Sustainable Rural Tourism in the Romanian Carpathians

Author(s): David Turnock

Source: The Geographical Journal, Vol. 165, No. 2, The Changing Meaning of Place in PostSocialist Eastern Europe: Commodification, Perception and Environment (Jul., 1999), pp. 192199
Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
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fhe Geographicaliournal,
Vol. 165, No. 2,July 1999, pp. 192-199

Sustainable Rural Tourism in the Romanian

Carpathians
DAVID TURNOCK
Department
ofGeography,
Universiy
ofLeicester,
Universiy
Road,LeicesterLEl
7WH
E-mail:dt8@,1eicester.ac.uk
Thispaperwasacceptedforpublication
intanuary1999
Whilecommunismled to rapidstructuralchangewith an emphasison urbanand industrialdevelopment,the growthof unemploymentin Romania,since 1989, has left many
ruralfamiliesdependenton the smallfarmsthey have receivedthroughland restitution.
While viableholdingsmay emergeover the long term, there is an immediateneed for
diversification
to generateancillarysourcesof income.The paperexaminesthis issuein
the context of the RomanianCarpathianswhere rural employmentis central to the
'mountainology'
programmeadoptedby the Commission(nowAgency)for Mountainous
Regions created in 1990. The study concentratesprimarilyon rural tourismwhich
receivedstrongsupportfromcentralgovernmentand fromexternalsourcesover recent
years. The criticalfactorsfor successfuldevelopmentare emphasized,includingfiscal
incentives,environmental
policiesandthegrowthof institutionsat alllevels.
KEY WORDS: Romania,
Carpathians,
diversification,
rural,tourism

ROMANIA
HAS LONG BEEN an important
touristdestination,but under the communist
ystemtherewas littlescopefor privateenterprise. The ruralareaswere generallyneglectedand
provisionin the mountainswas largelyrestrictedto a
few key resorts(i.e. Poiana Bra,sovand Sinaia)and
chains of chalets, most prominent in the Bucegi
and FagarasMountains(Surd,1988).Now the benefits of ruraltourism(embracingall aspectsof leisure
appropriatein the countryside)are becomingbetter
understood in the context of diversificationand
sustainability,
with the latterconcept approachedin
terms of maintainingcommunitiesand conserving
environment(Bramwelland Lane, 1994; Roberts,
1996). Modern agriculture should be developed
within ecologicallimits, with additionalinputs into
household budgets from 'pluriactivity'as farmers
become involved in a mix of ancillary activities.
Becauseof land restitution,linkedwith a maximum
area of ten hectares(arableequivalent),many small
familyfarmshaveemergedin Romania,in additionto
thosethat survivedcommunistprogrammesof collectivization. So it is essential that other sources of
incomeareexploitedin orderto raiserurallivingstandardsand avoid excessiverural-urbanmigration;all
the more so because farm intensificationis discouraged by the high costs of inputsin relationto commodity prices. Althoughoccupationalspecialization
may normallybe the ultimateideal, there are economic and cultural reasons why this may not be
attainablein someareas,at leastin theshortterm.
00 16-7398/99/0002-0

TheRomanian
Carpathians
andthepotentialfor
ruraltourzsm
The CarpathianMountainsare an integralpart of
Romania,comprising40.1 per cent of the total area
(95590 km>)and 31.8 per cent of the population(7.25
million at the 1992 census) (Oancea et al., 1987;
Fig. 1).They continuethe sweepof high groundfrom
the Slovak-Polishborderand westernUkrainein the
formof a semi-circularbelt whichvirtuallysurrounds
the TransylvanianPlateau.The mountainlandscape
is by no meansuniform,for it was establishedmany
yearsago by Emm.de MartonnethatgenuineAlpine
sceneryco-existswithhighplateauland(anda succession of erosionsurfaces)whereforestclearancecould
make way for permanent settlement (Velcea and
Savu, 1982). Lithologicalvariationsacross a wide
spectrumallow massifscomprisingigneous rocks to
contrastwith well-settledpastorallandson limestone
wherethe sceneryboaststhe classickarsticlandforms.
Through valleys and tectonic intramontanedepressions not only diversifythe landscapebut provide
opportunityfordensesettlementand easyprovisionof
modern communications.Economic and cultural
unity derives from continuityof occupationand a
strongpastoraltraditionalliedwith miningand processingindustries(foodand timber)in the smalltowns
and more diversifiedmanufacturingprofilesin large
citiessuch as Brasovand Cluj-Napoca.Such a structuredurbannetworkcould be helpfulfor diversificationin the contextof ruralnetworkswithIT andother
servicesforruraltourismbasedin smalltownsandkey
villages(TurnockandMuica,1997).

