c Classification of common rocks and soils and morecc

by Dr J Floor Anthoni (2000)cc

c
www.seafriends.org.nz/enviro/soil/rocktbl3.htmc

c›

 cc

y à



 

  .c
m Properties of soil: soil components, texture, structure, pore space, moisture, pH, CEC
and more.c
m Soil degradation: a comprehensive summary of the many ways soil degrades and is lost
in both quantity and qualityc
m Soil time scales: tectonic movement, profile formation, soil formation, and more.c
m Rock and soil chemistry: Bowen series, solid solution, cation exchange capacity and
more.c
y Ý







 
 c

cc

ôô   

  ôô 
 
  ôô Rev 20001010,20001112,20051122,20070718,cc
c
c
c
c
   

 cc
Soil is the collection of „
 
 in the earth's surface, in places modified or even made by man, 




 , „
„ „  „


 and supporting or capable of supporting plants outôofôdoors. Its
upper limit is air or shallow water. At its margins it grades to deep water or to barren areas of rock or ice.
Its lower limit to the notôsoil beneath is perhaps the most difficult to define. Soil includes the horizons near
the surface that differ from the underlying rock material as a result of interactions, through time, of
climate, living organisms, parent materials and relief. In the few places where it contains thin cemented
horizons that are impermeable to roots, soil is as deep as the deepest horizon. More commonly, soil
grades at its lower margin to hard rock or to earthy materials, virtually devoid of roots, animals or marks of
other biologic activity. 

 
 



 „ 


 
   

  

„
  „ 



„
„

„



„„  „
. (US Soil Survey staff, 1975)cc

y  

 c
m  
 
 ; 45ô50%. Mineral particles from 95ô99% of solid fraction.c
m  

 : 0.5ô5%, made up of different substances that are gradually broken down
by microorganisms. Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lignins, fats, waxes. Many of these
compounds do not decompose completely and are transformed to humus, a dark,
complex, nonôdefined colloidal material.c
m
 : 25% of soil volume.c
m  : 25% of soil volume.c
m  : a small but important fraction of soil.c
× 

 : insects, grubs, earthworms. Earthworms help decompose
organic matter, releasing plant nutrients, aerating soils and improving drainage.
The insectôlike organisms have hard skins and hard jaws, helpful for dissecting
woody substances.c
× 
 : protozoa and nematodes, plant parasitic nematodes as well
as harmless ones present in most soils.c
 × 
 : (heterotrophic, autotrophic, aerobic, anaerobic, facultative) oxidise S
and N. Decompose organic matter and may cause some plant diseases.
Rhyzobium and Bradyrhyzobium bacteria form symbiosis with legume plants to
fix nitrogen from the air, and are particularly important in tropical soils.c
×  : (mycorrhyzal, dampingôoff, stem fungi, crown fungi, root fungi, rot)
important in decomposition of organic matter, but may cause some plant
diseases. Mycorrhyza form symbiosis with plants to facilitate absorption of P, S,
Zn and perhaps water too. They are important in soils low in phosphorus (P) but
can't extract P where it does not exist.c
× 
 
 : important in the decomposition of organic mater.c
×  : autotrophic organisms. Blueôgreen algae fix some nitrogen. they need
sunlight and can live only on the surface.c
y  
  c
m 


  
 : have little capacity to hold water and nutrients and are
relatively chemically unreactive.c
×   : 2 ô 4mmc
× 
: 0.05 ô 2.0 mmc
× : 0.002 ô 0.05 mmc
m




 
 c
×
: is a secondary mineral less than 0.002 mm in diameter. It is formed as a
result of weathering. Silica and alumina sheets are formed by recrystallisation.
Amorphous clays in warm climates form oxides of iron and aluminium. Clays
have a high cation exchange capacity (CEC) because they are negatively
charged and can attract, retain and exchange cations. Their water holding
capacity is very high because of their large surface area per unit mass.c
×  

 (SiôAlôSi lattice) montmorillonite and illite, have high
CEC.c
× 


 (SiôAl lattice) like kaolinite have low CEC.c
×   

 are composed of oxides of Fe and Al and have very
low CEC.c
m   


 :c
×   


 : rapid in sands, slow in clays.c
×
  : rapid in sands, slow in clays.c
×   : sand has rapid gas exchange; clay slow.c
×  : sand has low fertility. Clay high, depending on type.c
y  
 
 c
m   
: granular, blocky, platy, prismatic, columnar.c
m   

  : held together by divalent cations, organic residues, other
cementing agents.c
m  


