qi

= shaft speed

[rad/min]

= angular velocity of the shaft

T [ft-lbf]

= output torque

P [hp]

= shaft horsepower developed by engine

W f [gal/hr]

= fuel consumption

f [ppg]

= density of fuel (diesel: 7.2 ppg; gasoline: 6.6 ppg; butane: 4.7 ppg)

H [BTU/lbm] = fuel heating value (diesel: 19,000; gasoline: 20,000; butane: 21,000)
Qi [hp]

= heat energy consumption by engine

Et [%]

= overall power system efficiency

Total power requirements for most rigs are from 1,000 to 3,000 hp. The rig may have, depending on its size and
capacity, up to 4 prime movers.

C.

Drillstrings

The upper section of a drillstring is composed of drillpipe while the lower section is composed of drill collars.
Drillpipe is specified by its outer diameter, weight per foot, steel grade and range length.
Range

Length (ft)

18 to 22

27 to 30

38 to 45

Range 2 drillpipe is used most commonly.

-9-

Heavy wall drillpipe or heavy weight drillpipe (HWDP) has a greater wall thickness than ordinary drillpipe
and is often used at the base of the drillpipe where stress concentration is greatest. HWDP is used to absorb the
stresses being transferred from the stiff drill collars to the relatively flexible drillpipe.
The drillpipe joints are fastened together in the drillstring by means of tool joints. The female portion of the
tool joint is called the box and the male portion is called the pin.

Figure 2.7: A tool joint.

The drill collars are thick-walled heavy steel tubulars. The functions of drill collars include:

To provide enough weight on bit (WOB)

To keep the drillstring in tension, thereby reducing bending stresses and failures due to fatigue

To provide stiffness in the BHA for directional control

Set of equipment which is made up just above the bit is collectively called the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA).
These may include drill collars, reamers (for maintaining gauge hole), stabilizers (for drillstring centralization),
shock sub (vibration dampener), and drilling jars (for freeing stuck pipes).

- 10 -

Stabilizers
Stabilizers consist of a length of pipe with blades on the external surface. The blades may be either
straight or spiral. The blades can either be fixed on to the body of the pipe or mounted on a rubber
sleeve (sleeve stabilizer), which allows the drillstring to rotate within it. Stabilizers assist in keeping the
drillstring centralize and also to prevent wall sticking.
Reamers
A roller reamer consists of stabilizer blades with rollers embedded into surface of the blade. The rollers
may be made from high grade carburized steel or have tungsten carbide inserts. They act as stabilizers
and especially useful in maintaining gauge hole and also to ream out any potential hole problems (e.g.
doglegs).
Shock Sub
A shock sub is employed as a vibration dampener by reducing the stress due to bouncing when the bit is
drilling through hard rock. The vertical vibration is absorbed by either using a strong steel spring, or a
resilient rubber element.
Drilling Jars
They are used to deliver a sharp blow to free the pipe if it becomes stuck in the hole. They are usually
positioned at the top of the drill collars.

Figure 2.8: Stabilisers.

- 11 -

Figure 2.9: Reamers.

Figure 2.10: Shock sub.

The Capacity of a pipe is defined as its volume/per unit length.

di

Borehole wall

do
dh
Fig: 2.11: A schematic diagram of a pipe in hole.

- 12 -

where:

d i [in.]

= inner diameter of pipe

d o [in.]

= outer diameter of pipe

d h [in.]

= hole diameter

For a pipe:

and in bbls/ft:
For annulus:

and in bbls/ft:

Ap
Ap

Aa

Aa

di2

di2
1029.4

d
4

2
h

2
h

do2

do2

1029.4

For displacement (cross-sectional area of pipe in volume per unit length): Ad

and in bbls/ft: Aa

D.

2
o

di2

d
4

2
o

di2

1029.4

Drill Bit

A steel-toothed piece of equipment attached to the lower end of the drillstring in order to crush, scrape and
grind formation loose. The two types available are drag bits and rolling cutter bits.
Drag bits They consist of fixed cutter blades that are integral with the body of the bit and rotate as a unit with
the drillstring. The cutting element consists of steelcutters, diamond, or polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC).
Steelcutters Bits In steelcutters, the serrated steel blades are set at different angles (e.g. a fishtail bit).
Natural Diamond Bits In diamond bits, the face or crown of the bit consists of many diamonds set in a
tungsten carbide matrix.
Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) Bits In PDC bits, a layer of synthetic PDC is bonded to a
cemented tungsten carbide, it contains many diamond crystals bonded together. The sintered PDC compact is
bonded either to a tungsten carbide bit-body matrix or to a tungsten carbide stud that is mounted in a steel bit.
Thermally Stable Polycrystalline (TSP) Bits These bits are manufactured in a similar fashion to PDC bits
but are tolerant of much higher temperatures than PDC bits.

- 13 -

Fig: 2.12: A Fish-tail Drag Bit (Steelcutter)

Rolling cutter bits They have two or more cones containing the cutting elements which rotate about the axis
of the cone as the bit is rotated at the bottom of the hole. The 3-cone rolling cutter bit is by far the most
common. Important factors to consider in this type of bit are:

Structural materials Steels with appropriate yield strength, impact resistance, machineability, and
heat-treated properties are usually selected. Cones are commonly heat treated and made of NiMo-steel,
teeth are sometimes made of NiCrMo-steel.

Cutting structure arrangements The arrangement must provide efficient penetration of the formation
to be drilled with accurate cut gauge. It must also prevent the bottom hole from contacting bit body
structures. The cones rotate at the bottom of the hole and drill hole predominanatly with a grinding and
chipping action. The teeth are pressed onto the formation below the bit and applies a force exceeding
the compressive strength of the rock. The gauge of the hole drilled is maintained by the outside cutters
which are also known as gauge cutters. These teeth are vulnerable to wear that increases in abrasive
sandstone formations. When the gauge cutters are worn out, the consequent hole drilled is undergauge.

Bearing, seals, and lubricating design They function as a unit and they must be able to withstand large
impact loads, chemicals in the drilling fluids, and high temperature.
Sealed bearings grease lubricant (much longer life)
pressure surges can cause seal to leak
Journal bearings wear-resistant hard surface on journal
solid lubricant inside cone journal race
O-ring seal and grease

- 14 -

Hydraulic arrangements They must be designed so as to efficiently remove and evacuate all cuttings
from the bottom hole.

Fig: 2.8: Diamond Drag Bits

- 15 -

Fig: 2.9: Rolling Cutter Bits (Left side: Tungsten carbide inserted, Right side: Milled tooth)

Fig. 2.10: Tungsten carbide inserted

Fig. 2.11: Milled tooth (steel tooth

Drill Bit Classification

Drill bits are classified by IADC (International Association of Drilling Contractor) to identify similar
bit types made from dierent manufacturers.

- 16 -

Drag Bit Classification the classification consists of four digits.