192/$00.20/0

!aC)

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1999 The Royal GeographicalSocietv

SUSTAINABLERURAL TOURISM IN THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS

Ehepotentialfor rural tourism

Romaniaas a whole has good prospectsfor tourism,

but there is particularpotential in the mountains,
althoughmuchof the investmenthas been directedto
a relativelysmallnumbersof resortsand spas(Ielenicz
and Dumbraveanu-Andone,1997). In future more
attentionshould be directedtowardsrural tourism
and the rebuildingof the countryside.The attractions
derive firstlyfrom fine scenerywith a diverseflora
and fauna (Burford,1996), made accessible by a
reasonablygood transportsystemwhichlinksthe lowlands of Moldaviaand Wallachiawith Transylvania.
Comprehensivemarking of mountain tracks was
undertaken by the young people's 'Pioneer
Organisation'in the late 1970sand a detailedguidebook was producedby the same group in 1985. In
addition to walking and climbing, there are good
opportunitiesfor mountain cycling (on such epic
routes as Cerna Sat-Campului Neag and RancaObarsiaLotrului);pony trekking(exemplifiedin plans
to tourthe monasteriesfromthe statestudat Radauti);
and cavingin variousareasunderthe auspicesof the
RacovitaInstitute.There is also potentialfor winter
sportsand for medicaltreatmentlinkedwith mineral
waters and climatic stations (Cianga31994). Many
mountaindistrictsare extremelyisolatedbut rescue
servicesareprovidedby the 'Salvamont'teamswhich,
like hiking groups, tend to have links with factory
sports associationswhich help in maintainingand
markingpaths.Finally,despitethe threatfrompoaching, huntingtourismhas considerablepotentialwhich
is beingexploitedthroughthe modernizationof forest
chaletsandbettermanagementof the resources.
Greatvalue also attachesto the culturallandscape
of the Carpathianmountains(Apolzan,1987), with
dispersedcommunitieswhose ethos is perhapsbest
reflectedin the notion of'sheep space' and the unspoken traditionsof strong pastoral communities.
Historicmonumentscombine with a live displayof
rural activity which is remarkable by general
Europeanstandardstoday for the diversityof buildings, customs, handicraftsand festivals.Hence the
potentialforfarm-basedcommunitytourismbasedon
the rural population'spride in place and lifestyle
(Florin and Sarbu, 1993). Reference may also be
made to ethnic diversity which should enhance
tourism'sprofile, although the negative aspect of
contestedheritageis all too often projected.While
scenic and cultural resources in areas such as
Maramuresand MargineniSibiuluiare outstanding,
the Carpathiansas a wholecan sustainthe idea of rest
andrelaxationalongwithaircureor spa treatment,or
instructionand education.Many villagesare suitable
forruraltourism,providingaccommodationand additionalservices,there are some which are outstanding
for folkloreor handicrafts,
whileothersmay be attracfacilitivefortheirsceniclandscapes,hunting/sporting
tiesandchoiceoffruitsandwines.

