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Influence of porosity on compressive and

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Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Inuence of porosity on compressive and tensile strength of cement mortar

Xudong Chen , Shengxing Wu, Jikai Zhou
College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China

h i g h l i g h t s
" Strength and porosity of cement mortar has been measured.
" Strength decreases with increasing porosity.
" Suitability of existing expressions relating strength and porosity is assessed.
" Extended Zheng model is good representation of experimental data.
" Compressive/tensile strength ratio decreases with increase porosity.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 5 July 2012
Received in revised form 26 September
2012
Accepted 21 November 2012

Keywords:
Strength
Porosity
Cement mortar

a b s t r a c t
The compressive, exural and splitting tensile strength of cement mortar has been measured and interpreted in terms of its porosity. The authors rst reviewed the existing porositystrength relationships
(Ryshkewithch, Schiller, Balshin and Hasselman model) and assessed the suitability of existing relationships. The Zheng model for porous materials has been used to evaluate the porositystrength relationship
of cement mortar. Over the porosity ranges examined, the extended Zheng model is good representation
of the experimental data on the strength of cement mortar. Based on the generality of the assumptions
used in the derivation of the extended Zheng model, this model for cement mortar can be applied for
other cement-based materials. The experimental data also show that the ratio between compressive
strength and indirect tensile (splitting tensile and exural) strength of cement mortar is not constant,
but is porosity dependent. The ratio decreases with increase porosity values of cement mortar.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The fact that a reduction of porosity in a solid material increases
its strength in general, and the strength of cement-based materials
in particular, was recognized long ago [13]. It has also been discovered that porosity has an important role in the frost resistance
of concrete [46]. Furthermore, porosity has a role in the relationship between mechanical properties of concrete, such as the
compressive strength-modulus of elasticity relationship [7]. The
practical importance of durability of cement-based materials
created such an upsurge in research activities that our knowledge
concerning the relationship between pore structure and frost
resistance of concrete is much more complete than the strength
porosity relationship. This does not mean that no efforts have been
made for the development of quantitative relationships between
strength and porosity but rather that these efforts have been sporadic [810] and the results have less than satisfactory.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 25 83786551; fax: +86 26 83786986.

E-mail address: cxdong1985@hotmail.com (X. Chen).
0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.072

In the eld of more basic research, the pore structure of cementbased materials has been a dominant topic [2,1114]. But experimentally measurement of a relevant porosity parameter has
proved to be extremely difcult in cement-based materials,
because of the special character of the hydration products formed
[15]. Hence the results obtained will depend not only on the measuring principle but also on the drying method used prior to the
porosity measurements [16]. But even with these problems solved,
a connection between the porosity and strength has to be established. The inuence of porosity on the strength of cement-based
material has already been investigated. Taking an empirical approach, Powers [11] was able to deduce an equation which relates
the compressive strength of mortar cubes to a function of the gelspace ratio. Schiller [17] using a theoretical approach deduced an
equation relation the strength of material to the porosity. He applied this equation to experimental data on gypsum plasters and
obtained a good t for compressive and tensile strengths. Some
excellent reviews [1820] of the effect of porosity on the strength
of concrete presented some of the more important empirical and
theoretical equation for relating strength to porosity. The profusion
of the possible equation is enormous and whilst one equation is

870

X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874

most suitable for one material a quite different equation is most

suitable for a second material. Clearly some simplication is
desirable. Despite the relatively large number of experimental
investigations that have been conducted to characterize the link
between strength and porosity, few systematic evaluations have
been extended beyond simple expressions for tensile or compressive strength of a specic material. None of these encompasses
both compressive and tensile strength for cement-based materials.
The compressive and tensile strength of concrete are important
design parameters in civil engineering. The splitting tensile and
exural test has been reported as two indirect measure of the tensile strength of cement-based materials [21,22]. It has been used
widely in practice due to its testing ease, simplicity of specimen
preparation, and possible eld applications.
The objective of this paper is to determine the compressive
strength, splitting tensile, and exural strength of cement mortar,
and to study how porosity inuences the magnitude of and the
relationship between these mechanical properties. In addition,
the existing strengthporosity relationship have been reviewed
and compared with experimental results.

3. Test results and discussion

Quite a few relationships involving strength and porosity of
engineering materials have been reported in the literature [20].
Historically, several general types of model have been developed
for cement-based materials.
Balshin [31], from his study of the tensile strength of metal
ceramics, suggested the relation (Eq. (2)):

r r0 1  pb

where r is the strength, r0 is the strength at zero porosity, b is the

empirical constant.
Ryshkewitch [32], from a study of the compressive strength of
Al2O3 and ZrO2, obtained the relation (Eq. (3)):

r r0 ekp

where k is the empirical constant.

