SURFACE GRINDING:

Flat surface are ground on surface

grinding machines.
Heavy work pieces are clamped on the
table by means of pads, strap claps and
other devises or they are held in
fixtures.
Small work is usually held by a magnetic
check. T
he surface grinders are available with
horizontal spindle and vertical spindle
and with either reciprocating table or
rotary table.

SURFACE GRINDING MACHINE

CYLINDRICAL GRINDING MACHINES:

The term cylindrical is applied to a large group of
grinding machines which implies center for mounting the
work piece to be ground. Most common of the external
cylindrical grinding machines is the plain grinder, which is
general purpose production machine, as shown in the
following fig

TRAVERSE GRINDING:
In traverse grinding or in feed grinding the grinding wheel is moved
into the work.
The desire surface is then produced by traversing the work piece
across the wheel or vise versa. For considerable length, this type of
grinding is adapted

PUNGE- CUT GRINDING:

The basic movement is of the grinding wheel being fed radically into
the work while the later revolves on centers.
It is similar to form cutting on lathe.
This method is used for short work piece where the widths of the
wheel overlap the length to be ground.
Short rigid work piece can be ground by this method.

FULL- DEPTH GRINDING:

The wheel is trued to obtain an entering taper or step, and
the whole allowance is ground off in one or two length wise
passes.
The method is usually applied to relatively short surfaces of
rigid shaft- type work piece

INTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING MACHINES:

Internal grinding is employed chiefly for finishing accurate hole in hardened work
(parts) and when it is impossible to apply other more productive methods of
finishing accurate hole, for example, precision boring, honing etc.
There are main two methods:
With rotating work piece
With work piece held stationary
First method is used in grinding holes in relatively small work piece, mostly bodies
of revolution, for example, the bores of gear and the inner surface of ball bearing
rings.
The work piece is held in the chuck and rotated in the same manner as in a lathe.

CENTRELESS GRINDING:
Centre- less grinding is performed on work piece which do not or
cannot have centers, such as pistons, valves, rings, tubes, balls,
bushings, ball, and roller bearings.
Center- less grinding is mainly two types:
1.External\
2.Internal
EXTERNAL CENTER- LESS GRINDING:
1.Through feed grinding
2.In feed grinding
3.End feed grinding

THROUGH FEED GRINDING:

The principle of through feed center- less grinding is

illustrated in the above fig.
The work piece rests on the work piece rest blade and
passes between two abrasive wheels:

The grinding wheel and the regulating wheel.

The grinding process is extended over the full length of the work
piece by its axial movement past the grinding wheel.
This traverse motion is imparted to the work piece by regulating
wheel.
The regulating wheel is of rubber- bonded abrasive, having the
frictional characteristics to rotate the work as its own rotational
speed.
The action movement of work piece from grinding wheel is
obtained by tilting the regulating wheel downward at the feeding
end, at a slight angle () from horizontal.

IN FEED GRINDING:
If the work piece is stepped or irregular profile and therefore
cannot be traversed between the wheels, in feed center less
grinding is resorted to.
Here the work piece is placed on work rest blade after regulating
wheel is retracted.
Then regulating wheel is advanced towards the work piece so
that it is fed towards the grinding wheel

When the grinding is completed, the

regulating wheel is retracted again and
the finished work piece is ejected.
Since, no longitudinal feed of the work
piece is required in this method, the axis
of the both grinding and regulating
wheels are strictly horizontal, i.e. = 0.

END FEED GRINDING:

In this method, both the grinding and the regulating wheel are
tapered and thus produce taper work piece.

SUPER FINISHING: Honing, Lapping, Polishing

LAPPING:
This process is and abrading employed for improving the surface finish
by reducing roughness, waviness and other irregularities on the
surface.
It is used on both heat treated and non-heat treated metal parts.
It should, however, be noted that where good appearance of the job
surface is the only requirement, it should not be employed

The basic process of lapping is to minimize the extremely minute

irregularities left out of the job surface after some machining
operation

ABRASIVE USED IN LAPPING:

Natural as well as artificial are used for lapping, Aluminum oxide
is preferred for lapping soft ferrous and non ferrous metal,
silicon carbide and natural corundum are used for hardened
steel parts.
Powdered garnet is used for lapping soft ferrous and non ferrous
metals.
Emery for hardened steel components and diamond for hard
materials like cemented carbides.

VEHICLE:
The term Vehicle in lapping denotes the lubricants used to hold or retain the abrasive grains
during the operation.
Some common vehicles used in lapping include the vegetable or olive oil, water soluble
oil, mineral oil, kerosene mixed with a little machine oil, alcohol, and heavy grease.
The vehicle should posses the following qualities.
It should be able to hold the abrasive particles uniformly during the operation.
Its viscosity should not be considerably effected by temperature changes.
It should not evaporate quickly.
It should not be corrosive.
Its viscosity should suit be operating speeds

LAPPING METHOD AND MACHINES:

1.By hand Called hand lapping

2.By machine called machine lapping

HAND LAPPING

In hand lapping, either the lap or the work-piece is held by hand and the
motion of the other enables the rubbing of the two surfaces in contact.
This method is widely used in lapping press work dies, molding dies and
metal moulds for casting, limit gauges etc.
In some cases, the lapping compound is placed between the two surfaces
and two are rubbed together by moving one of these by hand, the other
remaining stationary.

In the above figure the bottom surface of a hardened steel piece

being lapped on a cast iron plate.
We top surface of the plate is made perfectly plane, finally
finished and checkered by providing a cross moved as shown.
The grooves help in collecting excess abrasive grains and
removed chips.

MACHINE LAPPING
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The work-piece is loaded in conditioning
rings or cases on the rotary lower plate,
which rotates about a vertical axis, as
shown in the figure.
At the same time the conditioning rings
also rotate along with work-pieces in their
own positions.
Combination of these two rotary motions
provides a gyratory motion to the work
pieces, due to which the entire surface of
the two plates are covered.
Some modern lapping machines are
provided with vibratory motion instead of
rotary motion, the lower plate carrying an
abrasive paper fixed on its top surface.

HONING:
It is also an abrading process, used for finishing previously
machined surface.
It is mostly used for finishing internal cylindrical surfaces such as
drilled or bored holes.
The tool used, called a hone, is a bonded abrasive stone made
in the form of a stick.
Although honing enables the maximum stock removal out of the
entire surface finishing operations still it is not a metal removing
operation.
This higher stock removing capacity enables the application of
honing for correcting slight out of roundness or taper.
Hole location can not be corrected through it.

honing

The honing tool works more or less in the same way as an expanding
reamer.
The honing stones are so held in a holder or mandrel that they can be
forced outwards by mechanical or hydraulic pressure against the
surface of the bore.
Aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, or diamond grains of suitable grit are
bonded in resinoid, vitrified or shellac bond to form the honing
stones.

MACHINE HONING:
1. Horizontal honing machine

2. Vertical honing machining

HORIZONTAL HONING MACHINE.

These machines are mostly used for honing comparatively
longer jobs, such as gun barrels.
All such machines carry a horizontal spindle, on which is
mounted the honing tool.
On some machines the work piece is mounted on a table which
reciprocated hydraulically to move the work to and fro on the
hone, which rotates about its own axis and also, simultaneously
oscillates a little.
The oscillating motion of hone may be controlled hydraulically or
mechanically.
In some machines the work is held in a horizontal position and
rotated about its own axis.
No reciprocating motion is given to it. Against this, the honing tool
which is mounted own a traveling head is rotated and reciprocated to
give the same result as above. The later type of machine is used for

VERTICAL HONING MACHINE:

These machines hold the work as well as tool in vertical
position.
They are available in single and multiple spindle types.
In this type of machine normally, the spindle heads, and hence
the tool, reciprocate and the work piece.
Fixtures are employed to hold the work piece in position.
These machines are best suited for shorter jobs.
In appearance these machines resemble with the drilling
machines.
In honing work the vertical machines are most widely used than
the horizontal one.