 
 :c
×   : good soil structure is very important to provide for both god aeration
and a high water holding capacity. Poor structure can result in high water holding
capacity but poor aeration. Structure can be influenced by tillage. Puddling
occurs when soil is tilled when too wet, or by compaction.c
×   


 : the capacity of water to enter soil.c
× 








: water seeps downward through the soil profile.c
y  


: soil is 40ô 0% pores. The pore size influences water holding capacity and
aeration.c
m
 
 : retain water against the pull of gravityc
m
 
 : contribute to soil aerationc
y  
  : a vertical cut through the soil shows its layering, characteristic of its mineralogy and
history.c
m ›
  : organic matter, leaf litter.c
m `
  : zone of leaching. Plow layer in agricultural soilsc
m Ý
  : zone of accumulation: weathering from below + leaching from above.c
m 
  : zone of weathering, between B and bedrock Rc
 m à
  : the bedrock.c
y  
  : Soil moisture is expressed as osmotic pressure, required to extract it from the soil.
Commonly quoted in bar or in MPa pressure. To convert: 10 bar= 1 MPa (megapascal). The
Permanent Wilting Percentage (PWP) is the water potential below which plants are unable to
draw sufficient water for life, let alone growth. Each plant species or group of plants has its own
specific PWP. Conventionally a PWP of ô1.5 MPa is an average for most plants, but xerophilous
(dryôloving) plants wilt at PWP=ô3 MPa, whereas hygrophilous (moistureôloving) plants wilt at
PWP=0.7 MPa.c
m
 





 : part of rock composition, hydrated minerals. It is
unavailable to plants.c
m  



 : a thin layer of water that coats soil particles. It is unavailable to
plants. (ô5MPa)c
m
 

 :c
×  


 

  : water retained agains the pull of gravity because off
cohesive and adhesive forces. (Cohesive= attraction of unlike charged polar
water molecules to each other) (Adhesive= attraction between polar water
molecules and other polar materials such as glass, soil particles, cellulose)c
×  


 : soil water available to plants, water potential ranging from
ô0.03 to ô1.5 MPa.c
× ô0.03 MPa: soil is at field capacity, saturated. The upper limit of soil
water.c
× ô0.2 MPa: most soil water gone.c
× ô1.5 MPa: there is virtually no plantôavailable water below this pressure. c
×   

 : free water that moves downward through the soil profile, by
percolation. Little of it is available to plants.c
m    

 
  :c
×    : movement of water into a soil. Enhanced by good soil structure,
coarse texture, presence of organic matter, but little is held in mulches.
Decreased by soil compaction, poor soil structure, high clay content, high soil
water content.c
× 
 : movement of water through the soil profile. Good structure and
coarse texture results in rapid movement. Movement decreases by poor soil
structure, high clay content, high soil water content.c
×
 
   : slow redistribution of water in soil capillaries; important
where subsurface irrigation is used and as crops withdraw water. Water can
move towards roots by capillary action.c
y  
: The pH value measures the number of H+ ions in solution as inverse powers of ten.
Thus a solution with pH=8 has 10 times less H+ ions than one with pH=7. At pH=7 (pure water), a
solution is neutral with as many acidic H+ ions as basic OHô ions. A pH greater than 7 is basic
(alkaline), whereas a pH less than 7 is acidic. Soil pH ranges from acidic 3.5 in high rainfall areas
to basic 8.0 in low rainfall areas.  
 