Schiller [17], on the basis of the study of set sulfate plasters,
proposed the relation (Eq. (4)):

r n ln

 
p0
p

2. Experimental details
2.1. Materials and mix compositions
An adequate number of series of cement mortar compositions were prepared to
study the strengthporosity relationship. Cement mortar samples were prepared
from ordinary Portland cement 42.5. The ne aggregate used for mortar specimens
was river quartzite sand. The sand was passed through a No. 4 sieve before use. Four
watercement ratio (w/c), 03, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.7, were used for cement mortar. The
corresponding sandcement ratio (s/c) for all cement mortars is 1.2. Mixing was
done in a small mixer. Casting was completed in two layers which were compacted
on a vibrating table. The cast specimens were covered with polyurethane sheet and
damped cloth in a 20 2 C chamber and were demoulded at the age of 1 day. For
strength and porosity tests, the specimens were cured in saturated limewater at
20 2 C until the test age 7 and 28 days.

2.2. Strength measurements

Compressive tests were run on specimens according to ASTM C 349 [23]. The
specimens (40  40  160 mm) were prepared according to ASTM C 348 [24]. Three
specimens were tested for each mix proportions. Flexural tests for exural strength
of the mix proportions were carried out on the long surface of prism specimens
using a bend tester (ASTM C 348 [24]). Similar to the compressive tests, exural
tests were carried out on triplicate specimens and average exural strength values
were obtained. Splitting tensile tests were run on cubical specimens
(70.7  70.7  70.7 mm) according to BS 1881-117 [25].

where n is the empirical constant, p0 is the porosity at zero strength.

Hasselman [33] suggested the equation of a linear relationship
between strength and porosity for different refractory materials
(Eq. (5)):

r r0  cP

where c is the empirical constant.

Results of tting previously mentioned models of strength
porosity relations are given in Figs. 13. Values of parameters r0
in models of Hasselman, Balshin, and Ryshkewithch correspond
to the strength of nonporous material or equivalently to the
extrapolated strength of specimens to the zero porosity. It should
also be mentioned that the estimated value of the parameter r0
(strength at zero porosity) may not always provide a reliable estimate of the material nonporous response. Other microscopic aws
remaining in the material under these conditions can control its
strength, and this aspect is not explicitly taken into account in
the above models. Hence, one should be careful with how this tting parameter is used in practical applications. For cement-based
materials, the constant r0 contains microstructure factors involved, like density of cement particle and CSH, particle size distribution and size, and density of aws [3436]. The model of

2.3. Determination of porosity

After the exural tests, three pieces from each specimen were weighed under
water and in the saturated surface-dry (SSD) [26] condition, thus enabling the bulk
volume to be calculated. It was assumed that any volume change during drying or
re-saturation was negligible; this volume was used to calculate the bulk density of
each sample after drying (in the worst case, the bulk volume change due to drying
would be approximately 1.5% [26,27]). Each specimen was then dried in a carbondioxide free oven at 105 C until it reached constant weight. The difference in
weight between in the water-saturated and oven-dry conditions was used to calculate the porosity expressed as a percentage of the bulk specimen volume. The data
which are presented are the average of three replicates. The porosity was calculated
using the following equation:

W ssd  W d
 100%
W ssd  W w

where p is the porosity (100%), Wssd is the specimen weight in the saturated surfacedry (SSD) condition (g), Wd is the specimen dry weight after 24 h in oven (g), and Ww
is the weight of saturated specimen (g).
This method has been used to measure the porosity of the cement-based materials successfully [15,2830].

Fig. 1. Experimental data on compressive strengthporosity dependence. Graphs of

the best t obtained for existing models tested are shown.

X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874

Fig. 2. Experimental data on exural strengthporosity dependence. Graphs of the

best t obtained for existing models tested are shown.

Fig. 3. Experimental data on splitting tensile strengthporosity dependence.

Graphs of the best t obtained for existing models tested are shown.