First Digit an alphabet. The letters defines the type of cutter and the body material.
D: natural diamond matrix body
M: matrix body PDC
S: steel body PDC
T: matrix body TSP
O: other
Second Digit the numbers 1 to 9 define the bit profile, where G denotes gauge height and C
denotes cone height.
1: G high, C high
2: G high, C medium
3: G high, C low
4: G medium, C high
5: G medium, C medium
6: G medium, C low
7: G low, C high
8: G low, C medium
9: G low, C low
Third Digit the numbers 1 to 9 define the hydraulic design.
a: fluid exit (changeable jets, fixed ports, open throat)
b: cutter distribution (bladed, ribbed, open-faced)

1: changeable jets, bladed

2: fixed ports, bladed
3: open throat, bladed
4: changeable jets, ribbed
5: fixed ports, ribbed
6: open throat, ribbed
7: changeable jets, open-faced
8: fixed ports, open-faced
9: open throat, open-faced
Fourth Digit the numbers 0 to 9 denote the cutter size and density.
0: impregnated
1: density light, size large
2: density medium, size large
3: density heavy, size large

- 17 -

4: density light, size medium

5: density medium, size medium
6: density heavy, size medium
7: density light, size small
8: density medium, size small
9: density heavy, size small
Roller Bit Classification the classification consists of four digits.
First Digit the numbers 1, 2 and 3 designate steel milled tooth bits and correspond to
increasing formation hardness.
1: soft formation with low compressive strength and high drillability
2: medium to medium-hard formations with high compressive strength
3: hard semi-abrasive and abrasive formations
The numbers 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 designate tungsten carbide insert bits and corresponds to
increasing formation hardness.
4: soft formation with low compressive strength and high drillability
5: soft to medium formations with low compressive strength
6: medium-hard formations with high compressive strength
7: hard semi-abrasive and abrasive formations
8: extremely hard and abrasive formations
Second Digit the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 denote a sub-classification of the formation hardness
in each of the eight classes determined by the first digit. The higher the series number, the
harder/more abrasive the rock. Number 1 depicts softess formation in a series and number 4
depicts hardess formation in a series.

Hardness

UCS* (psi)

Formation Types

Ultra soft

< 1,000

Gumbo, clay

Very soft

1,000 4,000

Unconsolidated sands, chalk, salt, claystone

Soft

4,000 8,000

Coal, siltstone, schist, sands

Medium

8,000 17,000

Sandstone, slate, shale, limestone, dolomite

Hard

17,000 27,000

Quartzite, basalt, gabbro, limestone, dolomite

Very hard

> 27,000

Marble, granite, gneiss

* UCS is Uniaxial Unconfined Compressive Strength

Table 1.1: Definition of hardness.

- 18 -

Third Digit defines the type of bearing and specifies the presence or absence of gauge
protection by tungsten carbide inserts.
1: standard roller bearing (non-sealed)
2: roller bearing, air cooled
3: roller bearing, gauge protected
4: sealed roller bearing
5: sealed roller bearing, gauge protected
6: sealed friction bearing
7: sealed friction bearing, gauge protected
Fourth Digit provides in general information about the bit characteristics.
A: air application, journal bearing bits with air circulation nozzles
B: special bearing seal, application at high RPM
C: center jet
D: deviation control
E: extended jets
G: extra gauge/body protection
H: horizontal/steering application
J: jet deflection
L: lug pads, pads very close to gauge diameter
M: motor application, special design for use on downhole motors
S: standard steel tooth model
T: two-cone bits, sometimes used for deviation control and penetration rate
W: enhanced cutting structure
X: chisel tooth insert
Y: conical tooth insert
Z: other insert shape

Examples

135M
Soft formation milled tooth bit; roller
bearings with gauge protection; motor
application

- 19 -

447X
Soft formation insert bit; friction bearings
with gauge protection; chisel inserts

637Y
Medium-hard insert bit; friction bearings
with gauge protection; conical inserts

Figure 2.12: Examples of bit classifications.

Drill Bit Grading

Dull drill bits are graded after runs according to tooth wear or loss, worn bearings, and gauge wear.
Tooth Wear/Loss the reduction of tooth height. The grading is reported in the nearest eighth, thus a
bit which teeth are worn out to half of its original height is 4/8 and reported as T-4. Normally, the ttoth
wear of a bit is not evenly distributed, some are worn more than others, some are broken out (reported
as BT), some are chipped (insert bits reported as CT), some are lost (insert bits reported as LT).

Figure 2.13: Tooth height measurement.

Bearing Wear bearing wear in the field is difficult since the bit would need to be disassembled for
inspection. Failed bearings can result in that the cones are stuck (no rotation possible) or that they are
worn out and the bearings itself are exposed. The grading is similar to the tooth wear, replacing T with
a B. B-3 means that an estimated 3/8 of the bearing life is gone. Often the bearing wear is reported

- 20 -

based on the total bit running hours. Thus, when a bit is expected to have a rotation time of 40 hours

and was rotating on vottom for 10 hours, bearing wear is reported as B-2 since 2=

10 hours
8 .
40 hours

Gauge Wear when the gauge teeth of a bit are worn, the drilled hole will be under-gauged which may
lead to damage of the next bit. A ring gauge is used to measure the wear. The loss of diameter in inches
is reported as the nearest eighth. A bit which diameter is reduced by 0.5 in. is reported as G-O-4

4 since 0.5 in.= . Letter O is for out-of-gauge and letter I is for in-gauge.
8

Figure 2.14: Broken and lost teeth (cutters).

Figure 2.15: Chipped and broken teeth (cutters).

- 21 -

Figure 2.16: Balled-up bit and cracked cone.

Figure 2.17: Washed-out bit and lost cone.

- 22 -

E.

Blowout Preventers (BOPs) Stacks

The influx of formation fluids into the well in the presence of drilling fluid is called a KICK, and the failure of
the well control system containing the kick resulting in an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids is called a
BLOWOUT. To curtail the flow of fluid from the well caused by a kick; blowout preventers (BOPs) are used.
To cover all possible scenarios and handle different kick situations, different BOPs are collectively attached to
the well head. Multiple BOPs used in series are referred to collectively as a BOP stack. The stack should consist
of Annular Preventer (or bag-type preventer) and Ram Preventer.
1. Annular preventers They stop flow from the well using a ring of synthetic rubber that contracts in
the fluid passage. The rubber packing conforms to the shape of the pipe in the hole.
2. Ram preventers They have two packing elements on opposite sides that close by moving toward
each other. The 3 types of ram preventers are pipe, blind, and shear rams.

Pipe rams (they have semicircular openings which match the diameter of pipe sizes for which
they are designed).

Blind rams (they are used in the absence of pipe in the hole, and if there is a pipe it will flatten
it; though will not stop the flow from the well).

Shear rams (they are blind rams but they shear the drillstring when closed, they are the last
option if annular and pipe ram preventers have failed).

The sequence of preventers in a stack vary considerably from location to location. At offshore wells, it is
common to have double the amount of preventers compared to onshore for backup purposes.

WEAR PLATE
PACKING UNIT
HEAD

OPENING CHAMBER

PISTON

CLOSING CHAMBER

Fig. 2.18: Annular Preventer

- 23 -

Fig. 2.19: Ram Preventer

Fig. 2.20: Pipe ram closed on drillpipe

Fig. 2.21: Blind ram closed

- 24 -

Fig. 2.22: Shear ram

Functions of a BOP stack when a kick is shut in are:

Must be capable tp terminate flow from the well under all drilling conditions

Movement of drillstring must be possible without releasing well pressure when the string is in the hole

Must allow fluid circulation through the well annulus under pressure

When the drillstring is in the hole, only the annular flow is stopped by the BOPs. To prevent flow inside the
drillpipe, various devices like a kelly cock or internal BOPs can be applied. When kelly cocks are mounted in
the drillstring, an upper and a lower kelly cock are needed since the lower position might not be accesible in an
emergency.

2.2

RIG OPERATIONS

A.

Hoisting System

The general function of the hoisting system is to provide a means of lowering or raising equipment into and out
of the hole. The two main operations performed are:

making a connection

making a trip

Making a connection periodic process of adding a new joint of drillpipe as the hole deepens.
Making a trip the process of removing drillstring from hole to change a portion of the downhole
assembly and then lowering the drillstring back to the hole bottom.

- 25 -

Fig. 2.23: (a) Making a connection.

- 26 -

Fig. 2.23: (b) Making a connection.

- 27 -

Fig. 2.24: (a) Making a trip.

- 28 -

Fig. 2.24: (b) Making a trip.

The principal components of the hoisting system are:

Derrick It provides the vertical height required to raise sections of pipe from or lower them into the
hole.
Block and Tackle It provides a mechanical advantage which permits easier handling of large loads. It
is composed of crown block, traveling block and the drilling line.
Drawworks It provides the power for hoisting and braking. The main components are:

The Drum It stores the drilling line and also transmits the torque required for hoisting or braking.