SUPERFINSHING:
Super finishing is more or less like a lapping process with a
specific difference that the abrasive used is bonded abrasive.
The abrasive are used in a particular way under the controlled
conditions to produce high quality surface finish on the work
surface.
It should be note that it is not essentially metal removing
process therefore, that in order to have a rapid rate of
production, all the components to be super finished should first
be finished by other suitable operation, very nearly to
the final size.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

The principle of super finishing is shown in the fig. One face of the abrasive block
(stone) is given the shape of surface to be super finished.
This block is held in the suitable holder or quill and placed on the work surface. The
quill is spring loaded to provide high pressure on the work surface.
The work piece is rotated at very slow surface speed. As, the work rotates, the
abrasive block reciprocates forwards and backwards at rapid rate.
Suitable lubricant is generally used in the process.
An oscillatory motion obtained due to combination of rotary motion of the work and
reciprocating motion of the abrasive block, with rubbing of stone against the work
surface, result in the production of a super finished surface

THE RELATIVE COMPARISON of HONING & SUPERFINISHING BELOW

WILL REVEAL THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THESE TWO;
1.It is possible to create dimensions i.e. the desired size through honing while
super finishing is employed only for obtaining high quality surface finish with no
appreciable amount of stock removal
2.The honing process needs only two motions where as super finishing may
involve many. With the result, the path of the abrasive grains is never repeated.
3.The honing process is mostly employed for finishing internal surfaces, where
as super finishing is largely used for out side surfaces.
4.The total pressure on the work is too low in super finishing as compared to
honing, enabling finishing of even the very delicate parts.
5.Super finishing is done at much lower operating speeds than honing.
The length of stroke in super finishing is very short as compared to honing

POLISHING:
It is surface finish operation which is employed for removing the
scratches, tool marks and similar other irregularities from the job
surfaces from the job surface produced through other operation,
like machining, casting or forging.
The primary object of this operation is only to improve surface
finish and it is, therefore, employed only where dimensional
accuracy is not to be closely controlled.
This operation is performed by means of abrasive coated
wheels or belts.
The wheel used is disc shaped as termed as BOBS AND
MOPS. The former are made of leather, felt or wood, to the
periphery of which are coated the abrasive particles with the help
of glue.
Wheels are operated at 1200 To 1500 m/min (linear speed).

Grinding
ABRASIVE:
An abrasive is a substance which is hard material used for grinding and polishing operations. These are
small particles bonded together in different shapes, size of grinding wheels
ABRASIVE MAY BE CLASSIFIED IN TWO PRINCIPLE GROUPS:
Artificial
Natural
1.
Natural:
Following are the natural abrasives.
A)
Sand stone or solid quartz
B)
Emery
C)
Corundum
D)
Diamond
ARTIFICIAL: These days, almost all grinding wheels made of artificial abrasives because there
composition can be controlled and quality will be better. These artificial abrasives, grinding wheels
possess better cutting properties and higher efficiencies than the natural abrasives
Aluminium Oxide:
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 abrasive is composed chiefly of crystalline aluminium oxide.
It is obtained by melting material rich with this oxide (bauxite ore which is mainly
aluminium hydroxide) in an electric furnace.
Iron chips and coke are added to combine with and remove the impurities.
The refined aluminium oxide comes out fro the fur a e i a large lu p alled a Pig .
It crashed and rolled in to small grains.
Then this treated magnetically to remove the ferrous impurities and washed.
The manufactured abrasives have well defined and controlled properties of hardness, toughness and
type of structure.
These abrasives include:
Aluminium oxide,
silicon carbide,
Diamond (pure form of carbon),
boron carbide and cubic boron nitride.
Properties:
Aluminium oxide is is softer than silicon carbide.
It is tough and not easily fractured.
It is extensively used for grinding materials of high tensile strength such as most steels, H.S.S.,
ferrous alloys, non-ferrous cast alloys and annealed malleable and ductile iron.
Silicon Carbide:
This is a chemical compound of silicon and carbon. It is produced by fusing quartz sand and
powder coke in electric furnace.
Sawdust and salt are also added to the said mixture. In the furnace at the temperature around
2300o C, The silicon sand combines with carbon of the coke to form silicon carbide.
The sawdust burns and leaves pores to let the gases escape. The salt helps remove impurities.

After the process has run, the furnace is cooled.

The core of loosely knit silicon carbide crystal are broken into individual grains.
EFFICIENCY OF ABRASIVE PARTICLES: Depends on
1. Purity
2. Uniformity in composition
3. Hardness
4. Toughness:
If this is not tough, the abrasive particles will fracture readily and wheel wear will be excessive.

5.Sharpness of fracture: The better cutting action is obtained by sharp edged abrasives. The natural
abrasive give rounded edges and are therefore not efficient in cutting
Two types of silicon carbides are available:
Pure silicon carbide of green variety and black or grey.
Green silicon carbide is better abrasive than black silicon carbide.
Both these silicon carbide have a higher hardness than artificial aluminium oxide. Being
extremely brittle, SiC is not recommended for grinding hard material.
Silicon carbide wheels are used for grinding non-ferrous metals, non-metallic elements and cast
irons.
CUTTING ACTION IN GRINDING
From this fig. it is clear that wheel consists of abrasive particles bounding material and voids.
The projecting abrasives particles act like a cutting tool tips and remove metal.
A properly selected grinding wheel exhibits self- sharpening action.
As cutting proceeds, the abrasive particles at the cutting edge become dull and eventually
these become cracked along the planes due to resistance offered by work piece material
which resists the cutting action.
The process continues till the abrasive grains get worn down till the level of bond.

The coarse grit wheels will remove the stock at a faster rate and finer finish will always required a
finer grit.
Coarse grit wheels are more suitable for grinding soft and ductile materials. Finer grit wheels are
suitable for hard ad brittle materials.
Grain or Grit:
The ter
Grai or Grit de otes the appro i ate size of the a rasi e parti les a d gives an
idea of the coarseness of fineness of the grinding wheel.
A grinding may have the abrasive particles of the same size or different sizes. The farmer is
known as straight wheel and the latter compound wheel.
The choice of grain size or grit depends upon many factors viz. quality of finish required, the
amount of stock material to be removed and physical properties of the material to be ground.
MANUFACTURING OF GRINDING WHEELS:
The abrasive particle are first crushed to powder form and passed over magnetic separators for
removing iron impurities.
Then these are washed with water to remove foreign elements like dust etc. then with chemical
compound to grease.
The particles are then graded according to their grain size by passing through proper sieves.
Abrasive particles are then mixed with proper bonding material (the bonding material is based
on abrasive and the process used ) and moulded in proper shape.
After drying it, it is backed (heating). After baking the binding material holds the particles
together.
It is then cut and given a final shape.
It is tested for crash, leakage and balance.

Tight control during manufacturing in terms of density control, mix flow and geometrical accuracy result
in more uniform and consistent wheel.
BOND MATERIALS OR BOND
In order to give an effective and continuous cutting action. It is necessary that the grains of abrasive
material should be held firmly together to form a series of cutting edges.
The aterial e plo ed for holdi g the is k o
BOND The ai bonds are:
1. Vitrified2. Silicate
3. Oxychloride
4. Resinoid 5. Shellac
6. Rubber
VITRIFIED BOND:
It is a clay bond.
The asi aterial is FELPA hi h is fusi le la .
The flux and refractories are added to it and mixed thoroughly.
This mixture together with the abrasive grains is fed into revolving drums
containing water.
After mixing it become paste.
The paste is then placed in moulds to get the shape of the wheel
and air dried at room temperature.
Now, these wheels fed into a klin and allowed them to remain there for a few days at 1260
degree C.
This process is known as fusing.
After this wheels are trimmed to the required size.
Advantages:
It is made porous wheel and enable quicker material removal.
It is not effected by water, oil, acid or climatic condition.
The bond is very hard and acts as an abrasive also.
The structure of the wheel is uniform due to wet mixing of the different constituents.
Dis-advantages:
The process of manufacturing is very slow.
Crack may develop in large size wheel during fusing.
Proper control during fusing becomes difficult.
High temp. in the kiln tends to make the abrasive grains weak.
SILICATE BOND:
Its basic material is silicate of soda.
The process of making the bonds is the same as in the case of vitrified bond but here the oven
carries a temp. of about 260 degree C.
This low temp. help in fairly high tensile strength.
Wheels possessing this bond are light grey in colour.
Advantages:
It is a more rapid process than vitrified bond.
Because of moderate temp. there is no tendency to weaken the grains.
When wet grinding is performed with these wheels the soda acts as lubricants.
The cutting action of the wheel is smoother and cooler.
Dis-advantages:
Extra hard wheels can not be produced with this bond.
Harder grades of this bond do not provide a free cutting action.
RESINOID BOND:
These wheels are manufactured from a mixture of abrasive grains, synthetic resins and some
compounds.