 






 






   

 



 





  . Positively charged
ions like H+ are cations, whereas negatively charged ions like OHô are anions.c
m
 



:c
× 

 
: common acidity.c
×  
 
` : react with water to form H+ : Al + H2O = Al(OH)3 + 3H+c
×  



 :c
×  
 


 : Ca++, Mg++, K+ by water.c
×

 


 : crops use cations as nutrients.c
× 



  
   such as ammonium sulfate. These
change the pH by introducint H+ ions.c
× 


 : nitrates (NO3ô) and sulphates (SO4ôô) rain down, which
causes aluminium to leach from clay, forming poisonous compounds.
Forests leach excessive amounts of acid. Soils, rivers and lakes acidify.c
m  



 
c
 × 


 : most plants grow best at PH 5.5ô7.0 but plants vary in their
requirements. pH less than 4.0 or greater than 9.0 can be toxic to roots.c
×  


  
: pH 4ô5 and 8ô9 influences the availability of
minerals to plants.c
× 



  (pH <5.5): reduced availability of Ca, Mg. Fixation of PO4.
Reduced availability of B, Mo. The levels of soluble Al, Mn, Zn, Fe
increase to the point where they may be toxic to plants.c
× 
 : reduces availability of B, Fe, P, Mn, Zn, Cu. If the Na
concentration is high, then Ca and Mg are reduced too.c
m 
 
 
: depends on soil texture.c
×  
: use ground lime, coral, dolomite (contains both Ca & Mg). Finely
ground lime reacts more quickly than coarse material. Addition of CaCO3 (lime)
replaces H+ by mass action, raising soil pH.c
× 
 
: usually by adding elemental sulfur (S), which is oxidised to
sulphuric acid H2SO4 by soil bacteria.c
y


 




: a measure of the negatively charged sites in a soil that can
attract, hold and exchange positively charged ions (cations) Ca, K, Mg, NH4, H, Na. The more
negatively charged sites a clay contains, the more cations it can hold and the higher its CEC.c
m  : expressed as centimoles of negative charge in 1.0 kg of dry soil (centimol/kg). The
CEC is equivalent to the centimoles of H+ that will combine with 1.0 kg of dry soil.c
m 


  : the proportion of CEC satisfied by Ca, Mg, K and Na, but H
and Al are excluded.c
m


  : exchange of cations between the soil solution and exchange sites are
based on two phenomena:c
× 
  

  : the relative capacities for cations to replace one another if
present in equivalent quantities. The order is Al > H > Ca > Mg > K > Na, where
the weakestôbound ones (left) are the easiest to replace. Sodium (Na) is usually
very strongly bound.c
× 




 : adding large amounts of one cation will replace others,
regardless of their relative capacity for replacement. Since H will replace Ca,
when they are present in equivalent amounts, excess Ca will replace H, and
large amounts of it must be added to soil in order to raise its pH.c
m  


 

:c
× High CEC increases soil buffering capacity, the resistance to the change in
concentration of a nutrient or pH.c
× High CEC enhances nutrient retention in soils.c
m  

 

: zero to over 100 centimole/kg; kaolinite clay= 10; montmorillonite
clay= 100; organic matter = 150ô300.c
y   
 :c
m 
 : soils having less than 15% of CEC satisfied by Na, and a pH 7.0ô8.5, and
an excess of Ca, Mg, and Na as salt (NaCl) or as sulphate (Na2SO4). It has a
detrimental effect on plants due to high concetration of salts. The concentration can be
reduced by leaching. Salts can accumulate also due to too much fertiliser, poor drainage
and salty irrigation water, and soil water evaporation.c
m 


 : soils having more than 15% of CEC satisfied by Na, and a pH 8.5ô10 cause
detrimental effects to plants due to high pH and Na concentration but not because of salt
(NaCl). It can adversely affect soil structure. Soils can be reclaimed by applying CaSO4
(gypsum), wich displaces Na to produce soluble Na2SO4. (sodium sulfate).c
y  
 

 :c
m 
 


  : base rock is broken into smaller pieces but does not change
chemically.c
m
 


  : base rock falls apart in parts that are chemically different, some
being soluble.c
×  : slightly acidic rainfall dissolves and leaches minerals fom parent
material. Water acts as a catalyst.c
 ×    : higher temperature hastens the rate of all chemical reactions, so
the parent material weathers more rapidly.c
×  : weathering of parent material is a very slow process.c
m   