- 29 -

The Brakes It stops and sustains the great weight imposed when lowering a string of pipe into the
hole.

The Transmission It changes the direction and speed of the traveling block.

The Catheads It assists in lifting or moving equipment on the rig floor.

Fig. 2.25: Drawworks.

The power required by the drawworks is calculated as:

Ph
where:

W vb
33, 000 E

and

v f n vb

Ph [hp]

= drum power output

v f [ft/min]

= velocity of the fast line

vb [ft/min]

= velocity of the travelling block

W [lb]

= hook load

n [1]

= number of lines

E [1]

= efficiency factor

- 30 -

The efficiency factor is a function of the number lines strung, i.e. E f n

Number of Lines, n

Efficiency, E (%)

87.4

84.1

10

81.0

12

77.0

14

74.0

Table 2.1: Efficiency factors for different tacklings.

Normally, a hoisting system has of working lines between the traveling block and the crown block. The fast line
is spooled onto the drawworks hoisting drum. The dead line is anchored to the rig floor across from the
drawworks. The weight indicator is a load cell incorporated in the dead line anchor.

Crown
block
Dead
line
Fast
line

Drawworks

Traveling
block

Anchor

Storage
reel

Load
cell
Fig. 2.26: Schematic of hoisting system.

- 31 -

Fig. 2.27: Basic rig components.

- 32 -

Fig. 2.28: Rig hoisting system

B.

Circulating System

The circulating system is a cyclical process of moving drilling fluid from the storage tank down into the hole
and back. During this movement, rock cuttings are removed from the hole to the surface.
From the storage steel tank, the drilling mud is pumped the drillstring and it is jetted out through the bit nozzles
into the hole. It is the returned to the surface trough the annulus (or annular space) between the drillstring and
the walls of the hole to the surface. It the passes through the contaminant-removal equipment (degasser,

- 33 -

desander and desilter) into the mud pits to allow for the removal of entrained fine solids and gas bubbles that
are not removed by the contaminant-removal equipment.

Fig. 2.29: Schematic of rig circulating system

- 34 -

Fig. 2.30: Rotary drilling process

- 35 -

Fig. 2.31: Mixing hopper.

Mud Pumps
The types of mud pumps in use are pumps with reciprocating positive-displacement pistons. The
amount of mud (volume) and the output pressure of the pump released to the circulating system are
controlled via changing of pump liners and pistons as well as control of the speed (stroke/minute or
cycle/minute) the pump is moving. A smaller liner will give a higher pump pressure but at a lower flow
rate.
The two common types of mud pumps are:

2-cylinder (duplex) they are double-acting and pump on both forward and backward piston
strokes.

3-cylinder (triplex) they are single-acting and pump only on forward piston strokes. They are
more common because they are lighter, more compact and cheaper to operate.

- 36 -

Fig. 2.32: Duplex pump.

Fig. 2.33: Triplex pump.

Pump displacement per cycle is called the Pump Factor, FP .

For a duplex pump: FP 2
For a triplex pump: FP 3

LS 2dl2 d r2 EV
LS dl2 EV

- 37 -

where:

LS [in.]

= stroke length

d l [in.]

= liner diameter

d r [in.]

= piston rod diameter

EV [1]

= volumetric efficiency

FP [in3/stroke] = pump factor

To convert FP (in3/stroke) to FP (bbl/stroke):
231 in3 = 1gal
then,

and 42 gal = 1 bbl

231 in 3

1
bbl
42

1 in 3

1
1
bbl=
bbl
231 42
9, 702

So, multiply FP (in3/stroke) by

1
to give FP (bbl/stroke).
9, 702

Pumps are generally rated according to their hydraulic power, maximum pressure, and maximum flow
rate. The hydraulic power output is given as:

PH
where:

C.

pq
1, 714

PH [hp]

= hydraulic power output

p [psi]

= maximum discharge pressure

q [gal/min]

= flow rate

Rotary System

The essence of the rotary system is to achieve rotation of the drillstring and the bit. The equipment required for
this includes:
Swivel It supports the weight of the drillstring and permits rotation. It is hung to the hook of the traveling
block by means of the bail. Drilling fluid is passed through the rotary hose connected to the gooseneck of the
swivel.
Kelly It is the hexagonal or square pipe connecting swivel and the drillstring. It is shaped this way to allow
easy grip for turning. The kelly fits into the kelly busing which in turn passes through the master bushing of the
rotary table. The kelly saver sub is the connection between the kelly and the first joint of drillpipe.
Rotary Table The turning of the rotary table is powered by a rotary drive (or sometimes the Drawworks). It is
the turning of rotary table that transmit torque to the kelly. Power Sub (or power swivel) is sometimes
preferred and it is attached to the conventional swivel and it connects the drillpipe directly, thereby eliminating
the kelly, kelly bushing and rotary table. It is powered by a hydraulic motor at the top.

- 38 -

The rotational power that is induced to the drillstring is:

PR
where:

TN
5, 250

PR [hp]

= rotational power output induced to the drillstring

T [ft-lb]

= rotational torque induced to the drillstring

N [rev/min]

= rotational speed

Fig. 2.34: A cut-away view of the swivel.

- 39 -

Fig. 2.35: Kelly bushing and master bushing.

.
Fig. 2.36: Schematic of rotary system.

- 40 -

D.

Cementing

Cements are composed of limestone, clay, gypsum, and other materials. During cementation in drilling
operations, cement slurry is placed in the well by mixing powered cement and cement at the surface and
pumping it by hydraulic displacement to the desired location.

Uses of Cement in Drilling Operations

Protect and support the casing

Prevent the movement of fluid through the annulus space outside the casing

Stop the movement of fluid into vugular or fractured formations

Close an abandoned portion of the well

BULK CEMENT

PUMP SKID

DRY CEMENT
WATER
UNDER
PRESSURE

CEMENT
PLACEMENT
LINE
MIXING TUB
JET MIXER

CEMENT
SLURRY

Fig. 2.37: Cement mixing operation.

Types of Cementing
1. Primary Casing and liner cementing
2.

Secondary/Remedial Plug and squeeze cementing

Casing cementing During cementation, he bottom plug is released ahead of the cement slurry. This bottom
plug wipes the mud ahead of the cement slurry to minimize the contamination of the cement with the mud. The
desired volume of cement slurry is then pumped into the casing and a top wiper plug is released by pumping
drilling fluid or completion fluid into the casing behind the top plug. When the bottom plug reaches the float
collar, the diaphragm in the plug ruptures, allowing the cement slurry to be displaced through the guide shoe

- 41 -

and into the annulus. The float collar acts as a check valve to prevent cement from backing up into the casing.
Other subsurface equipments used are:

Guide shoe They simply guide the casing pass the irregularities in the borehole wall. They also allow
for entrapment of contaminated mud or cement, which may result from the wiping action of the top
cementing plug.

Centralizers Placed on the outside of the casing, they hold the casing in the centre of the hole.

Scratchers Placed on the outside of the casing, they are used to help remove mudcake from the
borehole walls.

Cement baskets Placed on the outside of the casing, they are used to help support the weight of the
cement slurry at points where porous or weak formations are exposed.

Fig. 2.38: Casing cementing.

- 42 -

DIAPHRAGM
MOLDED RUBBER

CAST
ALUMINIUM
INSERT

CAST
ALUMINIUM
REINFORCED

Fig. 2.39: Cross-section of cement plugs: (left) Bottom plug and (right) Top plug.
Note the difference: The bottom plug contains a thin rupture diaphragm while the top plug is a
solid rubber.
Liner cementing Liners are attached to the last casing string and not all the way to the top. The cementation
is a bit more complex than that of casing.
Plug cementing They are set either in open hole or in casing with the aid or drillpipe or tubing. They mainly
function to prevent fluid communicating between an abandoned lower portion of the well and the upper part of
the well. When cementing in casing, a bridge plug is placed below the cement plug to assist in forming a good
hydraulic seal. When the drillpipe or tubing is open-ended, cement displacement is continued until the fluid
columns are balanced, i.e. have the same height of slurry inside the pipe and annulus.