Schiller has a vertical asymptote at zero porosity, and the value of

parameter k depends on the base of the logarithm so its value is
merely a way of obtaining the best t. The values of those parameters are approximately the same all mixes studied. Simple linear
relationship of Hasselman model shows articial intercept with
the abscissa at porosity less than the initial porosity and predicts
negative strength at higher porosities. A pore-initiated-failure
model for glass at low values of strength at higher porosity was offered by Hasslman [37] in the explanation of the load-bearing
areas. In treating failure initiation from this complex, Hasselman
and Fulrath [38] used the cylindrical model solved by Bowie [39]
and assumed that crack extension parallel to the surface of the
specimen triggered catastrophic failure. As shown in Figs. 13,
the model of Hasselman overestimates the observed strength drop
with increasing porosity. Thus, although Hasselmans model appears to embody a rational concept, it is quantitatively subject to
question. Recently, Hyun et al. [40] suggested that the empirical
constant b in Balshins model is related with the stress concentration around pores in the porous materials. The stress concentration
factor of the pores depends on the pore geometry and orientation
with the direction of applied stress. Although the equation of Balshins model is different from Hasselmans model, the basic concept in these two models is similar, since load bearing area and

871

stress concentration around the pores are closely related to each

other. For example, the loading bearing area is reduced with
increasing the porosity, which causes stress concentration around
the pores [41,42]. Ryshkewitchs model is based on the assumption
that the relative strength of porous material is equal to the ratio of
the minimum solid area to the cell area normal to the reference
stress [43]. Rice [44] suggested that the Hasselman model have
shown to less accurate than the minimum solid area approach.
However, it is generally found that the minimum solid area can
be related to the porosity of relatively low volume fraction of
porosity [45,46] (p 6  0.4 pc, where pc is the critical porosity that
corresponds to the percolation limit of the solid phase). Also, the
assumption of the Ryshkewiths model, namely, that (a) the application of a hydrostatic pressure to the composite sphere assemblage can adequately represent the stress and strain response to
other stresses and that the pressure is uniformly experienced by
all of the various hollow spheres comprising the model body, and
(b) Poissons ratio can either increase and decrease with increasing
porosity, with it converging to a xed value, are open to question
[41]. For the model of Balshin, the value of b is merely a way of
obtaining the best t and have no physical signicance, thus leaving us with no respective to predict this value. Although the initial
porosity of the material enters in the model of Schiller, the predicted strength increase with the decrease in porosity is too high
and better t is obtained if both p0 and n are tted freely. It is also
shown in Figs. 13 that Ryshkewithchs exponential and Schillers
logarithmic formulae for the strength of cement mortar are numerically indistinguishable except in the neighborhood of the extremes of 0% and 100% porosity. In general the overestimated
zero-porosity strength is a consequence of tting strength data
using the models of Ryshkewithch and Schiller.
It is necessary to point out that the models summarized above,
which were based on specic structures. The microstructural evolution of a material with increasing porosity is a 3D connectivity
problem. According to the percolation theory, there exist two critical porosity levels [46,47]. When the porosity reaches the critical
porosity value pc1 , a microstructural transition occurs from fully
isolated and closed pores with nearly spherical or ellipsoidal
shapes to open and interconnected with complex shapes. Finally,
the effective strength or elastic modulus vanishes when the porosity reaches the second critical value (pc).
Grifths model of fracture [48] is usually taken as a classic theory to explain how the mechanical performance is related to porosity. Grifth found that the critical stress incurs crack propagation
within a brittle material and can be expressed by:

r
2Ec
r
pa

where E is the modulus of elasticity, c is the fracture surface energy

and a is the half length of an internal crack.
Ficker [49] suggested that the average value of pore size in porous materials can be written as,

r

m
pc  p
pc

where r is the average value of pore size; m is the ratio of calculated

average distance to the nearest pore, m reects the randomness of
pore distribution, the degree of randomness can be sued to classify
the distribution of porosity in each location, if m is close to 1, the
pores are considered randomly distributed, for m less than 1, the
pore distribution is classied as clustered, for cement-based materials, m = 0.85 [50]; pc is the percolation porosity at failure
threshold.

872

X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874

Therefore, according to the brittle fracture theory proposed by

Grifth [48] early in 1920, Zheng et al. [50] suggested that the
strength of porous materials with porosity p can be written as:

r a
K Ic


m=2
pc  p
 K Ic
pc

p
2cE

8
9

where KIc is the fracture toughness of porous material; a is a coefcient concerning stress state.Wagh et al. [51] given the porosity
dependence of the fracture toughness as:

K Ic K Ico



1=2
pc  p
 1  p2=3
pc

10

where KIco is the fracture toughness of pore-free material.

An important feature that differentiates Eq. (10) from other
expressions [44,52] relating the fracture toughness to porosity is
that it takes into account the effect of stress concentration induced
by the presence of pore. It has been demonstrated experimentally
[53] and theoretically [18,39,54] that the stress concentration due
to the presence of pores and the annular crack pore stress eld
interaction effects are so large that they cannot be neglected.
Substituting Eq. (10) into (8), one obtains:

"
#1=2
1m
pc  p
2=3
r a  K Ico
 1  p
pc

Fig. 5. Comparison of predicted and observed exural strength.