This mixture is filled in moulds and then fed into the furnace at 200 degree C.
After this shape and size thus produced.
It is synthetic organic compound, which is enough strong and flexible. It provides sharp cutting
action and enables a high rate of stock removal at high speeds.
Resinoid bonded wheels are vastly employed for cutting bar stocks, fine grinding of cams,
precision grinding of rolls etc.
SHELLAC BOND:
Shellac bonded wheels are produced by mixing the bond and the abrasive grains in a steam
heated mixes.
After this mixture is moulded under pressure in steam heated moulds.
These wheels are cool cutting and are vastly used on hardened tool steel and thin section.
They also help in producing high surface finish.
They can run safely in water but use of oil or caustic soda should be avoided.
RUBBER BOND:
It is composed of hard vulcanized rubber.
The process consists of passing of rubber and sulphur through the mixing rolls and adding the
abrasive grains slowly as the above two constituents pass through the roll.
Adding of abrasive grains continues till the required proportion is achieved.
The mixture is passed through another set of rolls to obtain the required thickness.
The wheels are then cut and placed in pre-heated moulds and vulcanized under pressure.
These wheels are very strong. They are mainly used where a very high class surface finish with
close dimensional accuracy is a primary requirement.
Selection of Grinding Wheel:
The proper selection of grinding wheel is very important for getting good result. Selection mainly
depends upon the following factors.
Constant Factors
Variable Factors
CONSTANT FACTORS:
Work material: If the work material hard then the soft grinding wheel is used and vise-versa.
Amount of material to be removed.
Condition of grinding machines: The softer grade of wheel is used on robust and heavy machine.
Finish and accuracy required on the job.
VARIABLE FACTORS:
Wheel Speed
Work Speed
The following are the details as to how the various factors influence the choice of wheel based on above
factors.
The work material will influence the following element.
1. Abrasive Material
2. Grain size or Grit Number
3. Grade (Strength of bond)
4. Structure
ABRASIVE:
The choice of right abrasive determine by the type of material to be ground. SiC is the best
suited abrasive for brittle and hard materials e.g. Grey cast iron, iron castings, tungsten carbide,
hard steel, porcelain and other ceramic substances.
This is also used for low tensile strength materials e.g. Bronze, Brass, Copper, Aluminum.

Where Al2O3 is used for tough material having high tensile strength like mild steel, tough bronze,
wrought iron etc.
STRUCTURE:
This represents the void between the abrasive and is influenced by the work material.
If the material is harder then dense structure is desirable.
For softer materials, the open structure is prescribed as the rate of metal removal is high and
the size of the chip is also long.
The structure is denoted by number from 1 to 15 or so.
GRAIN SIZE:
For softer material use coarse grain size and for harder material use fine grain size.
The coarser grain is used for high rate of material removal.
The fine grain is used where the surface finish is important.
GRADE:
The hard materials and materials having high strength offer more resistance to the wheel.
If the hard grade of wheel is used then wheel will get blunt soon. Therefore, better result on
such materials, the abrasive particles should breaks and fall quickly.
For softer material high or harder grade i.e. good bond is used.
VARIABLE FACTORS:
Wheel Speed and Work Speed
Wheel speed offers the grade to a considerable extent and for higher wheel speed, soft grade
wheel should be used.
If the higher work speed it is desirable to use harder wheel and vise-versa.
Condition of Grinding: In dry grinding condition with hard wheel the heat generation is more
and thus soft wheel is required and vise-versa.
The affects of various working parameters on grinding wheel:
PARAMETER
EFFECTS
Large ork speed
More heel ear
Large heel speed V
edu e heel ear
Large alue of N
edu e heel wear
Larger depth of ut td
More heel ear
Larger wheel diameter
Reduce wheel wear
Large work diameter
Reduce wheel wear
Specifications of Grinding Wheels
A 60 K 5 V
The lette A de otes that the t pe of a asi e is Alu i iu o ide. I ase of sili o a ide
the lette C is used.
The number
spe ifies the a e age g it size i i h esh. Fo a e y large size grit this
number may be as small as 6 where as for a very fine grit the designated number may be as
high as 600.
The letter K de otes the ha d ess of the heel, hi h ea s the a ou t of fo e e ui ed
to pull out a single bonded abrasive grit by bond fracture. The letter symbol can range
et ee A a d Z , A de oti g the softest g ade a d Z de oti g the ha dest o e.
The number
de otes the st u tu e o po osit of the heel. This u e a assu e a
alue et ee to , i di ati g lo po osit a d
i di ati g high po osit .
Grinding wheel defects

(i) Glazing
(ii) (ii) Loading
GLAZING:

After continuous use of the grinding wheel the sharp points (cutting points) of the abrasive
grains become DULL.
They lose their cutting ability and sharpness and are worn-out.
Due this, this wheel face becomes smooth and it instead of
biting (penetrating) into work material, gives a sort of rubbing action only.
The above phenomenon, which makes the un-useful, is called GLAZING of grinding wheel.
Causes of GLAZING:
This is due to incorrect dressing.
Wrong wheel selection
Using slow traverse and high work speed.
Remedies of GLAZING:

Keeping the wheel sharp

Selection of the wheel should be correct i.e. use of softer wheel or coarser grit must be decided
as per the material to be ground.
Reducing the wheel speed.
Loading:
Another problem associated with the grinding wheel in operation is the adherence (attached) of
the cut particles of the work material to the face of the grinding wheel.
These particles occupy the open space between the cutting points.
Due to this, the sharpness of the cutting point is lost and the face becomes, smooth depriving
the wheel of its cutting ability.
This phenomenon is known as LOADING OF WHEEL and the effe ted heel is alled LOADED
WHEEL .
CAUSES:
Forcing the cut too fast.
Forcing the cut too deep.
Using the wheel to grind material softer than for which it is suited.
REMEDIES:
Fine grained and soft bonded wheel do not load as readily as opposite wheel.
Increase in speed may help to affect a cure.
TRUEING AND DRESSING OF THE GRINDING WHEELS:

Produced surface cannot be truer than the trueness of the

grinding wheel producing it.
It is also known as that full cutting capacity of the grinding wheel
cannot be used if its periphery has been dull or got clogged with
some foreign material.
Due to these reasons the operation of truing and dressing is
performed.
The truing operation is done to make the periphery of the wheel concentric with its axis, make
its sides true and to recover the lost shape of its face.
Dressing of the wheel is done to recover the proper cutting action
of the wheel face by removing the layer of drilled grains or grains
clogged with foreign material.
How many times a wheel is to be trued or dressed will depends
upon the type of the work, operators skill and wheel fitness
The following the common devices used for dressing of grinding
wheel.
W heel dressers

Abrasive sticks
Abrasive wheels
Diamond dresser
Crush dressing fixture
WHEEL BALANCING:
In order to get a good surface finish, prevent vibrations and chatter and void undue wear on
machine parts, it is necessary that the grinding wheel should have good balance before it is
used.
Larger the diameter of the wheel and higher the operating speed more important is the
balancing.
Balancing is done in the static position of the wheel by shifting the position of the weights on
one of the flanges of the wheel.
The wheel is mounted on a suitable mandrel or arbor and arbour and placed on balancing
fixture for finding out the direction in which the weights are to be shifted.
WEAR MECHANISM OF GRINDING WHEEL
If wheel wear is plotted against the volume of work material removed, refer above fig.
Here that the wear curve is quite similar to that of the other cutting tool.

Also, there is an initial breakdown period followed by a region of uniform wear rate.
Finally, the wheel again starts breaking down rapidly.
The middle zone is the real usable which determines the life of the wheel.
Once the period of uniform wear rate ends, the wheel should be reconditioned before using it
again.
The reconditioning of a wheel is done by a process commonly known as wheel dressing.

GRINDING:

Grinding can also considered as a machining process i.e. process of

removing metal but in smaller volume as compared with other
machining process.
To grind means TO ABRADE to wear by FRICTION or TO
SHARPEN
In grinding the material is removed by means of rotating abrasive
wheel. In this process, the material removal in the form of small chips
by mechanical action of ABRASIVE particulars bonded together in the
grinding wheel.

Grinding Wheel & Workpiece interaction

Grinding Wheels
Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits, which
perform the cutting or material removal, held in the weak bonding
matrix.
A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type of the abrasive
material used.

THE SPECIAL FEATURES OF GRINDING PROCESS

ARE
(GRINDING HAS FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES)
Abrasive are mineral crystal with harden much higher
than that of work piece.
Grinding wheel has self sharpening character.
This means that dull or worn out grains of the grinding
wheel during the operation are removed either by
fracture or teasing of the bond which result into
exposure of fresh new grains.
The grain geometry is highly random and the time
between the chip and an abrasive grain is very small.
The effective rake angle of abrasive grains is highly
negative.