- 43 -

BOREHOLE
WALL

DRILLPIPE OR
TUBING

CEMENT
PLUG

Fig. 2.40: Plug cementing.

Squeeze cementing The essence is to form a hydraulic seal between the wellbore and the zone squeezed by
forcing a cement slurry into an area of the well or formation. Applications of this process include (1) plugging
abandoned casing perforation, (2) plugging severe lost-circulation zones, and (3) repairing annular leaks in
previously cemented casing, caused by failure of either the casing or previously placed cement. If the formation
is fracture using sufficient pressure, the process is called a high-pressure squeeze. The pressure required to
fracture the formation is called the breakdown pressure. Conversely, if the slurry is placed using less than the
breakdown pressure, the process is called a low-pressure squeeze.

- 44 -

DRILLPIPE OR
TUBING
CASING
OLD CEMENT
CIRCULATING
VALVE

SQUEEZE
PACKER
NEW CEMENT

PERFORATIONS

Fig. 2.41: Squeeze cementing.

Conditions for a Good Cementation Process

E.

Pumpable long enough to allow placement to the desired location

A short set time (hardened time) after placement

Adequate strength for the desired job

Fishing

A fish (or junk) is a part of the drillstring that separates from the upper remaining portion of the drillstring while
the drillstring is in the well. This can result from disconnection or drillstring becoming stuck. A fish is usually
non-drillable and must be retrieved before drilling operations can be continued or it can be abandoned while
sidetracking around it. It is important to remove the fish from the borehole as quickly as possible. The longer
these items remain in a borehole, the more difficult they will be to retrieve.
The economics of the fishing operation and other incurred costs should be considered carefully. The number of
days that should be allowed for a fishing operation is an important factor in considering the cost.
This is given as:

D
where:

D [ days ]

V CS
R Cd
= number of days

- 45 -

V [USD]

= replacement value of fish

CS [USD]

= estimated cost of sidetrack or cost of restarting the well

R [USD/day] = cost per day of the fishing tool and services

Cd [USD/day] = cost per day of the drilling rig and appropriate support

- 46 -

 3.

3.1

DRILLING FLUID TECHNOLOGY

TYPES AND COMPOSITION

Drilling fluid (or drilling mud) is a circulating fluid to perform various functions in drilling operations. Liquid
mud is mainly composed of clay and liquid (water or oil). Gaseous mud is compressed gas (air or natural gas).
Cuttings are removed by a high velocity stream of air or natural gas. Foaming agents are added to remove minor
inflows of water. A broad classification is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Basically liquid drilling fluids consist of the liquid (continuous phase), solids (reactive solids and inert/inactive
solids), and soluble chemicals.

LIQUIDS

GASES

GAS-LIQUID MIXTURES

WATERBASE
MUDS

OILBASE
MUDS

FOAM
(Mostly
Gas)

AERATED
WATER (Mostly
Water)

AIR

NATURAL
GAS

Fig. 3.1: A broad classification of drilling fluids.

A.

Continuous Phase

Drilling fluids are be classified according to their base (continuous phase).

Water-base muds (WBM) Solid particles are suspended in water (the continuous phase). Any oil added to
WBM is emulsified into the water phase and is maintained as small, discontinuous droplets. It is called oil-inwater emulsion or emulsion mud.
The continuous phase can be fresh water, brackish water, sea water, saturated salt water, or another type of
brine fluid. It can also be hard water containing a high concentration of calcium or magnesium.
Fresh Water
Usually available only on land locations
Advantages
Commercial clays hydrate more
Most chemicals are more soluble

- 47 -

Disadvantages
Formation clays hydrate more, which can result in borehole instability
Brackish Water
Usually in a marine environment
Slightly salty
Higher calcium and magnesium concentration than fresh water
Sea Water
Chlorides and hardness varies
Chlorides in GoM: 15,000 30,000 mg/l
Calcium in GoM: 400 mg/l
Magnesium in GoM: 1200 mg/l
Hardness in North Sea is much higher
Saturated Salt Water
Used primarily to drill through large salt formations
Salt must be added to achieve saturation
Prevents hole enlargement due to leaching or dissolving salt from the formation
Leaching could result in hole problems and expensive mud and cement costs
Brine
Usually used for clay (shale) inhibition
Potassium chloride (KCl), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Formates (Na+, K+), Bromides
Oil-base muds (OBM) They contain oil (diesel or synthetic-base oil) as the continuous phase, organophilic
clay, and trace amounts of water (less than 5%) as the dispersed phase which acts as a polar activator for the
organophilic clay. If the amounts of water are more than 5%, then it becomes water-in-oil emulsion or simply,
invert emulsion. All solids are in OBM are considered inactive because they do not react with oil. OBM are
generally more expensive than WBM and also require more stringent pollution control due to disposal.
Advantages

Disadvantages

Good rheological properties at high temperature

Higher initial cost

More inhibitive than inhibitive WBM

Requires more stringent pollution-control procedures

Effective against all types of corrosion

Reduced effectiveness of some logging tools

Superior lubricating characteristics

Remedial treatment for lost circulation is more

difficult

Permits mud densities as low as 7.5 ppg

Detection of gas kick is more difficult because of gas

solubility in diesel oil

Table 3.1: Advantages and disadvantages of OBMs.

- 48 -

B.

Solids

Reactive Solids
These are solids that can react with the water phase and dissolved chemicals.
Commercial Clay Solids

Sodium montmorillonite or bentonite

Attapulgite

S.G. = 2.6, Density = 21.67 ppg

Formation (Drilled) Solids

Montmorillonite (swelling clay)

Kaolinite (non-swelling clay)

Chlorite (non-swelling clay)

Gumbo shale (combination of above clays)

S.G. = 2.6, Density = 21.67 ppg

Inert/Inactive Solids
These are solids that do not react with the water phase and dissolved chemicals to a significant degree.
Commercial Solids

Barite (barium sulphate)

Used to increase mud density up to maximum of 22 ppg
S.G. = 4.2, Density = 35 ppg

Hermatite (iron oxide)

Used to increase mud density up to maximum of 25 ppg
S.G. = 5.0, Density = 41.67 ppg

Calcium carbonate
Used to increase mud density up to maximum of 14 ppg
Used as bridging agent in drill-in, oil and synthetic fluids
Acid soluble
S.G. = 2.8, Density = 23.34 ppg

Lost circulation material (LCM)

Used to bridge off (seal) formations where whole mud is being lost to the
Nut shells (mostly pecan and walnut)
Mica
Fiber (wood, paper, plastic, etc.)

Formation (Drilled) Solids

Sand

- 49 -

formation

C.

Limestone

Dolomite

S.G. = 2.6, Density = 21.67 ppg

Chemicals/Additives

Chemicals are added to fine tune drilling fluids for specific purposes.

Caustic Soda (NaOH)

pH = 13.3

Caustic Potash (KOH)

pH = 13.3

Lime (Ca(OH)2)

pH = 12.4

Soda Ash (Na2CO3)

Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

Zinc Oxide (ZnO)

Lignosulfonate (organic acid)

Spersene (chrome lignosulfonate)

Spersene CF (chrome-free lignosulfonate)

Chemical de-flocculant (mud thinner)

pH = 11.0 11.5
pH = 8.4

In order to keep a drilling fluid at desired conditions, certain additives are added to control its properties.

Density Weighing materials are used to increase mud weights. They are barite (barium sulfate), lead
compounds, iron oxides, and similar products possessing extraordinary high specific gravities.

