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Apostolos Koutropoulos
Introduction
The subjunctive is quite an interesting mood, and one that has presented many problems when I
was learning romance languages. In English the subjunctive seems pretty straight forward to me, yet
many times when I watch television or listen to the radio many people seem to misuse it. People tend to
use was where they are supposed to use were. For this paper I have looked at a handful of usage guides,
including the American Heritage Book of English Usage, and I have examined both print and spoken
transcriptions from the Corpus of Contemporary American English to see if usage follows the rules in
Usage Guidelines
The three sources consulted for this paper are Hacker’s A Writer’s Reference (1995), the
American Heritage Book of English Usage (1996) (AHBEU) and Bernstein’s The Careful Writer (1995). All
of these resources agree upon the definition of the subjunctive mood as “being associated with
condition, command, wish, doubt, desire, possibility, and the like.” (Bernstein) The specific usage that I
am going to analyze is the past subjective which AHBEU calls the were subjunctive “since were is the only
The AHBEU tells us that a traditional rule for use is to use “were rather than was in a contrary-
to-fact statement that follows the verb wish: I wish I were (not was) lighter on my feet.” What I find
interesting about this use is that “[m]any writers continue to insist on this rule, but the indicative was in
such clauses can be found in the works of many well-known writers.” In addition, in Hacker we see
another distinction between formal and informal use of the past subjunctive. The examples given in
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Formal: I wish that Dr. Kurtinitis were my professor.
One final interesting thing to note about the past subjunctive usage is dependent on the
intended meaning of the sentence. The example used in AHBEU is: “If Hamlet was really written by
Marlowe, as many have argued, then we have underestimated Marlowe’s genius.” I think that this
coincides with Hacker’s rule that states “do not use the subjunctive mood in if clauses expressing
conditions that exist or may exist.” In the example above the author of the sentence, by using was
instead of were, is expressing his view that Hamlet was in fact written by Marlowe, or at least he
believes that there is a high probability that it was written by Marlowe. Taking all of this into
consideration when talking about the use of the past subjunctive shows us that there is no clear black-
and-white rule for how to interpret a was past subjunctive. Is it an incorrect use? Is it Informal use? Or is
Actual Usage
I have broken down my analysis of the usage of the past subjunctive into two areas: those
instances where past subjunctive is used in print media and those used in spoken media. I have further
broken down the print usage into a category that contains magazine, fiction, and newspapers and
another category that contains academic writing. My instinct, prior to research, was that spoken text
would be the most informal, and therefore I would find more was subjunctives. In academic writing, it
being more formal, I would find the most were subjunctives, and the category encompassing magazines,
newspapers and fiction was a gray area in the middle of these two other categories. As examples of
usage I searched the corpus for if expressions, and expressions using wish. Two examples are if
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Spoken Usage
The first usage I researched was spoken language. I created a number of searches to compare
the if [personal pronoun] was construction to the if [personal pronoun] were construction. According to
all sources that I referenced, this construction should be in the past subjunctive unless there is some
sort of connotation that what is said is indeed believed to be true. My second set of comparisons circled
around the comparison of the I wish[personal pronoun] was construction to the I wish [personal
pronoun] were construction. My initial instinct told me that in spoken language it would be more likely
In my analysis of the if [personal pronoun] was/were constructions, the first thing I noticed from
the results was that the first person singular usage of the past subjunctive was almost fifty-fifty, with a
majority of people using the past subjunctive in a manner that is prescribed in the usage manuals. (see
appendix for figures) Examples of incorrect usage are “If I was younger I'd go over and help” (ABC
Sunday news), and “I guess if I was in that position, what would I look for?” (ABC 2020).