Grinding Wheels
The conventional wheels
include
Aluminium oxide and
Silicon carbide wheels

while Diamond and CBN (cubic

boron nitride) wheels fall in the
category of superabrasive wheel

Grinding Wheel & Workpiece

interaction

ABRASIVE:
An abrasive is a substance which is hard material used for
grinding and polishing operations. These are small particles
bonded together in different shapes, size of grinding
wheels.
ABRASIVE MAY BE CLASSIFIED IN TWO PRINCIPLE
GROUPS:
Artificial
Natural
1.
Natural:
A)
B)
C)
D)

Following are the natural abrasives.

Sand stone or solid quartz
Emery
Corundum
Diamond

ARTIFICIAL: These days, almost all grinding wheels made of

artificial abrasives because there composition can be controlled
and quality will be better. These artificial abrasives, grinding
wheels possess better cutting properties and higher efficiencies
than the natural abrasives

Artificial Abrasives:
These abrasives include:
Aluminium oxide,
silicon carbide,
Diamond (pure form of carbon),
boron carbide and cubic boron nitride.
The manufactured abrasives have well defined and controlled properties of hardness,
toughness and type of structure.
Aluminium Oxide:
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 abrasive is composed chiefly of crystalline aluminium oxide.
It is obtained by melting material rich with this oxide (bauxite ore which is mainly
aluminium hydroxide) in an electric furnace.
Iron chips and coke are added to combine with and remove the impurities.
The refined aluminium oxide comes out from the furnace in a large lump called a Pig .
It crashed and rolled in to small grains.
Then this treated magnetically to remove the ferrous impurities and washed.

Properties:
Aluminium oxide is is softer than silicon carbide.
It is tough and not easily fractured.
It is extensively used for grinding materials of high tensile strength such as most steels,
H.S.S., ferrous alloys, non-ferrous cast alloys and annealed malleable and ductile iron.

Silicon Carbide:
This is a chemical compound of silicon and carbon. It is produced by fusing
quartz sand and powder coke in electric furnace.
Sawdust and salt are also added to the said mixture. In the furnace at the
temperature around 2300o C, The silicon sand combines with carbon of the
coke to form silicon carbide.
The sawdust burns and leaves pores to let the gases escape. The salt helps
remove impurities.
After the process has run, the furnace is cooled.
The core of loosely knit silicon carbide crystal are broken into individual
grains.

Two types of silicon carbides are available:

Pure silicon carbide of green variety and black or grey.

Green silicon carbide is better abrasive than black silicon carbide.
Both these silicon carbide have a higher hardness than artificial aluminium oxide.
Being extremely brittle, SiC is not recommended for grinding hard material.
Silicon carbide wheels are used for grinding non-ferrous metals, non-metallic elements
and cast irons.
EFFICIENCY OF ABRASIVE PARTICLES: Depends on
1.

Purity
2. Uniformity in composition
3. Hardness
4. Toughness:
If this is not tough, the abrasive particles will fracture readily and wheel wear will be
excessive.
5.Sharpness of fracture: The better cutting action is obtained by sharp edged
abrasives. The natural abrasive give rounded edges and are therefore not efficient in
cutting.

CUTTING ACTION IN GRINDING:

From this fig. it is clear that wheel
consists of abrasive particles bounding
material and voids. The projecting
abrasives particles act like a cutting tool
tips and remove metal.
A properly selected grinding wheel
exhibits self- sharpening action.
As cutting proceeds, the abrasive
particles at the cutting edge become dull
and eventually these become cracked
along the planes due to resistance offered
by work piece material which resists the
cutting action.
The process continues till the abrasive
grains get worn down till the level of
bond.

Grain or Grit:
The term Grain or Grit denotes the approximate size of the
abrasive particles and gives an idea of the coarseness of
fineness of the grinding wheel.
A grinding may have the abrasive particles of the same size or
different sizes. The farmer is known as straight wheel and the
latter compound wheel.
The choice of grain size or grit depends upon many factors viz.
quality of finish required, the amount of stock material to be
removed and physical properties of the material to be ground.
The coarse grit wheels will remove the stock at a faster rate and finer finish
will always required a finer grit.
Coarse grit wheels are more suitable for grinding soft and ductile materials.
Finer grit wheels are suitable for hard ad brittle materials.
The grit or grain size of an abrasive is denoted by a number representing
the number of meshes/inch of the screen through which the grain of
crushed abrasive are passed for grading.

The following are standard numbers representing different grains sizes are:

Grit Designation
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Coars
Medium
Fine
Very fine

Grain size or Grit

10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24
30, 36, 46, 54, 60
80, 100, 120, 150, 180
220, 240, 280, 320, 400,
500, 800

First three are used in grinding work and 4th one is used in honing work

MANUFACTURING OF GRINDING WHEELS:

The abrasive particle are first crushed to powder form and passed
over magnetic separators for removing iron impurities.
Then these are washed with water to remove foreign elements like
dust etc. then with chemical compound to grease.
The particles are then graded according to their grain size by
passing through proper sieves.
Abrasive particles are then mixed with proper bonding material (the
bonding material is based on abrasive and the process used ) and
moulded in proper shape.
After drying it, it is backed (heating). After baking the binding
material holds the particles together.
It is then cut and given a final shape.
It is tested for crash, leakage and balance.
Tight control during manufacturing in terms of density control, mix
flow and geometrical accuracy result in more uniform and consistent
wheel.

BOND MATERIALS OR BOND (BONDING PROCESS)

OR
MOULDING PROCESS:

In order to give an effective and continuous cutting action. It is necessary that the
grains of abrasive material should be held firmly together to form a series of
cutting edges.
The material employed for holding them is known BOND The main bonds are:
1. Vitrified
2. Silicate
3. Oxychloride
4. Resinoid 5. Shellac
6. Rubber

VITRIFIED BOND:
It is a clay bond.
The basic material is FELSPAR which is fusible clay.
The flux and refractories are added to it and mixed thoroughly.
This mixture together with the abrasive grains is fed into revolving drums
containing water.
After mixing it become paste.
The paste is then placed in moulds to get the shape of the wheel
and air dried at room temperature.
Now, these wheels fed into a klin and allowed them to remain there
for a few days at 1260 degree C.
This process is known as fusing.
After this wheels are trimmed to the required size.

Advantages:
It is made porous wheel and enable quicker material removal.
It is not effected by water, oil, acid or climatic condition.
The bond is very hard and acts as an abrasive also.
The structure of the wheel is uniform due to wet mixing of the
different constituents.
Dis-advantages:
The process of manufacturing is very slow.
Crack may develop in large size wheel during fusing.
Proper control during fusing becomes difficult.
High temp. in the kiln tends to make the abrasive grains
weak.

SILICATE BOND:
Its basic material is silicate of soda.
The process of making the bonds is the same as in the case of vitrified
bond but here the oven carries a temp. of about 260 degree C.
This low temp. help in fairly high tensile strength.
Wheels possessing this bond are light grey in colour.
Advantages:
It is a more rapid process than vitrified bond.
Because of moderate temp. there is no tendency to weaken the grains.
When wet grinding is performed with these wheels the soda acts as
lubricants.
The cutting action of the wheel is smoother and cooler.
Dis-advantages:
Extra hard wheels can not be produced with this bond.
Harder grades of this bond do not provide a free cutting action.

OXYCHLORIDE BOND:

It is mixture of oxide and chloride of magnesium and setting in cold

state.
The process of manufacturing is similar to the above two but NO
HEATING but cooling is required on account of cold setting hardness.
The bound provides cool cutting action, but grinding is usually done
dry.

RESINOID BOND:

These wheels are manufactured from a mixture of abrasive grains,

synthetic resins and some compounds.
This mixture is filled in moulds and then fed into the furnace at 200
degree C.
After this shape and size thus produced.
It is synthetic organic compound, which is enough strong and flexible.
It provides sharp cutting action and enables a high rate of stock
removal at high speeds.
Resinoid bonded wheels are vastly employed for cutting bar stocks,
fine grinding of cams, precision grinding of rolls etc.

SHELLAC BOND:

Shellac bonded wheels are produced by mixing the bond and the abrasive grains
in a steam heated mixes.
After this mixture is moulded under pressure in steam heated moulds.
These wheels are cool cutting and are vastly used on hardened tool steel and thin
section.
They also help in producing high surface finish.
They can run safely in water but use of oil or caustic soda should be avoided.

RUBBER BOND:

It is composed of hard vulcanized rubber.