Flocculation Flocculants are used to increase the gel strength. The gel strength is descriptive of the mud
behaviour when the pump is stopped. The gel strength of the mud prevents settling of the solids during
tripping operations. These include salt (brine), hydrated lime, gypsum, and sodium tetraphosphates.

Deflocculation Deflocculants (thinners) and dispersants are used to reduce the tendency of a mud to
flocculate (thickening of the mud due to edge-to-edge association of clay platelets). They modify the
relationship between the viscosity and the percentage of solids in the mud and may further vary the gel
strength and improve pumpability. The materials include tannins (quebracho) lignitic materials, and
various polyphosphates

pH A high mud pH is desirable to suppress (1) corrosion rate, (2) hydrogen embattlement, and (3) the
solubility of Ca2+ and Mg2+. High pH is also favourable for many organic viscosity control additives. The
pH of most muds is maintained between 9.5 and 10.5. pH additives include lime, caustic soda, and
bicarbonate soda.

Viscosity Viscosifiers are employed to ensure a high viscosity-solids ratio. These include Attapulgite
clays, asbestos fibers, sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC).

- 50 -

Filtration of filter loss A measure of the tendency of the liquid phase of a drilling fluid to pass into the
formation. The additives improve mud cake characteristics. They include pregelatinized starch, CMC, and
sodium polyacrylate.

Emulsions Emulsifiers are used to create a heterogeneous mixture of two liquids. These include modified
lignosulfonates, certain surface-active agents, anionic (negatively charged) and non-ionic (noncharged)
products.

Lost circulation Lost circulation is the loss of mud into highly permeable sandstones, natural fractures,
cavernous formations, and induced fractures. Lost circulation is differentiated from filtration loss (a
continuous process). Before a mud filter cake can be deposited, lost circulation additives must bridge across
the large openings and provide a base upon which the cake can be built. Lost circulation materials (LCM)
include nut shell, plastic, limestone, cellophane, sawdust, sulfur, and bark.

3.2

FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

There are diverse applications for drilling fluids, from the traditional function of cuttings removal to more
complex functions.

A.

Hole Cleaning

Where possible hole cleaning should be achieved by Annular Velocity (AV). It should be 100 ft/min, higher in
deviated holes. In large hole sections the AV can be as low as 20 ft/min.
If high AV is not possible to achieve due to pump limitations or due to the risk of wellbore erosion, then
viscosity must be increased.

AV (ft/min)

Pump rate (bbls/min)

Annular volume (bbls/ft)

Slip velocity (ft/min) Cuttings velocity (ft/min) AV (ft/min)

Fig. 3.2: Hole cleaning.

- 51 -

B.

Pressure Control
Static condition
The pressure balancing the formation pressure is given as:

P (psi) 0.052 Depth (ft) Density (ppg)

Dynamic condition
In circulation conditions the effective pressure is increased by the pumping pressure. It is

given as the

Effective Circulating Density (ECD).

ECD (ppg) Density (ppg)

C.

Annular Pressure Loss (psi)

0.052 Depth (ft)

Solids Suspension

Whenever the pumps are switched off solids will start to settle. This can result in: bridging off of the wellbore,
stuck pipe, hole fill, loss of hydrostatic.
A gel structure is required to suspend the cuttings under zero shear conditions. The gel structure is caused by
time dependant attractive forces which develop in the fluid. The longer the fluid is static the stronger these
forces become. The gel properties are especially important for deviated and horizontal wells as the distance
solids have to settle is very small.
The gel structure needs to be easily broken or pressure surges will result when the pumps are switched on. This
can fracture the formation.

D.

Isolate Fluids from Formation

The differential pressure prevents inflow of formation fluids (gas, oil, and water), but it may also force fluids
(whole mud and/or filtrate) into the formation; which is undesirable because it is expensive and will cause
formation damage.
If the solids in the mud are large enough they will block the pores and form a filter cake which will prevent
infiltration of mud into the formation. If they are not large enough bridging agents have to be put into the mud
to plug the pores.
Thereafter the permeability of the cake or formation determines the volume of liquid that enters the formation.
The filter cake should be thin with a low permeability. Thick filter cakes will may lead to tight hole and
reaming difficulties, causing differential sticking.

E.

Cooling and Lubrication

The drilling fluid removes heat from the bit which is then dispersed at the surface.
Fluid formulations are not changed to improve this function.
Very occasionally the temperature of the fluid exceeds the flash point. In this case it is
necessary to improve surface cooling.

- 52 -

Extra lubrication may be required between the drill string and the casing or wellbore, especially in
directional wells.
Liquid additives are used, or oil based mud.
Solid additives are sometimes used such as glass beads, plastic beads, graphite or nut
plug.
Drill pipe rubbers are sometimes added to reduce wear between the casing and drill
pipe.

F.

Power Downhole Tools

Runs turbines to turn the bit or power MWD/LWD equipment.

Transfer information from measurement equipment to the surface. This is done with a pressure
pulse.

The drilling fluid should not contain and material which is likely to damage/plug downhole equipment. This
usually involves keeping the sand content below 0.5 % and keeping the size and concentration of lost
circulation material below the suppliers limits.

G.

Support Part of Drillstring

Aids in supporting part of the weight of the drillstring and casing.

The degree of buoyancy is directly proportional to the density of the fluid.

The fluid density is never changed to increase the buoyancy

The effective weight of well equipment immersed in a fluid is given by:

We W Fb
By Archimedes: the upward buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. Then the buoyancy
force is given as:

Fb f V f

W
s

Then, effective weight is:

We W 1 m
s
where

We [lbm]

= effective weight

W [lbm]

= weight in air

Fb [lbm]

= buoyancy force

m [ppg]

= is the mud density

s [ppg]

= steel density ( s 490 lbm/ft 3 65.5 ppg )

- 53 -

H.

3.3

Other Responsibilities

It should be environmentally acceptable to the area in which it is used

It should not cause corrosion of the drilling equipment and subsurface tubulars

It should not damage the productive formations that are penetrated

RIG MATH

This involves evaluation of mixtures of given concentrations and densities.

It is generally assumed in mixing calculations that the resulting mixture is ideal, i.e. the total volume is equal to
the sum of component volumes; as given below:

Vt V1 V2 ... Vn . (3.1)
This assumption of ideal mixing is usually valid only for mixtures and is not accurate for solutions.
Also, it is frequently necessary to compute the volume of solids added to a mixture from knowledge of its mass
and density.
The volume Vi of a given mass, mi , of an additive having a density, i , is given by:

Vi

mi

... (3.2)

Typical densities of several materials often present in drilling fluid are shown in Table 3.2. The mixture density
can be computed from the knowledge of the total mass and total volume added to the mixture. Thus, the mixture
density is given by:

m1 m2 ... mn
. (3.3)
V1 V2 ... Vn

Where the volume of the solid components is computed using equation (3.2).

Density

Specific

Material

gravity

lbm/gal

lbm/bbl

Water

1.00

8.33

350

Diesel

0.86

7.2

300

Bentonite clay

2.60

21.7

910

Sand

2.63

21.9

920

Barite (API)

4.20

35.0

1470

Table 3.2: Densities of some additives

- 54 -

 4.

DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Directional drilling is the process of directing the wellbore along some trajectory to a predetermined target.
Deviation control is the process of keeping the wellbore contained within some prescribed limits relative to
inclination angle, horizontal excursion from the vertical, or both.

4.1

TYPES OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

The basic three (3) types of directional drilling are vertical, deviated, and horizontal wells.

A.

Vertical

This is a one-dimensional process of penetrating the earth with the bit to some vertical depth (Figure 4.1).

Fig. 4.1 A vertical well.

B.

Deviated

A method of deliberately deviating a well off vertical in order to reach a target some horizontal distance from
the position of the rig.

- 55 -

HORIZONTAL VIEW
VERTICAL VIEW

Fig. 4.2: A deviated well.