The interesting thing I discovered is that people tend to have a problem with third person
singular form of the past subjunctive. The usage manuals tell us that the correct form should be “if
he/she/it were,” however the analysis shows that people tend to use “he/she/it was.” Within that third
person singular, it seems that the neuter and the feminine forms were most troublesome. In both these
cases, the occurrences of incorrect use were almost double those of the correct use. Examples of such
instances are “If it was up to me, I would have him under arrest right now sitting” (NBC dateline) and “…
she doesn't have the opportunity to fully establish herself as if she was doing twice as much, twice as
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While looking through the transcripts I also found a number of instances where the correct form
was indeed was because the sentence was either referring to the past, and not to a hypothetical or the
validity of the condition was questioned. Thus, this was not an instance of the subjunctive. An example
of this is on a Geraldo transcript where the following sentence appears: “But if it was so premeditated,
why so sloppy?” In this instance, I interpret this sentence as a rhetorical hypothetical. It is phrased as a
hypothetical but the speaker obviously does not believe in the validity of this hypothetical.
Finally, there was a small amount of sentences that dealt with the second person singular,
second person plural, first person plural and third person plural that used was instead of were in the
formation of a past subjunctive. Examples of these sentences are: “What if they was white and they
were exactly that, you would have a problem?” (Springer) “If we was to lose that portion of our income,
that wouldn't be good” (CBS 60 minutes II) and “…and if you was hollering, why didn't he come down?“
(Geraldo) From these sentences, I would guess that the speakers here are using African American
Vernacular English. In this case, I would say that the rules prescribed in the usage manuals deal with
Standard Written English, thus they do not apply to African American Vernacular English and the
argument can be made that these constructions can’t be marked as examples of incorrect usage.
In the analysis of the I wish [personal pronoun] was/were constructions I also found something
quite interesting, something that I would not have expected. The trends that I saw in the if [personal
pronoun] was/were constructions don’t apply to the I wish [personal pronoun] was/were constructions!
For example, speakers tend to favor if it was as opposed to if it were. In the I wish [personal pronoun]
was/were analysis, people tend to prefer to use I wish it were instead of I wish it was. A couple of
examples of incorrect usage are: “I wish it was my twenty-fifth birthday, but it's not,” (PBD_Tavis) and “I
wish it was easier for her” (NPR NewsNotes). The second person singular past subjunctive is also used
correctly in all instances. Speakers overwhelmingly used the I wish you were construction instead of the
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I wish you was. There were only two instances of I wish you was however both appear to be African
Finally, I found it interesting that while people tended to favor the correct form of the if
[personal pronoun] was/were construction when using it with the first person singular, in the I wish
[personal pronoun] was/were construction people favored the incorrect construction I wish I was
instead of I wish I were. Two examples are “I wish I was not a public figure. I wish I was not an actress,”
(ABC Primetime) and “I wish I was there.” (CNN_King). These are counterfactual conditions and they
should be “I wish I were not a public figure” and “I wish I were there.” However as Hacker pointed out, it
is possible that these sentences were spoken in an informal way, and thus was may be acceptable
usage.
Print Usage
When I was analyzing my preconceptions about print usage, my hypothesis was that Fiction
would be closest to spoken usage due to the nature of writing, Academic usage would be closer to the
prescribed usage found in usage manuals, and Newspapers and Magazines would be somewhere in-
between these other two genres, probably leaning more towards the Academic genre than the spoken
genre.
In the Academic texts I was not expecting to find any I wish [personal pronoun] was/were
constructions because of the nature of academic texts. I was surprised to find these constructions, few
as they were, but I hadn’t considered that there would be quotation in academic texts. There are
instances where the past subjunctive is incorrectly used, for example we see “You made me. I wish I was
dead. I wish we were all dead.” (AmerScholar) These instances are fewer than instances of correct
usage. Some examples of correct usage are: “I wish I were happy,” (Raritan) “I wish I were fatter,”
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When analyzing the if [personal pronoun] was/were constructions, it surprised me that there
were many instances of incorrect past subjunctive usage in these academic texts. There are many
sentences that appear to not be quotations, yet the prescriptive rules are not followed. For example we
see “the South had to act as if it was stronger, more unified and more radical than it actually was”
(IntlAffairs) and ‘In addition, students were asked if it was legal to possess pirated software and if they
believed copyright laws were…” (InfoSystems). In a sense, I would expect to see some incorrect usage by
publications. There were of course instances of incorrect usage due to quotations, and I expected those
Looking at magazines and newspapers as genres, I expected them to fall somewhere between
the more rigid academic genre that tends to follow prescriptive rules, and a more liberal spoken genre
that is more fluid. For the if [personal pronoun] was/were constructions it appears to that people tend
to prefer the past subjunctive for counter factual information, as is described in the usage manuals. In
magazines, what struck me, was the fact that the use of the third person singular neuter is used
correctly twice as many times as it is incorrectly used. In newspapers this usage is split fifty-fifty.