11

Assuming that r0 = aKIco is the strength of pore-free materials, then

the following equation can be easily obtained:

"
#1=2
1:85
pc  p
2=3
r r0
 1  p
pc

12

The theoretical curves for strength against porosity are shown

in Figs. 46. The experimental results are generally in good agreement with the theoretical curves. The application of the theoretical
equation to the experimental data leads to the constants given in
Table 1. The extended Zhengs model is a rigorous mathematical
formula that of a simple symmetry. It postulates no assumptions
on either physical properties or processes or microstructures. Thus,
it is believe that the extended Zhengs model reects the random
nature of microstructure in cement-based materials. This model
requires two parameters to dene the strength characteristics of
cement mortar and the parameter r0 and pc can account the
changes in loading regime (splitting tension, exure or
compression).

Fig. 6. Comparison of predicted and observed splitting tensile strength.

Table 1
Estimated values for r0 and pc.
Loading regime

pc

r0

Corr. coeff. (R)

Compression
Splitting tension
Flexure

0.562
0.768
0.783

69.4
9.74
5.56

0.989
0.996
0.993

4. Relation between compressive and indirect tensile strength

of cement mortar

Fig. 4. Comparison of predicted and observed compressive strength.

The exural and splitting tensile tests are much cheaper, simpler and quicker to carry out because the samples are smaller,
and the set up time for the tests is much less. All quantitative data
reported so far referred exclusively to compressive strength [7]. In
this section, we explore the role of porosity and how it inuences
the correlation between indirect tensile and compressive strength.
From a number of other investigators [7,21,5557], a simple power
law model has become one of the most widely used analytical
models for describing the relationship between the indirect tensile
(splitting tensile/exural) strength and compressive strength of
concrete. From the experimental results, we can write a new
expression for the ratio between indirect tensile strength and compressive strength, as a function of porosity:

X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874

873

indicated by Eqs. (13) and (14) are in conformity with the ndings
of Odler and Robler [58].
5. Conclusions
The dependence of compressive, splitting tensile and exural
strength on porosity for cement mortar was analysed empirically
and theoretically in this paper. The following conclusions can be
drawn:

Fig. 7. Effect of porosity on the ratio between compressive strength and splitting
tensile strength of cement mortar.

rC
4:12  p0:236
rF

13

rC
7:45  p0:221
rS

14

where rC is the compressive strength of cement mortar (MPa); rS is

the splitting tensile strength of cement mortar (MPa); and rF is the
exural strength of cement mortar (MPa).
The empirical relationship suggested in Eqs. (13) and (14) are
plotted in Figs. 7 and 8. It can be seen that the predicted results
from Eqs. (13) and (14) showed a relative good relationship between porosity and compressive-indirect tensile strength ratio of
cement mortar. The correlation coefcient (R), which indicates
how much of the total variation in the dependent variable can be
accounted for by the regression equation, was obtained as 0.959
and 0.973 for Eqs. (13) and (14) in this study, respectively. Furthermore, it may be inferred from Figs. 7 and 8 that weaker (higher
porosity) cement mortar has a lower compressive strength-indirect tensile strength ratio, whereas stronger cement mortar (lower
porosity) has higher compressive-indirect tensile strength ratio.
Odler and Robler [58] also suggested that the ratio of compressive
strength and split tensile strength is porosity dependent for
hydrated cement paste. They found a linear relation between
compressive/splitting tensile strength ratio and porosity. The ratio
decrease linearly with increase porosity values. That the trends

Fig. 8. Effect of porosity on the ratio between compressive strength and exural
strength of cement mortar.

(1) Ryshkewithchs exponential and Schillers logarithmic formulae for the porositystrength relationship of cement mortar are numerically indistinguishable except in the
neighborhood of the extremes of 0% and 100% porosity. Simple linear relationship of Hasselman model shows articial
intercept with the abscissa at porosity less than the initial
porosity and predicts negative strength at higher porosities.
Although the initial porosity of the material enters in the
model of Schiller, the predicted strength increase with the
decrease in porosity is too high.
(2) Over the porosity ranges examined, the extend Zhengs
model are good representations of the experimental data
on the strength of cement mortar. This model requires two
parameters to dene the strength characteristics of cement
mortar and the parameters can account the changes in loading regime (splitting tension, exure or compression). Based
on the generality of the assumptions used in the derivation
of the extended Zhengs model, this model for cement mortar can be applied for other cement-based materials.
(3) The experimental data also show that the ratio between
compressive strength and indirect tensile (split-tensile and
exural) strength of cement mortar is not constant, but is
porosity dependent. The ratio decreases with increase porosity values of cement mortar.

Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the National Natural Science Foundation (Nos. 50979032 and 51178162) for the nancial support.
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