The process consists of passing of rubber and sulphur through the mixing rolls
and adding the abrasive grains slowly as the above two constituents pass through
the roll.
Adding of abrasive grains continues till the required proportion is achieved.
The mixture is passed through another set of rolls to obtain the required
thickness.
The wheels are then cut and placed in pre-heated moulds and vulcanized under
pressure.
These wheels are very strong. They are mainly used where a very high class
surface finish with close dimensional accuracy is a primary requirement.

Selection of Grinding Wheel:

The proper selection of grinding wheel is very important for getting good result.
Selection mainly depends upon the following factors.
Constant Factors
Variable Factors

CONSTANT FACTORS:

Work material: If the work material hard then the soft grinding wheel is used
and vise-versa.
Amount of material to be removed.
Condition of grinding machines: The softer grade of wheel is used on robust
and heavy machine.
Finish and accuracy required on the job.

VARIABLE FACTORS:
Wheel Speed
Work Speed
The following are the details as to how the various factors influence
the choice of wheel based on above factors.
The work material will influence the following element.
1.Abrasive Material
2.Grain size or Grit Number
3.Grade (Strength of bond)
4.Structure

ABRASIVE:

The choice of right abrasive determine by the type of material to be

ground. SiC is the best suited abrasive for brittle and hard materials e.g.
Grey cast iron, iron castings, tungsten carbide, hard steel, porcelain and
other ceramic substances.
This is also used for low tensile strength materials e.g. Bronze, Brass,
Copper, Aluminum.
Where Al2O3 is used for tough material having high tensile strength like
mild steel, tough bronze, wrought iron etc.

GRAIN SIZE:

For softer material use coarse grain size and for harder material use
fine grain size.
The coarser grain is used for high rate of material removal.
The fine grain is used where the surface finish is important.

GRADE:

The hard materials and materials having high strength offer more
resistance to the wheel.
If the hard grade of wheel is used then wheel will get blunt soon.
Therefore, better result on such materials, the abrasive particles should
breaks and fall quickly.
For softer material high or harder grade i.e. good bond is used.

STRUCTURE:

This represents the void between the abrasive and is influenced by

the work material.
If the material is harder then dense structure is desirable.
For softer materials, the open structure is prescribed as the rate of
metal removal is high and the size of the chip is also long.
The structure is denoted by number from 1 to 15 or so.

VARIABLE FACTORS:
Wheel Speed and Work Speed
Wheel speed offers the grade to a considerable extent and for higher wheel speed, soft
grade wheel should be used.
If the higher work speed it is desirable to use harder wheel and vise-versa.
Condition of Grinding: In dry grinding condition with hard wheel the heat generation is
more and thus soft wheel is required and vise-versa.
The affects of various working parameters on grinding wheel:

PARAMETER
EFFECTS
Large ork speed
More heel ear
Large heel speed V
Reduce heel ear
Large alue of N
Reduce heel ear
Larger depth of cut td
More heel ear
Larger wheel diameter
Reduce wheel wear
Large work diameter
Reduce wheel wear
The above parameters can be justified if we write the maximum chip formula:
D Dia eter of cyli drical heel.
d dia eter of cyli drical ork piece
td depth of cut
V is the elocity of the gri di g heel.
is the elocity of the ork piece.

Specifications of Grinding Wheels

Compositional specification
Type of grit material
Grit size
Bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel hardness
Structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount of inter
grit spacing
Type of bond material
Other than these parameters, the wheel manufacturer may add their
own identification code prefixing or suffixing (or both) the standard code.

Specifications of Grinding Wheel

Prefix

Grain
Type

Grain
size

Aluminium Oxide (A )
Silicon Carbide (C)

10-24: Coarse
30-60: Medium
80-180:Fine
220-600:Very fine

Grade

Wheel
Structure

A-G:Soft
H-P:Medium
Q-Z:Hard

Bond
Type

B:Resinoid
E: Shellac
R: Rubber
S: Silicate
V: Vitrified

1-4:Dense
5-8:Normal
916:Open

ALPHNUMERIC SYSTEM FOR GRINDNG WHEEL

SPECIFICATION

Suffix

Specifications of Grinding Wheels

A 60 K 5 V
The letter A denotes that the type of abrasive is Aluminium oxide. In
case of silicon carbide the letter C is used.
The number 60 specifies the average grit size in inch mesh. For a
very large size grit this number may be as small as 6 where as for a very
fine grit the designated number may be as high as 600.
The letter K denotes the hardness of the wheel, which means the
amount of force required to pull out a single bonded abrasive grit by
bond fracture. The letter symbol can range between A and Z , A
denoting the softest grade and Z denoting the hardest one.
The number 5 denotes the structure or porosity of the wheel. This
number can assume any value between 1 to 20, 1 indicating low
porosity and 20 indicating high porosity.

The operating faults in grinding wheel

And
Trouble shooting (How to remove them)

There are two common faults which occur with grinding

wheel.
(i) Glazing
(ii) Loading
GLAZING:
After continuous use of the grinding wheel the sharp points
(cutting points) of the abrasive grains become DULL.
They lose their cutting ability and sharpness and are worn-out.
Due this, this wheel face becomes smooth and it instead of
biting (penetrating) into work material, gives a sort of rubbing
action only.
The above phenomenon, which makes the un-useful, is called
GLAZING of grinding wheel.

Causes of GLAZING:
This is due to incorrect dressing.
Wrong wheel selection
Using slow traverse and high work speed.
Remedies of GLAZING:
Keeping the wheel sharp
Selection of the wheel should be correct i.e. use of softer wheel
or coarser grit must be decided as per the material to be ground.
Reducing the wheel speed.

Loading:
Another problem associated with the grinding wheel in operation is the
adherence (attached) of the cut particles of the work material to the face of
the grinding wheel.
These particles occupy the open space between the cutting points.
Due to this, the sharpness of the cutting point is lost and the face
becomes, smooth depriving the wheel of its cutting ability.
This phenomenon is known as LOADING OF WHEEL and the effected
wheel is called LOADED WHEEL.
CAUSES:
Forcing the cut too fast.
Forcing the cut too deep.
Using the wheel to grind material softer than for which it is suited.
REMEDIES:
Fine grained and soft bonded wheel do not load as readily as opposite
wheel.
Increase in speed may help to affect a cure.

TRUEING AND DRESSING OF THE GRINDING WHEELS:

Produced surface cannot be truer than the trueness of the
grinding wheel producing it.
It is also known as that full cutting capacity of the grinding wheel
cannot be used if its periphery has been dull or got clogged with
some foreign material.
Due to these reasons the operation of truing and dressing is
performed.
The truing operation is done to make the periphery of the wheel
concentric with its axis, make its sides true and to recover the lost
shape of its face.
Dressing of the wheel is done to recover the proper cutting action
of the wheel face by removing the layer of drilled grains or grains
clogged with foreign material.
How many times a wheel is to be trued or dressed will depends
upon the type of the work, operators skill and wheel fitness.

The following the common devices used for dressing of grinding

wheel.
W heel dressers
Abrasive sticks
Abrasive wheels
Diamond dresser
Crush dressing fixture
WHEEL BALANCING:
In order to get a good surface finish, prevent vibrations and
chatter and void undue wear on machine parts, it is necessary that
the grinding wheel should have good balance before it is used.
Larger the diameter of the wheel and higher the operating speed
more important is the balancing.
Balancing is done in the static position of the wheel by shifting the
position of the weights on one of the flanges of the wheel.
The wheel is mounted on a suitable mandrel or arbor and arbour
and placed on balancing fixture for finding out the direction in
which the weights are to be shifted.

GRINDING WHEEL WEAR OR OCCURANCE ATTRITION AND

FRACTURE OF THE ABRASIVE GRAINS:
Grinding Ratio Defined, G =

VOLUME OF WORK MATERIAL REMOVED

VOLUME OF WHEEL WORN AWAY

This is employed to adjudge the wear and performance

characteristic of grinding wheel.
The large volume of G would signify easier grinding where as, the
low volume would mean poor grind ability.
There are various factors which effect the grinding wheel.
e.g.

2v
tmax. = td
VN

D x td
;
dxD

PARAMETER
Large work speed v
Large wheel speed V
Large value of N
Larger depth of cut td
Larger wheel diameter
Large work diameter

EFFECTS
More wheel wear
Reduce wheel wear
Reduce wheel wear
More wheel wear
Reduce wheel wear
Reduce wheel wear

WEAR MECHANISM OF GRINDING WHEEL:

If wheel wear is plotted against the volume of work material removed, refer
above fig.
Here that the wear curve is quite similar to that of the other cutting tool.
Also, there is an initial breakdown period followed by a region of uniform wear
rate.
Finally, the wheel again starts breaking down rapidly.
The middle zone is the real usable which determines the life of the wheel.
Once the period of uniform wear rate ends, the wheel should be reconditioned
before using it again.
The reconditioning of a wheel is done by a process commonly known as wheel
dressing.