In both newspapers and magazines the ratio of correct to incorrect usage for all pronouns,
except for the use of the third person singular neuter as previously discussed, is almost split fifty-fifty.
What I noticed was that it may not be the author’s mistake, but the informants that they were quoting.
“And if it was any other place, as I told Anne, I would've quit,” (MotherJones)
“They beat a black woman in there. Would you shop there if it was your wife?”
(NationalReview)
“The CIA called her a “sadistic nymphomaniac” (" Even if I was, what has that
got to do with the government? ")” (Ebony)
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“I don't care if it was my brother in the White House, I would not slant the
news” (NewYorkTimes)
“If I was to give FEMA a grade like you and I got in school” (SanFransisco)
The same holds true for the I wish [personal pronoun] was/were constructions. There are a
number of counter factual wish statements in both magazines and newspapers. The quotations appear
to be things that are said by the informants that the reporters use, and thus the incorrect usage parallels
that of spoken texts. For example we see sentences like “God, I wish I was young again,” (Chicago) and
“This is a dangerous world, I wish it wasn't.” (Rolling Stone) The interesting thing to note is that in
Newspapers the ratio of incorrect past subjunctive usage to correct usage is higher with this
construction compared to magazines. Magazines tend to use this construction according to usage
manual prescriptions more of the time. I wonder if this is related to the intended audiences of the two
different genres.
Finally, the last written text type that I analyzed was Fiction. Going into this analysis I expected
fiction to be closer to spoken language usage. Much to my surprise, there were more instances of
prescriptively correct usage than incorrect usage. The trends I noticed in spoken texts, namely that the
third person singular past subjunctives tended to use was instead of were, did not hold true for works of
fiction in the Corpus of Contemporary American English. Even in the third person singular, the preferred
In fiction, more so than academic writing, newspaper and magazine text, I also saw a number of
instances of what I would consider African American Vernacular English. We see instances where was is
used in counter factual sentences with plural pronouns like in the following sentences:
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“Kind of magic, man, if you was here in the yard and seen it.” (HarpersMag)
In these instances, just like spoken text, I have a hard time classifying these instances of use as
incorrect usage because African American Vernacular English is an English dialect and as a dialect it has
distinctive traits that make it different from Standard Written English which is what our usage guides
Conclusion
In the end, I have to say that it was a bit difficult to see an overarching trend in the usage of the
If [personal pronoun] was construction versus the If [personal pronoun] were construction. In spoke
English it was easier to see trends and to exclude non subjunctive pasts. However, in written texts this
task was much more difficult because you can’t easily query the author to see if they are being informal
in their writing, if they don’t believe that what they are writing is counter-to-fact, if they are being
creative in their use of language, or if they are simply ignorant of the prescriptions in the usage manuals.
There is also the debate as to whether or not you should treat a dialect of English, such as
African American Vernacular English, with the same set of rules as you would treat Standard Written
English. In my opinion, you wouldn’t. Of course, one would not write a research paper in AAVE, but they
may very well write a novel or a short story in AAVE, so it depends on the genre of what is written that
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Appendix
SPOKEN LANGUAGE
If it was: 1991 If it were: 1098
I wish we were 14
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FICTION
If it was 2431 If it were: 2721
If ye was 1 if ye were 1
if s/he were 1
If he/she were 1
If himself were 1
I wish we were 14
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MAGAZINE
If it was: 700 If it were: 1241
If yours was: 1
If hers was: 1
If we were: 436
I wish we were 2
Total 22 Total 52
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NEWSPAPER
If it was: 807 If it were: 916
If yours were 1
I wish we were 8
Total 47 Total 51
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ACADEMIC
If it was: 364 If it were: 829
If ye was 1
If theirs was 1
I wish we were 1
Total 7 Total 20
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