Fig. 4.3: Deviated wells from an offshore development platform.

C.

Horizontal

Horizontal drilling is a situation where the final trajectory of a well becomes horizontal. Horizontal wells are
drilled perpendicular to vertical fractures in order to intersect and drain as many fractures as possible.
Horizontal drilling greatly reduces the risk of bypassing vertically fractured reservoirs. The technique is also
useful for more efficient completion and drainage of thin oil-bearing formations.

- 56 -

Fig. 4.4: A horizontal well.

Advantages of Horizontal Well.

Horizontal wells may produce at 3 5 times the rate of vertical wells in the same area ( as
much as 20 times higher in special cases).
Horizontal wells are often very attractive in formations with extensive vertical fractures and
also in thin reservoirs.

Disadvantages of Horizontal Well

4.2

Cleaning the hole and preventing cuttings from settling along the hole bottom.

Controlling weight on bit to achieve and maintain directional control.

Cementing casing or liner.

They typically cost 1.5 3 times as much as vertical wells in the same area.

Running equipment in and out of hole (e.g. drillstring, casing, cables).

Excessive torque.

APPLICATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Interests in controlled directional drilling began about 1929 after new and rater accurate means of measuring
hole angle was introduced during the development of Seminole, Oklahoma field. In the early 1930s the first
controlled directional well was drilled in Huntington Beach, California. The well was drilled from an onshore
location into offshore oil sands. Controlled directional drilling was initially used in California for unethical
purposes, that is, to intentionally cross property lines. In the development of Huntington Beach Field, two
mystery wells completed in 1930 were considerably deeper and yielded more oil than other producers in the
field which by that time had to be pumped. The obvious conclusion was that these wells had been deviated and

- 57 -

bottomed under the ocean. This was acknowledged in 1932, when drilling was done on town lots for the
asserted purpose of extending the producing area of the field by tapping oil reserves beneath the ocean along the
beach front.
In 1933, during the development of the Signal Hill field in Long Beach, California, several wells were drilled
under the Sunnyside Cemetery from locations across the streets surrounding the cemetery and even from more
distant points to tap a productive zone underlying the cemetery.
Controlled directional drilling had received rather unfavourable publicity until it was used in 1934 to kill a wild
well near Conroe, Texas. The Madeley No.1 had been spudded a few weeks earlier and, for a while, everything
had been going normally. But on a cold, wet, dreary day the well developed a high pressure leak in its casing,
and before long, the escaping pressure created a monstrous crater that swallowed up the drilling rig. The crater,
approximately 170 feet (51.82 metres) in diameter and of unknown depth, filled with oil mixed with sand in
which oil boiled up constantly at the rate of 6000 barrels per day. As if that were not enough, the pressure began
to channel through upper formations and started coming to the surface around neighboring wells, creating a
very bad situation indeed. Many people felt that there was nothing to do except let the well blow and hope that
it would eventually bridge itself over, and pray that it would do it soon so everyone could get back to work.
In the meantime, however, a bright young engineer working for one of the major oil companies in Conroe
suggested that an offset well be drilled and deviated so that it would bottom out near the borehole of the
cratered well. Then mud under high pressure could be pumped down this offset well so that it would channel
through the formation to the cratered well and thus control the blow out. The suggestion was approved and the
project was completely successful.
Current expenditures for hydrocarbon production have dictated the necessity of controlled directional drilling,
ad today it is no longer the dreaded operation that it once was. Probably the most important aspect of controlled
directional drilling is that it enables producers all over the world to develop subsurface deposits that could never
be reached economically in any other manner.

- 58 -

Fig. 4.5: Developing a field under a city using directionally drilled wells.

Fig. 4.6: Drilling of directional wells where the reservoir is beneath a major surface obstruction.

- 59 -

Fig. 4.7: Sidetracking around a fish.

Fig. 4.8: Using an old well to explore for new oil by sidetracking out of the casing and drilling directionally.

- 60 -

4.3

PLANNING AND CALCULATIONS

The steps to take in planning are:

Design the various types of wellbore paths or trajectories to intersect a given target economically.

Include the effects of geology on the bottomhole assemblies (BHAs) that will be used and other factors
that could influence the final wellbore trajectory.

Directional drilling is a three-dimensional (3-D) process. The bit not only penetrates vertically but is either
purposely or unintentionally deflected into the X Y planes (Fig. 4.9). The X plane is defined as the direction
plane and the Y plane is the inclination plane. The angles associated with the departures in the X and Y
planes are called direction and inclination angles, respectively.
The first step in planning a well is to determine the 2-D Y Z trajectory. The next step is to account for the X
component of the trajectory that departs from the vertical plane section between the surface location and the
bottomhole target.

Fig. 4.9: Inclination and direction planes as a wellbore proceeds in the depth plane.
Figure 10 is a plan view, looking down on the straight line projected path from Well 2s surface location to the
bulls-eye of a target with a 100-ft radius. The dashed line indicates a possible the bit could follow because of
certain influences exerted by the bit, the BHA configuration, the geology, and the general hole conditions. The
target area provides a zone of tolerance for the wellbore trajectory to pass through. The size and dimensions of
the target are usually based on factors pertaining to the drainage of a reservoir, geological criteria, and lease
boundary constraints.

- 61 -

When a well is kicked off, the practice is to orient the trajectory to some specific direction angle called lead.
This lead usually is to the left of the target departure line and ranges from 5 o to 25o. As the drilling progresses
after the lead is set, the trajectory varies in the X and Y planes as the bit penetrates in the Z plane.

Fig. 4.10: Plan view.

In kicking off a well, setting the lead angle, or making a controlled trajectory change, some method must be
used to force the bit in the desired direction. Methods include whipstock (Fig. 4.11), jetting bits (Fig. 4.12), and
mud motors equipped with bent subs or bent housing. All deflection methods depend on manipulating the
drillpipe (rotation and downward motion) to cause a departure of the bit in either the direction plane or
inclination plane, or both.

- 62 -

Fig. 4.11: Kicking off with a retrievable whipstock.

Fig. 4.12: Kicking off with a jetting bit.

Figure 4.12 depicts the three (3) types of vertical trajectories that could be drilled to hit the target.

- 63 -

Advantages of Jetting Bit

Several attempts can be made to initiate deflection without pulling out of hole

A full gauge hole can be drilled from the beginning

Disadvantages of Jetting Bit

The technique is limited to soft-medium formations

Severe dog-legs can occur if the jetting is not carefully controlled

On smaller rigs there may not be enough pump capacity to wash away the formation

Advanages of Whipstock

It provides a controlled hole curvature at the onset

Can be run at any depth in any kind of rock and very useful in hard rock where others fail.

Disadvantages of Whipstock

It is necessary to drill the pilot hole and then trip out to change the smaller bit to one of the
wellbore diameter

TYPE I

TYPE II

TYPE III

KOP

BUILD & HOLD

BUILD HOLD & DROP

Fig. 4.13: Types of trajectories.

- 64 -

CONTINUOUS BUILD

A.

Build and Hold Calculation

D1

D2

D3

X1
X2

Fig 4.14: Build and hold calculations.

Where:

D1 KOP, ft
D3 TVD, ft
R Radius of Curvature, ft
X 2 = Horizontal Departure, ft
q = Rate of Build, degrees/ft
= Maximum Inclination Angle, degrees

- 65 -

B.

Build-Hold and Drop Calculation

D1

R1
D2

D3

MAXIMUM
INCLINATION
ANGLE
D4

R2

2
X3

Fig 4.14: Build hold and drop calculations.

X2
X1

Fig 4.15: Build hold and drop calculations.

- 66 -

C.

Continuous Build Calculation

D1
R

D2

Fig 4.16: Continuous build calculations.

- 67 -

 5.