  : organisms acidify their environment and hasten the rate of
dissolution of parent material. Near roots, the concentration of ions can be very high.c


cc  
 cc  cc

 cc
 
 c

  c 
 c  c

c
sandy soilscc 2 ô 4cc fastcc very lowcc lowcc
sandy loamcc 2 ô 17cc fastcc very lowcc
loamcc 7 ô 1 cc fast to moderatecc lowcc mediumcc
silt loamcc 9 ô 30cc moderatecc moderatecc
clay/ clay loamcc 4 ô 0cc lowcc highcc highcc
organic soilc 50 ô 300c very lowc highc very lowc
c
c
¯ 

 
 cc
This systematic classification of the many ways that soil can be lost, is not only interesting but also shows
that sustainable farming is like walking a tightôrope. Managing agricultural soil can be improved
considerably by paying attention to each of the factors detailed below.cc

y  

 c
m  c
×
! Soil slowly creeps downôhill. Particularly clayey soils do this because clay,
especially threeôlayer clays (Montmorillonite) can hold water up to equal their
volume (100%). During droughts, the clay shrinks and during rains it expands
again. This causes cracks in summer and also moves the soil slowly downôhill.c
× ! A slip is usually a small area suddenly sliding downôhill, leaving a scar
behind and producing large amounts of loose soil on top of downôhill soil. Slips
are natural but occur more so on agricultural land. Clay soils may slip over
sloping bedrock after long periods of gradual rainfall. This softens the clay, which
lubricates the bedrock. A slight disturbance like an earth shock can then set off
masses of slips. Trees reduce slips considerably.c
× ! very large slips where whole hill sides move, are called slumps.c
m
 c
× 




 ! Water drops hit bare soil and loosen clay and sand
particles. This is the largest source of clay runoff. Raindrop impact can be
eliminated by covering the soil with vegetation or mulches. c
×  
! Water runs over the soil like a sheet. It was thought that this caused
most runoff, but at this stage, the speed and pressure of the water is low.
Sheetwash can be stopped by dense planting and soil cover.c
×  ! As water collects downhill, small streams or rills are formed. They can cut
through a cropland, transporting loose soil particles. At this stage, the water flows
fast and has sufficient volume to exert some pressure on the land. Sand, silt and
clay are transported. Rilling can be prevented by contour ploughing and planting,
and by reducing the uphill size of the field. Allowing steeper uphill ground to
revegetate naturally can serve as a water trap.c
×  ! Surface gullies are formed in steep terrain where water flows fast,
eroding the soil underneath until the bedrock is reached. Gullies normally form
outside the fields. They can be controlled by fencing and revegetating their sides
and by constructing check dams.c
 ×   ! Water runs through cracks to the bedrock and scours out tunnels
between bedrock and soil. Eventually such tunnels slump, causing gullies that
can erode quickly. This form of erosion is hard to control because it happens out
of reach and out of sight. Fencing, revegetating and planting spaced trees uphill
prevents further tunnelling.c
× 
 
 ! Swollen rivers exert pressure and friction on river banks,
particularly when saturated with mud. Most river banks were deposited by earlier
rain storms and are easily eroded. Rivers need to flow freely during rain storms.
Tree roots cannot prevent this. Riparian (riverside) planting has little effect and
attention must be paid to the uphill sources of erosion. Riparian fencing helps to
keep cattle out.c
m

! Wind without rain is surprisingly erosive. Clay particles become airôborne and can
blow vast distances. The soil selectively loses its most fertile components. Clay
disappears and sand remains. Leaving stubble on the field helps. Planting shelter belts is
very effective over a large distance.c
m 
c
× 
 ! Glaciers are rivers of ice, formed from snow. Under pressure, snow
compacts to ice. Glaciers exert enormous pressure but move slowly. They grind
rocks to finer particles, which are deposited where they end, producing a sil (bar)
in the valley. Because their pressure increases with depth, glaciers scour deep
Uôshaped valleys.c
×    ! Under special conditions of moisture and repetitive frost, the soil
can expand suddenly, pushing its surface up and damaging roads.c
×



! When water freezes, it expands with enormous force, enough to
break large rocks. On mountains, erosion is highest where snow becomes water,
then freezes again.c
m
c
×



! Deep cracks occur particularly in clay soils. Clay absorbs water
and expands. During droughts, it contracts and forms cracks. Cracks dry the land
more quickly. Water from the first rains, runs into these cracks, causing erosion.c
×
! Consecutive expansion and contraction of the soil causes land to creep
downôhill.c
m



 
 c
×   
 


 ! Depending on the amount of rainwater and the
amounts of fertiliser applied, rivers can exceed safe levels of nutrients, causing
mortality to fish and other river life. Biocides in low concentrations are sufficient
to also cause damage.c
×   
 