THERMAL ASPECT OF GRINDING:

It is observed that most of the energy supplied during grinding is
converted in to heat.
A good portion of the total heat energy passes on to the chip, work
and the grinding wheel. Because the chip is very small and poor
thermal properties of the total heat going to them is rather small.
It means the surface temperature of the work piece can be very high.
This high temperature leads to development of thermal stresses in
the work piece and also thermal cracking.
This HIGH TEMPERATURE PROMOTES ATTRITION and
FRACTURE of the abrasive grains. The surface temperature in
grinding is proportional to specific grinding energy.

Lapping
Lapping is regarded as the oldest method of obtaining a fine finish. Lapping is basically an
abrasive process in which loose abrasives function as cutting points finding momentary
support from the laps. Figure 30.1 schematically represents the lapping process. Material
removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm but many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in
certain cases.
Characteristics of lapping process:
Use of loose abrasive between lap and the workpiece
Usually lap and workpiece are not positively driven but are guided in contact with
each other
Relative motion between the lap and the work should change continuously so that path of the
abrasive grains of the lap is not repeated on the workpiece. Fig. Scheme of lapping process

Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. However, soft steel, copper, brass, hardwood as well as
hardened steel and glass are also used.
Abrasives of lapping:
Al O and SiC, grain size 5~100m
2

Cr O , grain size 1~2 m

B C , grain size 5-60 m
4

Diamond, grain size 0.5~5 V

Vehicle materials for lapping
Machine oil
Rape oil
grease
Technical parameters affecting lapping processes are:
unit pressure
the grain size of abrasive
concentration of abrasive in the vehicle
lapping speed

Honing
Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone carries out a combined rotary and
reciprocating motion while the workpiece does not perform any working motion. Most
honing is done on internal cylindrical surface, such as automobile cylindrical walls. The
honing stones are held against the workpiece with controlled light pressure. The honing
head is not guided externally but, instead, floats in the hole, being guided by the work
surface (Fig. 30.9). It is desired that
1. honing stones should not leave the work surface
2. stroke length must cover the entire work length
In honing rotary and oscillatory motions are combined to produce a cross hatched lay pattern

The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every single grit from
repeating its path over the work surface. The critical process parameters are:
1. rotation speed
2. oscillation speed
3. length and position of the stroke
4. honing stick pressure

THE LATHE AND ITS PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:

The lathe can be defined as a machine tool which holds the work
between the two rigid and strong supports, called centers, or in a
chuck or face plate while the latter revolves.
While the work revolves about its own axis and the tool is made to
move either parallel to or at an inclination with this axis to cut the
desired material.
In doing so it produces cylindrical surface.
This removes undesired material from a rotating work piece in the
form of chips with the help of tool.
The tool can be given traversed movement across the work.
Tool can also be given linear motion in any direction.

LATHE OPERATIONS:
TURNING:

Turning is the
operation to remove
the material from the
out side diameter of a
work piece to obtain
the finished surface.

LATHE OPERATIONS:
FACING

Is the operation of
machining the end of
a work piece to make
the end square with
own axis and that of
the lathe. The tool
moves perpendicular
to axis of the lathe.

LATHE OPERATIONS:
REAMING AND DRILLING

Drilling is operation of
making hole in work piece
where previously the was
not existing.

LATHE OPERATIONS

REAMING

Reaming is the operation of

finishing the drilled hole.
This is done by holding the
reamers in the tail stock
quill.

LATHE OPERATIONS:
BORING
Is the operation of enlarging
the drilled hole the work
piece is held in chuck in
lathe spindle and boring bar
is mounted in the tool post.
The boring is done by
moving the carriage towards
the head stock.

LATHE OPERATIONS

KNURLING
It is the operation of
plastically displacing metal in
to a particular pattern for the
purpose of creating a hand
grip or roughened surface on
a work piece. The knurling
tool is held in the tool post
and is pressed against the
surface of the work piece by
the cross feed.

LATHE COMPONENTS:
BED:
CARRIAGE:
HEADSTOCK
TAILSTOCK:
LEAD SCREW

CLASSIFICATION OF LATHE:
SPEED LATHE OR WOOD WORKING LATHE:
It is simplest form of lathe and consists of simple head stock, tail stock
and tool post.
It has no gear box, lead screw and carriage. Cone- pulley is the only
source provided for the speed variation of the spindle.
Application: It is used in wood working, metal spinning and polishing
operation.
ENGINE LATHE OR CENTER LATHE:
Its name is derived from the fact that the early machine tools were driven
by the separate engine with over head belt and shaft.
Now geared head used for varying the speed of the lathe machine
spindle.
A long tail stock is provided to facilitate holding the work piece between
the centers and permit use of tool like drill, taps etc.

CAPSTAN LATHE:
Capstan lathe are capable of performing multiple cutting
operation on the same work piece, such as
Turning and boring, drilling, thread cutting, and facing.
Several cutting tools usually as many as six are
mounted on the hexagonal main turret, which is rotated for
each specific cutting operation.
Also the lathe usually has a square turret the cross slide,
with as many as four cutting tools mounted on it.

TURRET LATHE: in this the main turret is installed directly

on the saddle, which slide directly on the bed.
Hence the length of the stroke is limited only by the length of
the bed.
This type of lathe is more heavily constructed and uses to
machine large work pieces.
Because of large mass of components the operations are
slower than the operations carried by the capstan lathe.

Ram Type Turret Lathe:

it is named because of the turret is mounted.
The turret is placed on a slide or ram, which move back and
forth on the saddle clamped to the lathe bed.
This arrangement permits quick movement of the turret.
It is recommended for bar light duty chucking work.

Saddle type Turret Lathe:

Here the turret is mounted directly on the saddle that moves
back and forth with the turret.
Since chucking tool over hang and are unconnected with the
work through some sort of support therefore it result in the
greater strain on both work and tool support.
The chucking tool must have rigidity.
The strokes are longer which is advantage in long turning
and boring cuts.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A TURRET AND A CAPSTAN LATHE:

Sl. No.

TURRET LATHE

CAPSTAN LATHE

Its turret (head) mounted In turret (head) mounted on the

directly on the saddle.
auxiliary slide, which moves on the
guide ways provided on the saddle.

For feeding the tool to the work In this case the saddle s fixed at the
the entire saddle unit is moved. convenient distance from the work
and the tools are fed by moving the
slide
The
above
arrangement In this case, because of the over
enables a very high rigidity hung of the slide or the ram, the
because all the cutting forces tool support unit is subjected to
are transferred to the lathe bending and deflection, resulting in
bed.
vibrations.
As consequences of No.3above, It is not cpable of with standing
a turret lathe is capable of heavy cutting loads ad sever cutting
handling heavier jobs involving conditions and therefore its use is
heavy cutting forces and severe confined to relatively lighter and
cutting conditions.
smaller jobs and precision work.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A TURRET AND A CAPSTAN LATHE:

10

Because of high rigity it suits very well

to heavy chucking work , in addition
to the bar work, on large size bars
Because the turret saddle directly
rides over the bed ways it can travers
almost full lenth of the bed alon with
all the tools, if needed
The tool feeding is relatively is slower
and provides more fatigue to the
operators hands.
A turret lathe may carry either a reach
over type r side hung type carriage.

It suits bar work only and that to for

relatively smaller sized bars.
Because the tool feeding is done by the
travers of the slide which is limited, the tool
travel is lso limited.
The tool traverse is faster and offers less
fatigue to the hands of the operator.

It is equipped with reach over type carriage

because it is used for smaller jobs. This type
of carriage provides better rigidity.
Turret lathes are provided with the There is no such requirements in the case of
heavier design with pneumatic or capstan lathe.
hydraulic chucks to ensure fimer grip
over heavy jobs.
Turret lathe may carry provison for No such provision is made on the capstan
cross feeding of the hexagonal turret lathe.
to enable cross feeding of turret head
tools.

TOOLING LAYOUTS ON TURRET, CAPSTAN AND AUTOMATS:

Example: Producing circular pins on a capstan lathe from bar stock.
Procedure:
1.Feed the bar against stop.
2.Rough turn the pin with roller steady box tool.
3.Finish, turn the pin with roller steady box tool.
4.Chamfer the pin end.
5.Knurl with concentric knurling tool, an
6.Cut off by using the parting off tool in the rear tool post.

