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Lecture 2
Axially-loaded Members
Stiffness and flexibility
Factor of safety, allowable stresses and loads
Changes in length under non-uniform conditions
(intermediate axial loads, prismatic segments,
continuously varying loads or dimensions)
Elasto-plastic analysis
1
Axially-loaded Members
Structural components subjected only to tension or compression:
coil springs, solid bars with straight longitudinal axes, cables, etc.
Coil springs act primarily in shear or torsion, but overall stretching
or shortening is analogous to a bar in tension or compression.
L = unstressed or relaxed length
= extension of spring under a load P
P
= E
Ao
Lo
= E
k=
EAo
Lo
f =
PLo
EAo
Lo
EAo
Example
A rod made of aluminium alloy (E = 72 GPa) has length 500 mm
and diameter 10 mm. What are its tensile stiffness and flexibility?
)(
EAo
72 109 (0.01 / 2)
k= =
=
Lo
0.5
( N/m )( m ) = N
2
units
f =
) = 11.3 10
N
m
1
= 88.4 10 9
k
m
m
N
Factor of Safety
The actual strength of a structure must exceed its required strength.
Factor of safety n =
Actual Strength
Required Strength
Last week the Met Office said that storm surges were likely to become higher and
more frequent as the century progressed, thanks to climate change - and that floods
that currently occur once in every 100 years on the East Coast could happen once
every 10 years by the end of the century.
Ambiental, a company that specialises in flood modelling and risk assessment, says
there is a residual risk that even defences built to cope with the kind of floods that
occur once every 200 or 250 years can be overtopped or breached. Human error a floodgate left open, perhaps - can never be ruled out.
7
Yield Strength
= Y
Allowable stress (or working stress) =
n
Factor of safety
For prismatic bars in direct tension or compression (no buckling),
allowable loads or required areas can be found once allowable
stresses are calculated.
Pallow = allow Ao
Example
A steel bar with diameter 30 mm functions in tension as part
of a truss. We do not want the bar to yield. An experienced
design engineer recommends a safety factor of 2.5 for this
application. What is the allowable load?
allow =
Y
n
Pallow = allow Ao =
Y Ao
n
2.5
N = 67.9 kN
10
L1
L2
L3
PC
11
N1
PA
F1 = N1 + PA PB PC = 0
N1 = PB + PC PA
N2
F2 = N 2 PB PC = 0
N 2 = PB + PC
PB
PB
N3
F3 = N 3 PC = 0
N3 = PC
PC
PC
PC
12
1 =
N1 L1
EA
2 =
N2 L2
EA
3 =
N3 L3
EA
40PkN
A
L2 = L
= 1 + 2 + 3
If PA = 40 kN, PB = 5 kN, PC = 25 kN,
then N1 = -10 kN, N2 = 30 kN, N3 = 25 kN.
L1= L
5PkN
B
If L1 = L2 = (3/2) L3 = L,
then 1 = -10 r kN, 2 = 30 r kN, 3 = 37.5 r kN,
where r = (L/AE).
L3
= 1.5 L
P
25C kN
So = 57.5 kN (L/AE)
13
L2
E1
L1
14
PA
PA
PB
N2
Write equilibrium equations and determine
internal forces.
N1
15
dx
P1
P(x)
P2
The bar has a cross-sectional area A(x) that varies gradually along its
length.
The bar is subjected to concentrated loads at its ends and a variable
external load P(x) distributed along its length (e.g. weight of a vertical bar
or friction forces on the surface of the bar).
16
F = P1 + P2 + P ( x ) dx = 0
o
N( x )
A( x )
= E
and
d
dx
N(x)
N( x )
d
=E
A( x )
dx
so
N ( x ) dx
d =
A( x ) E
and =
N(x)
dx d
N ( x ) dx
A( x ) E
17
Example
(based on Q4-24 in Introduction to Mechanics of Solids, EP Popov)
F
A uniform timber pile which has been
driven to a depth L in clay carries an
applied load F at the top. This load is
resisted entirely by the friction force
R(y) = k y 2 along the pile.
R(y)
18
R(y) dy F = 0
0
L
2
ky dy F = 0
kL3
F=
3
and
k=
3F
L3
N + R( y ) dy = 0
0
y
R(y)
N + ky 2 dy = 0
ky 3
N=
3
19
N ( y ) dy L ky 3 dy
=
=
AE
3
AE
0
0
FL
=
(negative sign indicates compressio n)
4 AE
L
FL
425 103 (12)
=
=
= 1.96 10 3 m = 1.96 mm
3
9
4 AE 4 65 10 10 10
)(
Double-checking to see how the loads compare with the failure load:
F 425 103
= =
= 6.54 106 Pa = 6.54 MPa
3
A 65 10
failure (compressi on) = 20 80 MPa (HLT)
20
ading
Relo
Unlo
adin
Lo
ad
in
Elastic
limit
Residual
strain
Elastic recovery
21
Example
(based on Example 9.3 in Statics and Mechanics of Materials, RC Hibbeler)
20 mm
A
10 kN
600 mm
15 mm
10 kN
400 mm
22
Stress (MPa)
Strain
P
10 103
=
= 31.83 106 Pa = 31.83 MPa
AAB (0.020 / 2)2
BC =
P
10 103
=
= 56.59 106 Pa = 56.59 MPa
ABC (0.015 / 2)2
AB
AB
AB
31.83 106
=
=
= 454.71 10 6
9
E
70 10
= ABLAB = 454.71 10 6 (0.6 ) = 272.83 10 6 m = 0.273 mm
Stress (MPa)
Strain
rec
BC
56.59 10 6
=
=
= 0.000808
E
70 10 9
25
Stress (MPa)
Strain