  ! Farm nutrients and persistent chemicals often
end up in aquifers where they may remain and accumulate for hundreds of years.
Aquifers also provide drinking water, becoming poisonous in the process. c
×  
 
! As water flows downôhill, it meets more water. Rills become
torrents, then rivers. Rivers flow swiftly in some places, slower in others, allowing
sediment to settle out. This may change the downslope profile of the river,
causing repeated flooding.c
×  


 ! Nutrients from farms and fertilisers can wash out into
rivers, ending up in lakes where they cause dense plant and plankton blooms.
When plant matter sinks to the bottom, decomposing bacteria use up all oxygen
and the lake becomes poisonous to life.c
×  



 ! Nutrients from agriculture wash into the sea,
fertilising the waters and causing excessive plankton blooms. Poisonous
plankton species take over, posioning coastal fisheries and killing marine
species. Decomposing bacteria take over, spreading disease and death. c
×  


 ! Clay particles soil the sea, causing filterôfeeding animals to
suffocate; Clay settles on plants and shades their leaves, while inhibiting their life
processes. Clay clouds the water and shades deeper plants, who die. Clay forms
pans on the bottom, killing bottom life and changing vast areas of sea bottom
 habitats. Persistent biocides are concentrated in marine animals, disrupting food
chains.c
×
   
 
 ! when beaches become polluted by nutrients (plankton),
sewage (bacteria) or fine soil particles (mud), they won't dry out anymore
between high tides. As a result, their selfôrepair mechanism is lost and they
gradually retreat and disappear.c
× 
 

 


  ! By pumping groundwater for irrigation, its level

gradually drops, affecting areas downôhill and around. It may affect natural
stands of vegetation and wetlands. c
y  

c
m  ! Soluble nutrients are dissolved in water and transported. Carbondioxide CO2,
dissolved in rain forms a weak carbonic acid H2CO3 (H.HCO3) which can dissolve a
number of elements like calcium (Ca.(HCO3)2). Sulphur from the atmosphere forms
sulphuric acid H2SO4 which binds strongly with cations like Ca++ to gypsum CaSO4 and
others.c
×  
 

  ! The leaching out of nutrients and minerals is greatly
accelerated by ploughing. Soils lose their fertility.c
×  
 

 ! Dissolved nutrients can be transported through the soil
into the groundwater but can also react with the soil minerals in the B horizon.
Impenetrable iron pans can be formed or layers with carbonate compounds
(CO3ôô) ('effervescence'). Acidity can prevent the formation of threeôlayer clays.c
m
c
×  

 
 ! During drought, the soil biota shrivel and die. The soil can
lose its fertility easily.c
×    ! Long droughts prevent clays from forming. Instead, iron
sesquioxides are formed, which adhere firmly to sand and gravel, giving them a
red colour, and may cement them to form a subsurface iron pan. It forms a soil
with low fertility because nutrients are leached out and downward. Ferrugination
may occur after deforestation or because of poor farming practices.c
× 
 : when soil is thoroughly dried from time to time, precipitates of iron
and organic matter cannot accumulate and the organic matter disappears by
decay, causing irreversibly dehydrated iron sesquioxides to form. Soils are called
cinnamonic (red).c
m   
 



 
 c
×   ! Almost all biomass (90%) is lost to the atmosphere, including all
nitrogen and carbon compounds to feed the soil biota. In addition, soil biota are
cooked and the top layer baked, losing its valuable humus and waterôbinding
structure. The charcoaled wood won't decompose.c
×   ! Deep ploughing and shallow harrowing serve to render soil more
friable and porous. It removes weeds and produces a fine structure suitable for
seeding and planting. Harrowing is also used to 'mulch' soil to prevent excessive
evaporation.c
×   
 ! Water can flow more freely through the A horizon into the
B and C horizons and into the water table, taking nutrients with it. Only
about 15ô50% of nitrogenous fertiliser is taken up by plants. Some
evaporates, but as much as 40ô50% washes into groundwater and
aquifers.c
× 
 ! Organic matter is lost because soil biota decompose it
much faster since the loose soil brings all the oxygen they need. Even
persistent humus is lost this way.c
×  
 