5.1

BASIC WELL CONTROL

CONCEPT OF PRESSURE

Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by or on a fluid (Fig. 5.1).

Pressure =

Force
F

Cross-sectional area A

Fig. 5.1: Pressure exerted on a surface.

In a static fluid, the pressure increases with depth, but according to Pascals principle, it is the same in all
directions at any given depth (Fig. 5.2).

- 68 -

P gh

Fig. 5.2: Pressure exerted by a column of liquid.

Pressure may be specified as either absolute or gauge, the relationship between the two being:

Pa Pg Patm
Where Pa is absolute pressure, Pg is gauge pressure, and Patm is the atmospheric pressure.

Subsurface well pressures are determined most easily for static well conditions. Consider a free-body
diagram of vertical forces acting on a fluid element at a depth D in a hole of cross-sectional area A (Fig.
5.3).
The downward force on the element exerted by the fluid above is given as F1 pA .

The upward force on the element exerted by the fluid below is F2 p

dp

D A .
dD

The weight of the element is exerting a downward force given by F3 FSW AD .

Since the fluid is at rest, no shear forces exist and the three forces are in equilibrium, which is expressed as:

dp

D A FSW AD 0.
F1 F2 F3 0 . Or, pA p
dD

Expand and divide through by AD gives dp FSW dD .

Integrating gives p FSW D p0 . The constant of integration is p0 and is equal to surface pressure at

D 0 . Normally p 0 unless the BOP of the well is closed and the well is trying to flow.

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D 0 at surface

D
F1

F3

F2

Fig. 5.3: Forces acting on a fluid element.

FSW is the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the fluid in psi/ft, and is given as FSW 0.052 . is the fluid
density in ppg (lb/gal).
Therefore, p 0.052 D p0 ...... (5.1)

In complex well fluid columns containing several sections of different fluid densities, the variation of
pressure with depth is determined by separating the effect of each fluid segment. For example, consider the
complex liquid column in Fig. 5.4.

p1 0.0521 D1 D0 p0
p2 0.0522 D2 D1 0.0521 D1 D0 p0
n

D D .. (5.2)

In general, p p0 0.052

i 1

i 1

- 70 -

L1

D0

L2

D1

L3

D2

Ln

Dn 1

Dn

Fig. 5.4: A complex liquid column.

5.2

PORE PRESSURE

Formation pore pressure is created during deposition of sediments. The grains in the sediments support the
weight of the solid particles at graintograin contact points. The pore spaces in the sediments contain fluid
known as pore fluid. Because rocks are essentially squeezed by tectonic, lithostatic, and hydrostatic pressures,
the fluids within rocks develop and exhibit a variable and generally substantial fluid pressure, referred to as
pore pressure. Pore pressures represent the environmental equilibrium of a rockfluid mass. Fluids within rock
pores may be inherited, such as sediments that contain original fluids from their depositional environments,
called connate water, or the fluids may be introduced, such as the gasoilwater media that migrate into
appropriate rock masses.
The lithostatic pressure is caused by the pressure of rock, which is transmitted through the subsurface by grain
tograin contacts. The lithostatic pressure gradient varies according to depth, the density of the overburden, and
the extent to which graintograin contacts may be supported by water pressure. It often averages about 1
psi/ft. The fluid pressure is caused by the fluids within the pore spaces. Therefore, the total pressure acting on a
subsurface rock mass and the fluids it contains is a function of the weight of the rock (called lithostatic
pressure or matrix stress) and fluid (called hydrostatic pressure) affecting the given subsurface rock mass.
According to Terzaghis law:

Pob Pp .... (5.3)

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Pob is overburden pressure, is matrix stress, and Pp is pore fluid (or hydrostatic) pressure.
From Eq. (5.1) the hydrostatic pressure depends upon two factors: the density of the fluid, and its depth, i.e.

P 0.052 D . The hydrostatic pressure of a column of fresh water ( 8.33 ppg ) 1 foot deep is
P 0.052 8.33 1 0.433 psi .
The hydrostatic pressure gradient is the rate at which hydrostatic pressure increases with depth, i.e.

Gp

P
0.052 (psi/ft) . (5.4)
D

For fresh water, Gp 0.052 0.052 8.33 0.433 psi/ft .

Pore fluids are generally saline water. The salinities affect the fluid densities, and invariably the pore pressure
gradient. For water with 50,000 ppm of dissolved salts the density is 8.65 ppg (0.45 psi/ft); for 80,000 ppm of
dissolved salts the density is about 8.94 ppg (0.465 psi/ft).

Equivalent Water Density

Region

Pressure Gradient, psi/ft

West Texas

kg/m3

ppg

0.433

1.000

8.33

GoM coastline

0.465

1.074

8.95

North Sea

0.452

1.044

8.70

Malaysia

0.442

1.021

8.51

Mackenzie Delta

0.442

1.021

8.51

West Africa

0.442

1.021

8.51

Anadarko Basin

0.433

1.000

8.33

Rocky Mountains

0.436

1.007

8.39

California

0.439

1.014

8.45

Table 5.1: Normal formation pressure gradient for several areas of active drilling.

A.

Abnormal Formation Pressure

When the formation pore pressure is approximately equal to theoretical hydrostatic pressure for the given
vertical depth, the formation pressure is said to be Normal. If less than the theoretical hydrostatic pressure, it is
termed Subnormal. If higher, it is termed Supernormal, or simply Abnormal.
Subnormal Pressures (usually less than 0.433 psi/ft) May be found in partially or totally depleted reservoir
formations, formations at high elevations, and formations that outcrop downhill from a well. Subnormally
pressured formations may occur in the same borehole as normally pressured formations.
Supernormal (or Abnormal) Pressures (usually greater than 0.465 psi/ft) Are usually, but not always, found
in closed formations that is, formations isolated from normally pressured formations. As sediments (mud,
clays, and loose sands) are buried and compacted under more sediments, the shale is compressed by the weight

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of the accumulating overburden, becoming denser as excess water is squeezed out. If the permeable formation is
cut off from normal pressure, water squeezed out of the shale and into the sand acquires higher pressure and
supports part of the weight of the overburden (Fig. 5.5). Higher pressures in adjacent formations keep some of
the excess water from escaping from the shale; this water remains in the pores of the shale as free water under
abnormal pressure. All shales are porous to some degree although permeability may be nil but shale porosity
normally becomes lower upon compaction. Abnormal pressured shales, however, have higher porosity
(therefore more water) than normally pressured shales at the same depth.

Fig. 5.5: Compaction of sediments.

Abnormal formation pressures can also occur in formations that outcrop at a higher level than that of
the derrick floor (Fig. 5.6). This phenomenon is called Artesian Effect. The pressure gradient is normal
if TVD is measured from the level of the outcrop; however, since TVD for the well is measured from
the rig site, excess pressure corresponds to the height of the outcrop above the well site.

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Fig. 5.6: Abnormal pressure in a formation outcropping higher than rig elevation.

Even a porous, permeable, surface-connected formation outcropping at the same elevation as the rig can have
abnormal pressure. In Fig. 5.7, abnormal pressure is found in the gas at the top of the anticline because of the
different densities of water, oil, and gas. The gas is abnormally compressed by the weight of the water column,
because the water extends higher in the formation than gas. Since gas is usually found in association with oil
and/or water, formations that contain gas are usually abnormally pressured.

- 74 -

Fig. 5.7: Abnormal pressure in a formation outcropping at rig elevation.

The effects of fluid migration can also cause a formation to have abnormal pressure. The upward flow of fluids
from a deep reservoir to a more shallow formation can result in the shallow formation becoming abnormally
pressured, with the shallow formation said to be charged. This flow path can either be natural (e.g. a leaky
fault) or manmade (e.g. bad cement job or improper abandonment job), Fig. 5.8.

Fig. 5.8: Fluid migration effects.

- 75 -

B.

Prediction of Abnormal Pore Pressure

1.