SHAPER:
1. The shaping process can be defined as a process for removing metal
from the surfaces in horizontal, vertical and angular planes by the use
of a single point cutting tool held in a ram that reciprocates the tool in
a linear direction across the work piece held on the table of the
machine.
2. The work is fed at right angles to the direction of the ram in small
increments, at the end of the return stroke.

Type of shapers:
There are mainly two types of shapers.
1.Horizontal shapers
2.Vertical shapers
Construction details of a horizontal shaper:

Working of shaper

Operations Performed by shaper:

Machining of horizontal surface.

Machining of vertical surface.
Machining of angular surface
Machining of curved surface.
Machining of irregular surface.
Machining of slots, grooves, keyway etc

Shaper Drive:
The mechanical ram drive is a slotted arm quick return motion mechanism.
The slotted arm is pivoted at its lower end to the column and its upper end is
connected by the link to an adjustable arm block which is secured to the ram.
Power from an electric motor is transmitted to the bull gear trough gears and bull
gear pinion.
A pin fits freely into a hole in the bull gear block which can slide in the slot of the
rocker arm. As bull gear rotates it carries the pin in circular path with the help of
crank.
This makes the rocker arm to swing back and forth about the stationary pivot C.
Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear is converted into the reciprocating motion
of the arm with the cutting tool.
The length of the arm depends on the radius of the crank pin on the bull gear,
that is, AB which can be adjusted.
The larger the crank radius, the longer the arm stroke will be and vice versa.

Hydraulic Drive:
Quick return in the hydraulic shaper is accomplished by
increasing the flow of hydraulic oil during the return stroke.

Velocity diagram of
hyd. Shaper

Velocity diagram of Mechanical shaper.

In the hydraulic shaper, the ram is connected by the hydraulic cylinder

which is controlled by means by four (4) way valve.
The hydraulic fluid is pumped to the hydraulic cylinder through 4-way valve.
This valve is also connected to the sump.
The 4-way valve controls the direction of high pressure fluid in to the
cylinder and control the direction of motion, either the cutting stroke or
return stroke.

The flow control valve controls the flow rate of the hydraulic fluid
thereby controlling the speed at which the ram moves.
The starting and stopping of the machine is achieved through a finger
operated leaver.
An adjustable trip dog operated leaver controls the operation of 4-way
valve to control ram reversal.
The return stroke or idle stroke is faster than the cutting stroke because
of the smaller area in the return side of the cylinder (due to presence of
piston rod.) if the constant volume pump is used.
The maximum ratio of return to the cutting speed is about 2:1

Advantages of hydraulic shaper:

Cutting stroke has more constant velocity and has
fewer vibrations in the hydraulic shaper.
Both the cutting stroke length and its position
relative to the work may be changed quickly
without stopping the machine.
Ram movement can be reversed instantaneously
anywhere in either direction of travel.
Forward and backward motions of the ram are
having smooth velocities.

SLOTTER/ VERTICAL SHAPER

Slotting machine:
Basically slotting machine is a vertical axis shaper.

The chief difference between a shaper and slotter is the

direction of cutting action.
In the case of slotter the tool moves vertically rather than
horizontal direction.
Slotter has a vertical ram a hand or power operated rotary
table.
The stroke of the slotter is smaller as compared to the
shaper.

Use of slotter:
Internal machining of the holes.
Key ways, slots groves etc can be made by the slotter.
Machining of dies, punches can be made.
Cutting of teeth on ratchet.
If there is very hard material as inclusion in the work
piece the slotter stop cutting due its smooth hydraulic
movement.

Planer:

Planning
(Planer)

machine

Introduction:
The planning machine (Planer) is a
machine tool used in the production
of flat surfaces on work pieces too
large or too heavy to holds in a
shaper.
In this machine the table called
PLATEN, on which the work is
securely
fastened,
has
a
reciprocating motion.
The tool head is automatically fed
horizontal in either direction along
the heavily supported cross-rail over
the work, and automatic down word
feed is also provided.

Working principle of planner (Planning operation):

The work piece is clamped on to a planner table with help of
special bolts that fit in the T-slots of the table, and provide a
means of positioning and securely holding work piece.
The table rides over V-GROOVES on the bed of the planner and
is accurately guided as it travels back and forth.
Cutting tools are securely held in the tool heads mounted on
the housings and can be moved vertically or horizontally from
side to side.
The tool heads are also mounted on a horizontal cross-rail that
can be moved up and down.
Use of multiple tool heads permits simultaneous maching of
more than one surface of the work piece and increases
productivity.
With multiple tools cutting simultaneously, relatively slow
strokes of the planner table are used.

Comparison between Planner and Shaper:

S.No.
Planner

Shaper

Heavier, more rigid and costlier machine

A comparatively litter and cheaper machine

Requires more floor area

Requires less floor area

Work reciprocates horizontally.

Tool reciprocates horizontally

4.

Tool is stationary during cutting

Work is stationary during cutting

Heavier cuts and coarse feeds can be employed

Very heavy cuts and coarse feeds can be employed.

Work setting requires much of skill and takes a Clamping of work is simple and easy
longer time

Several tools can be mounted and employed Usually one tool is used on a shaper.
simultaneously, Usually four as a maximum,
facilitating a faster rate of production.

Used for machining large size work pieces

Used for machining small size work pieces comparatively.

Types of planners:
Double housing (Standard planner)
Open side planner
Pit planner
Edge or plate planner
Divided table planner
Parts of planner
Bed
Table
Column or housing
Cross-rail
Tool heads

MILLING:
May be defined as a machining process for removing excess material
from a work piece with rotating cutting tools.
The rotati g cutti g tools called the MILLING CUTTER is a ulti
point tool having the shape of a solid of revolution with cutting teeth
arranged (equally spaced) either on the periphery or end face or on
both.
Horizontal Milling Machine:

Vertical Milling Machine:

Milling machine

Refer above fig. (a ), when the arrangement is like that during the milling
operation, it is called UP MILLING or CONVENTIONAL MILLING.
It is clear form fig. (a) that the cutting motion and feed motion are in the
opposite direction, it is called UP MILLING.
DOWN MILLING (CLIMB MILLING)
Refer (b) when the cutting and feed motions are in the same direction; the
operation is called DOWN MILLING (CLIMB MILLING

The important difference is that in UP MILLING, as the cut

proceeds, the chip thickness increases gradually.
In other words we can say that the chip thickness in up
milling is minimum at the start of the cut and maximum at
the end of cut where as in climb or down milling it is reverse
case i.e. maximum with the beginning and Zero
( i.e. minimum ) at the end.
The selection of particular method depends upon the nature
of work. UP MILLING is commonly used for making casting
and forging since this method enables the cutter to dig in
and start the cut below the hard upper surface.
The CLIMB MILLING result in better surface finish and longer
tool life.
This is due to gradual engagement of the cutting edge.

Maximum Chip Thickness:

Maximum Chip Thickness:

The cutter diameter is D and

depth of cut is d . This operation
is orthogonal. If f is the feed
velocity of the table mm/min, the
effective feed per tooth in mm will
be f/(NZ), N is the cutter rpm,
Z is the number of teeth in the
cutter.

The material removal rate per unit width

of the job is given by fxd. From the fig.
it is clear that uncut material in front of
cutting edge increases gradually,
reaching a maximum near the surface,
and then again drop minimum ( Zero ). If
the feed velocity is small as compared
with circumference velocity of the cutter
then,
AB ACSin
t1max f/(NZ) x Sin
Where is the angle included by
contact arc at the cutter center O in
radians.

Now, considering the triangle OAT.

OT
Cos = ( D/2 d )/D/2
OA
Sin = [ 1 Cos2 ]1/2 = [ 1 ( 1 2d/D )2 ]1/2
Sin 2 d/D
In the above neglect higher order terms in
d/D, equate both the values of Sin
The average uncut thickness can be taken
as half of the maximum value.
t1max = 2f/ NZ x d/D
The average uncut thickness can be taken
as half of the maximum value.
t1av = f/ NZ x d/D

There are mainly two components, the average value of Fc and Ft can
be approximately found out using this value of uncut thickness. Since
Ft acts in the radial direction, it does not produce any torque and arbor
torque is due to only the component Fc. So, the torque M due to one
tooth is Fc x( d/2 ) and varies approximately as Fc. Now, to get the over
all torque ( M ), the movement due to all the teeth should be properly
superimposed. This leads to three different possibilities, < 2/Z,
= 2/Z , > 2/Z .
The machine power can be calculated by taking product of speed and
average arbor torque.

Dividing Head -------

To rotate a job through required angle, one needs.

Device to rotate the job.
A source which can ensure that the job has been rotated through the desired angle.