 ! Soil biota are lost because not enough organic matter
remains to feed them. In this way fertility is lost with them. The fertility of
a natural soil is kept inside the bodies of the soil organisms! c
×
   ! Ploughed soil opens the path for fine particles to be
washed downward where they clog together, blocking the natural
drainage of water.c
 ×

 ! Heavy machinery (in 1948 averaging 2.7t, in 1990
averaging 7ô22t) is used to work the soil, causing compaction. Because
the soil has lost its natural structure with roots and tunnels made by soil
organisms, it is easily compacted, leading to water logging or reducing
the soil's ability to absorb water. Even without compaction, ploughed
soils have a porosity equal to a density of 1.4, whereas noôtill or natural
soil has density 1.0 near the surface. Deeper than plough depth, they
become equally dense.c
× 


: Compared to noôtill cropping, the ploughed soil becomes
acidic pH=4.5 at 25cm, whereas noôtill soil stays less acidic pH= .5 to
twice that depth.c
×   c
× 

  ! Excessive irrigation can cause loss of nutrients.c
×    ! Hard pans of iron oxide can form between B and C
horizons when the soil is unusually acid, such as under pine forests and
other forests producing resinous leaf litter. The resins decompose to
acids that leach minerals down into the B horizon. Here they react with
newly weathered soil to form a hard pan, a thin layer, which is
impenetrable to water and roots. (note that this happens mainly in cold
pine forests). Acids may originate from fertiliser, acid rain and lack of
calcium. Poor drainage is also a factor.c
×   ! When land is irrigated with water from lakes, water that ran
off other land first, cropland can become salty from the salts dissolved in
the water. Normally, salt (NaCl) is not held by the soil (but enough is
retained in its organisms), and it is leached downward through the soil
profile and groundwater. Salinisation thus happens in arid climates with
high evaporation and too little rain to wash excessive salt away. It can
also be caused by a drainage problem.c
×
 


 ! Herbicides (plant killers), fungicides (mould killers) and
pesticides (insect killers)c
×  

 
 ! The soil contains bacteria, fungi, worms and insects.
Like their aboveôground cousins, these are also sensitive to biocides.
They all work together and if one group is affected, it affects the entire
functioning of the soil. Manufacturers' claims of chemicals 'neutralising' in
the soil, must be treated with suspicion. How do they neutralise? By
killing soil biota?c
×   
 ! Persistent biocides may cause longôterm
damage to soil biota and thus soil fertility.c
×   ! Grasslands can be sustainable but many are not. Because most
meadowland has no trees, it is sensitive to erosion (see above) but other
dangers arise:c
×    ! Overgrazing won't leave enough organic matter for the soil
organisms, causing soils to become less fertile. Overgrazing does not
leave enough leaf coverage so that rain drops cause erosion. Lack of
leaf cover also unnecessarily dries the land out. Lost nutrients are not
replaced, causing soils to degrade. The slope of the land worsens all
overgrazing effects. Overgrazing also reduces plant biomass because
the small part left above ground cannot maintain a large part
underground. c
×  
   ! Cattle left to range over the land freely,
compact the soil by their small hooves, which concentrate their weight
over a small surface. The soil recovers slowly but now that the grassland
has been made far more productive than natural prairie or steppe, many
more hooves tread it per acre. Pugged areas can become waterlogged.c
y   

  ! Farms do contribute to atmospheric pollution and global warming.c
m  
 
 ! Modern farming uses some 7 Gcal/ha = 830 l/ha fuel each year.c
 × ›"! Carbondioxide is produced by farm machinery.c
m   

 !c
× #! Ammonia is produced by soil bacteria when converting wastes and
fertilisers.c
× "›! Laughing gas and other nitrous oxides are produced when nitrogen is in
excess, due to fertilising.c
× $! Natural gas or methane is produced by grazing animals and by rice padis.c
× ›"! Carbon dioxide escapes from soil as its organic matter degrades, being
burnt up by soil organisms. In the process of soil degradation and deforestation,
large amounts of CO2 enter the atmosphere.c
× ›: Carbonmonoxide is produced by agricultural soil as part of organic matter
degradation and burning.c