Shale Resistivity
I. Establish trend line in normally pressured shale.
II. Look for deviations from this trend line.

Fig. 5.9: Generalized shale resistivity plot.

2.

Compaction and Porosity

I. Establish normal trend line.
II. Extrapolate normal trend line.
III. Determine the magnitude of the deviation.

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Normal Trend Line

Transition
Extrapolated Line

Fig. 5.10: Shale porosity indicator.

De
Depth

Shale Porosity Indicator

Fig. 5.11: Shale porosity indicator equivalent depth method.

The normally compacted shale at depth De has the same compaction as the abnormally pressured shale
at D .

- 77 -

Change the pressures in Eq. 5.3 to gradients. For normally compacted shale, Gob Gm Gp . For the
equivalent depth, Gobe Gme Gpe . Taking the matrix stress gradient of both the normal and the
equivalent to be same, i.e. Gm Gme .
Then, Gob Gp Gobe Gpe
Thus, Gp Gpe Gob Gobe .... (5.5)

3.

Temperature of Return Mud

Fig. 5.12: Mud temperature in flowline.

- 78 -

4.

Sonic Travel Time

Fig. 5.13: Sonic travel time.

5.

dc-Exponent
The d-exponent equation is used to detect the transition from normal to abnormal pressure if the
drilling fluid density is held constant. It involves plotting values of d obtained in shale
formation as a function of depth. Drilling data obtained in order formation types simply are
omitted from the calculation. In normally pressure formation, the d-exponent tends to increase
with depth. After encountering abnormally pressured formations, a departure occurs in which
the d-exponent usually decreases with depth.

d exp

R
log

60 N ... (5.6)

12W
log 6

10 DB

R [ft/hr]

= rate of penetration (ROP)

N [rpm]

= rotary speed

W [lbf]

= weight on bit (WOB)

DB [in.]

= diameter of bit.

To account for change in mud density, Rehm and McClendon proposed a modified d-exponent
called dc-exponent.

- 79 -

dcexp d exp

n
. (5.7)
b

n [ppg]

= mud density equivalent to a normal formation pore pressure gradient.

b [ppg]

= equivalent mud density at the bit while circulating.

Depth

Dc
Fig. 5.14: Sonic travel time.

6.

Eatons Equations

These are series of equations for different parameters.

I. dc-Exponent
1.2

dccal
G p Gob Gob G p ,n
(5.8)

dcn

G p [psi/ft]

= formation pore gradient

Gob [psi/ft]

= overburden pressure gradient

G p ,n [psi/ft]

= normal water gradient in the area (e.g. 0.433 or 0.465 psi/ft).

dccal [1]

= dc-exponent calculated or actual from plot.

dcn [1]

= dc-exponent from normal trend line.

- 80 -

II. Shale Resistivity

1.2

Ro
G p Gob Gob G p ,n . (5.9)

Rn

Ro [ m ]

= resistivity observed from well log

Rn [ m ]

= resistivity from normal trend line

III. Shale Conductivity

1.2

Cn
G p Gob Gob G p ,n ... (5.10)

Co

Cn [ 1m1 ] = conductivity from normal trend line

Co [ 1m1 ] = conductivity observed from well log
IV. Seismic Travel Time
3.0

tn
G p Gob Gob G p ,n
.. (5.11)

to

5.3

tn [ s/ft ]

= shale travel time value from normal trend line

to [ s/ft ]

= shale travel time value observed from well log

FRACTURE PRESSURE

Fracture pressure (or simply frac pressure) is the pressure resistance a formation will exhibit. Any pressure
above this will cause the formation to breakdown. As it is important to maintain a mud weight above the pore
pressure (to prevent formation fluids from entering the hole) in an overbalance drilling operation, so also it is
important to maintain the mud weight below the frac pressure (to prevent formation breakdown). The mud
weight must fall within the mud weight window (the space between the pore pressure gradient and frac
pressure gradient, Fig. 5.15).

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Fig. 5.15: The mud weight window.

The mud window is also useful in selecting the number of casing strings and their respective depths.

- 82 -

Fig. 5.16: Relationship among casing-setting depth, pore pressure gradient, and frac gradient.

Prediction of Fracture Pressure

There are two general methods used in the determination of fracture pressure gradient: theoretical method
(including Hubbert & Willis, Mathews & Kelly, and Ben Eaton) and practical method (leakoff test).

I. Hubbert & Willis Equation

GF ,min

1
1 2Gp .. (5.12)
3

GF ,max

1
1 Gp ... (5.13)
2

GF ,min [psi/ft ]

= minimum fracture pressure gradient

GF ,max [psi/ft ]

= maximum fracture pressure gradient

G p [psi/ft ]

= formation pore pressure gradient

II. Mathews & Kelly Correlation

GF Ki Gm Gp (5.14)

GF [psi/ft ] = fracture pressure gradient

- 83 -

K i [1]

= matrix stress coefficient. It is determined graphically (Fig. 5.17)

Gm [psi/ft ] = vertical matrix stress gradient

K
Fig. 5.17: Mathews & Kelly matrix stress coefficient.

III. Ben Eaton Correlation

GF Gob G p
G p .. (5.15)
1

Gob [psi/ft ] = overburden pressure gradient. Can be determined graphically (Fig. 5.18)

[1]

= Poissons ratio. Can be determined graphically (Fig. 5.19).

- 84 -

Fig. 5.18: Variable overburden stress gradient by Eaton.

- 85 -

Gulf Coast
Variable
Overburden
Overburden
equals 1.0 psi/ft
Shales

West Texas
Overburden
equals 1.0 psi/ft
Producing
Formations

Fig. 5.19: Eaton correlation for Poissons ratio.

IV. Leakoff Test (LOT)

A leakoff test (also known as Pressure Integrity Test) is used to verify that the casing,
cement, and formations below the casing seat can withstand the wellbore pressure required to
drill safely to the next depth at which casing will be set. The steps are:

Run and cement casing.

Circulate the well until the mud density is uniform throughout the well. This
should be verified by removing the Kelly and observing a static column of
fluid both in the drillstring and in the annulus. Cuttings in the annulus or a slug
of heavy mud in the drillpipe can cause density differentials in the well, which
will introduce errors in the fracture pressure determined by LOT.

Drill out approximately 10 feet below the casing seat.

Shut in the well by closing the blowout preventers (BOPs).

Increase pressure by pumping slowly and monitor the pressure.

- 86 -

Pressure gauge

Fluid in
Shutin BOP

Casing

Drillstring
Casing
shoe

10 feet

Fig. 5.20: Leakoff test (LOT).

At a certain point during pumping, pressure will begin to drop off, indicating that the exposed
formation is taking on significant amounts of mud. The pump is stopped and the pressure is
observed for at least 10 minutes to determine the rate of pressure decline. The fracture
pressure therefore, is the total of the surface pumping pressure and the hydrostatic pressure at
the casing shoe.

PLOT Ppump Phyd . (5.16)

PLOT [psi]

= leak-off pressure

Ppump [psi]

= pump pressure

Phyd [psi]

= mud hydrostatic pressure

- 87 -

(psi)

(barrels)

Fig. 5.21: Typical results from a leakoff test.

Another advantage of this test is that it verifies the integrity of the cementing job, that is, it
shows if the casing is well cemented or not. If the job is poor, the casing shoe should be
squeezecemented before continuing with the drilling operation. Fig. 5.22 shows such a
leakoff result that indicates a poor cement bond.

Fig. 5.22: Leakoff test results indicative of a poor cement bond.

5.4

PRESSURE LOSSES IN CIRCULATING SYSTEM

If mud is being circulated, hydrostatic pressure and an additional pressure due to fluid friction are both
experienced. The pressure needed to overcome all friction losses in the system is known as circulating
pressure. Total friction losses or circulating pressures, vary with the density, viscosity, and gel strength of the

- 88 -