Out of the above requirements, the 1st requirement is met by an INDEX CRANK
where as IInd requirement is met by the INDEX PLATE.

INDEXING

Why the Dividing Head is used on MILLING

MACHINE?
An important function and use of milling machine
is for cutting SLOTS, GROOVES etc.
On work piece which are equally spaced around the
circumference of a blank.
In order to do thisit necessitates holding of the
work piece and rotating it to the exact amount for
cutting each groove.
This process is known as INDEXING

The dividing head is the device used for this purpose. The Dividing Head
is fixed on the table of the MILLING MACHINE.
The dividing head is having HEAD STOCK. The HEAD STOCK is housing
WORM SHAFT which is having single thread.
This single thread of the worm shaft is meshed with WORM WHEEL
which is having 40 TOOTHED GEAR. WORM WHEEL is having spindle
which is fixed in the centre of the worm wheel.
On the spindle work piece is mounted on which the work is to be
carried.

The other end of the worm shaft is fixed with INDEXING PLATE, CRANK, SECTOR
ARM, INDEXING PIN.
The crank can be rotated as required with the help of handle which also carries
indexing pin.
The indexing pin is pulled out from the hole of the circle(which is having
eccentric circles of holes) and crank is rotated which transmit this rotation to the
work piece through rotation of worm shaft and worm wheel.
From above it is clear that worm shaft has single thread where as the worm
wheel is having 40 toothed gear.
It means if the crank is given 40rotation , worm shaft will rotate 40 times then
the worm wheel will have ONE ROTATION

COMMON METHODS OF INDEXING:

DIRECT INDEXING:
SIMPLE OR PLAIN INDEXING:
COMPOUND INDEXING:
DIFFERENTIAL INDEXING:
ANGULAR INDEXING:

DIRECT INDEXING:
In this method, the indexing plate is directly mounted on the spindle and
rotated by hand.
Worm shaft and worm wheel is not used.
This method can be used only when the number of division to be
obtained is such that the number of holes on the periphery of the index
plate is multiple of the former

Let understand the above method while taking an example.

N: Number of holes on the periphery of the index plate;
say 24 holes, all the factors of 24 can be indexed that is,
the work can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24.
Required ratio= N/n
Another example, suppose the circumference of a job has
to be divided into 10 equal divisions and the index plate
having 60 HOLES, then the required ratio will be:
Ratio=N/n; 60/10=6, we will move 6 holes in the index plate
which should have 60 holes circle.
This will be repeated till we get required equal division.

SIMPLE OR PLAIN INDEXING:

In simple or plain indexing, an index plate is selected for the particular
application, the selected index plate is fitted on the worm shaft and the
same is locked through a locking pin.
To index the work through any required angle, the index crank pin is
withdrawn from a hole in the index plate.
The spindle and hence the work is indexed through the required angle by
turning the index crank through a calculated number of whole
revolutions and holes one of the circles, after which the index pin
relocated in the required hole.

Formula:
T= 40/N
Where T gives the number of turns or part of a turn through which index
crank must be rotated to obtain the required number of division (N) on the
job periphery.
Say, we want make 24 teeth on blank.
Here,
T=40/N=40/24= One of 16/24
This means for each indexing we need ONE complete rotation of the
crank plus 16 more holes on the 24 holes circle of plate.
Let N=45
T=40/45=8/9*2/2=16/18
We will employ index plate which is having circle of 18 holes.
For each indexing, the crank will rotate 16 holes.

COMPOUND INDEXING:
When none of the index plates has a hole circle which would enable
the work to be divided by the simple indexing method, more involved
methods are employed. One method is compound indexing.
The compound indexing is achieved in two stages, by using two
different hole circles of one index plate.
By a movement of the crank in the usual way as in the simple
indexing, as n1 holes in the hole circle N2 of index plate.
By adding or subtracting a further movement by rotating the crank
and the index plate together forward or backward through n2 spaces
in the N2 circle (by disengaging the locking pin of the index plate so
that it is free to turn).

Procedure:
Factories the number of division required.
Factories the standard no. 40
SELECT FOR TRIAL ANY TWO CIRCLE ON THE SAME PLATE AND ON ITS
SAME SIDE FCTORISE THEIR DIFFERENCE
Factorizes the number of holes of circle of one circle.
Factories the number of holes of another circle.

Factors of division required Factors of difference of holes

= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Factor of 40 Factors of first circle holes Factor second holes circle
Let these hole number be N1, N2
Let n1 be the number of holes to be indexed in N1 hole circle and n2 the
number of holes to indexed in N2 hole circle

From here

Then
n1 and n2 are found by trial and error method. The total indexing will be
n1 holes in N1 holes circle by rotation of the crank n2 holes in N2 hole circle by
rotating the crank and index plate together.

Example: Let Z=87

We know:
Factors of division required Factors of difference of holes
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Factor of 40 Factors of first circle holes Factor second holes circle
Let us assume First hole circle i.e. N1=29, and Second hole circle i.e. N2=33
Find the difference between holes of the assumed hole circles=33-29=4
29x3 x 2x2
= ---------------------------------------------------------------2x2x2x5 x 29x1 x 11x3
If see the Numerator is having numerical value 1 therefore selection of
N1=29 and N2=33 is correct.
Now indexing equation is

33n129n2=440
By trial and error method try to put the value of n1 and n2 in
such manner that
33n1- 29n2= 440
These values are 23 and 11 respectively
It means the indexing equation will be:

That is Movement of the crank by 23 holes in 29 hole circle

forwards and movement of crank and index plate both by 11 holes
in 33 hole circle backward.

DIFFERENTIAL INDEXING:
Differential indexing in reality
is an automatic method of
doing compound indexing. It
is achieved in a single step
as compared to two steps
needed
in
compound
indexing. In the process of
differential indexing, index
plate pin which was kept
locked with the index plate
while doing simple indexing,
must be disengaged for
differential
indexing.
To
achieve the rotation of the
index plate, it is linked to the
spindle through the change
gear Z1 , Z2, Z3 and Z4

The index plate is mounted on shaft1

passing through sleeve 2. The shaft 3
is parallel with the main spindle. This
shaft3 is connected through equal
bevel gear and a spur gear to a gear
fixed to the index plate. As the crank
is rotated for indexing, the spindle
rotates through worm and worm
gear. The gear train causes the index
plate to turn forward or backward
(depending on the gear train design).
Differential indexing is thus more
straight forward and so has wider
applications
as
compared
to
compound indexing

PROCEDURE:
Let Z= number of divisions required to be indexed for one complete revolution of
the spindle and hence the work piece.
K= A number very nearly equal to Z and which can be used n simple indexing
method.
Number of crank turns for each simple indexing.
n= 40/k
Number of crank turns needed for Z indexing.
N= 40/k Z
But we know that the crank must take only 40 turns for the spindle (and the work)
to turn through one complete circle. So
If N>40, then (N40) turns have to be subtracted. This is achieved through the
change gears so that while the spindle makes one turn, the index plate makes (N
40) turns in the opposite direction to that of the work.
If N<40 then the index plate should rotate (40N) turns in the same direction as
that of the crank.
The gear ratio will be:
i=40/k (kz)
Thus, the movement of the index handle (crank) operates according to the
principle of simple indexing and the gear ratio makes it possible to find gears
which take care of residual divisions.

Example:
Say Z=127
k=128
Simple indexing=40/128=5/16
N=5/16127=39 of 11/16 Turns of the crank
Since N is< 40 therefore the index plate must rotate [4039 of 11/16], that
is, 5/16 turns in the same direction as the crank, as the spindle complete
one turn,
i=40/k (kZ)
51
40
24 Drivers
= 40/1281=5/16== =
82
64
48
Driven
With this gear train and an indexing of 5 holes in a 16 hole circle, the 127
divisions would be obtained.

ANGULAR INDEXING:
We have seen, during our above discussions that 40 turn of
crank make the work rotate through one complete turn. That
is 40 turns of crank make the work to rotate through 360
degree. Therefore, for each one turn of the crank the work will
rotate through 360/40 = 9 degree.
Now take the example of 18 holes circle.
If, the crank is moved through 18 holes on 18 holes circle.
i.e. one turn, it will make the work to turn through 9 degree.
If it is moved 9 holes i.e. half turn on this circle the work will
rotate through half the above angle i.e. 9/2 =4 degree.
We can say that crank movement = ANGLE REQUIRED/9
EXAMPLE:
Index for 15 degree 30 minutes.
Crank movement =
15/9 =31/18 = 1 of 13/18
i.e. 1 full turn and 13 holes on 18 holes circle.