c
c
 
 
 cc
Soil is perhaps the only resource that is not directly consumed. Water and air are principally inexhaustible
renewable resources, but they are used. Water is used. The used water does not return directly, but
recycles through the atmosphere at high rates. So does air (carbon dioxide). But soil forms a noticeable
exception. Every time it is used for a new crop, it is still there, afterwards. But soil degrades and is lost
gradually. Here are some timescales to remind you of its uniqueness.cc
ccc

y tectonic movement and replenishment: 50ô200 million yearsc

y soil profile formation: 10,000 years. Soil and terrestrial ecosystem have to evolve together and go
through many thousands of years of succession until finally a stable community with its soil profile
is formed. Soil without a ground cover of vegetation will never form a profile, since erosion
exceeds soil formation. Soil formation: 1mm per 10 years. 1m = 10,000 years. New Zealand soils
developed under very slow metabolising forests and therefore took much longer to form. Erosion
rates were much lower too and NZ coastal seas very clear.c
y soil slip repair: 50ô300 years. Slips repair relatively quickly because the soil is essentially still
there and plants and micro organisms have to adjust to its new place. Some forests take a long
time to recover because trees over 300 years old may need to be replaced.c
y soil degradation through careful farming: 50ô200 years, depending on the slope. Much farming
has been a hitôandômiss affair by trial and error. Modern scientific farming aims to change this
time scale.c
y soil degradation through careless farming: 5ô50 years. Depending on slope, bad soil can be lost
very rapidly through bad farming practices.c
y Nitrogen cycling in the soil from bacterium to other microorganism: daysc
y Nitrogen cycling between soil and plant: monthsc
y Nitrogen cycling from litter to soil: 1ô200 yearsc
y Nitrogen cycling between soil and atmosphere: ?c

c
  




 

  cc
`





  


Ý
= grouping according to the ratio of metal to oxygen atoms. Basic= high
ratio (less than 50% silica). Acidic = low (more than 50% silica). It is also the order of mineral formation
from a magma melt.cc

¯ 

  = composed of various components such that the chemical formula of the rock is not
unique and any combination is possible. Two or more elements can substitute for each other completely.
For example, the anions Mg++ and Ca++ , which are similar in size and function, can combine CaSiO3
and MgSiO3 to (Ca,Mg)SiO3 as if the rock components were dissolved into one another. The fact that
silicate rocks allow for substitution makes them easy to take apart through weathering.cc

Ý

¯  : the Bowen Series orders igneous minerals by how soon they condensate out of a magma
melt, as it cools. First 'ultraôbasic' minerals are formed. These have a high content of heavy elements and
are correspondingly low in silica content. Likewise, the last minerals to condensate are 'acidic', having
high silica content and low heavy elements. A very rough rule is that the darker or denser the rock type,
the more basic it is. Crustal minerals and rocks tend to be siliceous. Erupted lavas tend to be basic, and
deepôseated minerals and rocks tend to be ultrabasic. The bowen series is:cc

y ultrabasicc
m olivinec
m pyroxenec
m Caôfeldspar, plagioclasec
y basicc
m amphibolec
m biotite micac
y intermediatec
m Naôfeldspar, orthoclasec
m Kôfeldspar, orthoclasec
m muscovite micac
y acidicc
m quartzc

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   = the relative capacity for cations to replace one another if present in
equivalent quantities. The order of preference is: Al+++ > H+ > Ca++ > Mg++ > K+ > Na+. Thus Al has
the weakest bond whereas Na the strongest.cc






 : adding large amounts of one cation will replace others, regardless of their relative
replacement. Since H+ will replace Ca++, an excess in Ca++ must be added to soil in order to raise the
pH (make it less acidic).cc




 

 = a measure of soil, particularly the charged clay particles, to attract, hold
and eschange cations Ca++, K+, Mg++, NH4+, H+ and Na+. The more negatively charged sites a clay
contains, the more cations it can hold and the higher its CEC. A high CEC increases the soil's buffering
capacity (its resistance to changes in pH or changes in nutrient concentrations). A high CEC enhances
nutrient retention in soils so that they can hold more. Soil CEC ranges from 0 to over 1 mole/kg. Note that
'organic' soil (the soil biota) has a CEC of nearly two orders of magnitude (100x) larger than soils without
soil biota.cc
(See CEC table above)cc

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