193

phaseCentral planning saw tourism

7he communist
developmenthighly concentrated.This was controversial because it restrictedaccess to employment
opportunitiesandincreasedthe risksof environmental
damage in order to gain economiesof scale in the
But
more accessibleareaswith a good infrastructure.
the spreadoffacilitieswas all the morelimitedbecause
local communitieswere constrainedfrominvestingin
tourism through cooperativeor private enterprise.
Commercialdevelopmentwas restrictedbecausethe
communeshad limitedautonomyin financialmatters
was usually
whileindividualpeasantentrepreneurship
unacceptableto the communistregime.In 1973 the
Ministryof Tourismbegan an experimentin declaring severallocalitiestouristvillages(Fig. 2). But, the
followingyear foreignerswere barred from private
accommodationand, unlesscampsiteswere available,
therewas littlechoicebut to use hotels(situatedoverwhelminglyin the towns);a situationthatwasparticularly resentedby emigres and ethnics (Hungarians
especially)visiting families,because exemptionwas
allowed only in the case of very close relatives.
Subsequent developments in rural tourism were
linkedwith hydro schemesand forestryroads.New
water-basedrecreation facilitieswere created and
someaccommodationerectedduringthe construction
phasewasrefurbishedforpermanentuse.
thesmallfarmcontextIn Romania,land
Thetrarzsion:
restitutionhas given rise to some six million small
farmsand overhalfof Romania'sfarmlandnow comprisesunitsof less than two hectares(Bordanc,1996).
Where villagesare situatedclose to the towns,commutingto urban-basedemploymentis possible.Butin
the remoterareas more opportunitymust be sought
withinthe ruralenvironment.This hasbecomeparticularlyclearsince 1989becauselargeenterprisesin the
townsbeganto makeeconomiesby cancellingthe special transportarrangementswhich had previously
enabled a proportionof their workersto commute
fromthe villages(Beck,1976).Commutinghas,therefore, declinedfrom some 1.8 millionpersonsin 1989
to approximately250000 today (with a higherproportiondependingon cars and motorbikesfor transportbecausemanybus serviceshavebeen withdrawn)
and many countrypeople livingin the remotercommunitieshave been obliged to change their professionalstatusto thatof farmeror housewife.
So, the presentsituationof ruraldemographicstability linked with 'minifundia'is not sustainableand
endogenousdevelopmentshouldbe supportedthrough
both national and local government channels
1994). Despite adversity,the
(Hirschhausen-Leclerc,
rural populationremains generallyalert with clear
ideas about the future that is desired. Returning
migrantsmay offera correctiveto traditionalconservatismand spreadinitiative,while those arrivingwith
substantialpay-offsfrom jobs in mining (drastically

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Fig.1* EheRomanian
Carpathians,
showing
theareacovered
bytheCommissionforMountainous
Regions

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RURALTOURISMIN THEROMANIANCARPATHIANS
SUSTAINABLE

reducedin 1997)havesomeresourcesforinvestmentin
local projectsWurnock,1997). This is where rural
tourismmay End a role, with recreationand second
home ownershipseen as importantdeparturesfrom
the communistruralplanningmodel (Misiak,1993).
Now that it is legallypossiblefor peopleto own more
than one house, buildingsfallingempty throughthe
migrationof countrypeopleto the towns(orabroadin
the case of Germansand Hungarians)are beingpurchasedby affluentfamiliesfromthe cities:Bucharestin
the case of the Prahovadistrictand Timiaoarafor the
BanatMountains.But, manypeoplewill wish to visit
the countrysideoccasionallyratherthancommitthemselvesto secondhome ownership.In thiscontext,rural
tourism has the potential to build on Romania's
by
strengis and the potentialhas been acknowledged
foreignconsultants:
familyorientatedtourists,naturelovers,excitementand adventure
seekers outdoor enthusiastsand those interestedin farmingor
forestrybasedholidayscan allgainfromvisitingRomania.
Walkeretal.)1995:52

ofruraltourism
theduvelopment
Satisfingthepreconditionsfor
Rural tourismwill be greatlyassistedif there is an
existingtouristindustrythat can provide a positive
image (especiallyin the case of visitorsfrom abroad)
supplyingboth information
and a basicinfrastructure
and qualitycontrol.In this respectRomaniais in a
somewhat ambivalent position because while the
foundationsof a modernindustrywerelaidat the turn
of the century,the austerityof the 1980s combined
with more overt secret police activity, eroded
Romania'sreputationas a destinationfor package
holidays.Investmentis needed to improvethe infrastructure,which is stillvery poor in some areas.But,
privatizationshouldbring more investmentinto the
is being overhauled.
industryand the infrastructure
The Azuga Dam will supply water to downstream
areas of the Prahova Valley. Buateni, Sinaiaa
Comarnic,Breazaand Cornu.The networkof informationcentresis now being improvedand extendeda
but it is also importantthat tourist offices in the
smallertownsshouldbe awareof facilitiesin the rural
areas(Ianoa,1994).
Financialhelp fromdomesticor externalsourcesis
another precondition(in the form of grants, loans
and/or tax concessions).A modernlegal framework
should be put in place, preferablyin harmonywith
EuropeanUnion (EU)legislation,so thatthe Ministry
of Tourism can regulatethe industryand exercise
controlthroughsubordinateorganizations.The motivationof individualfamilieswillneed to be reinforced
by local coursesto teachbasicbusinesswith regardto
tourismand domesticimprovements.But,thereis also
a need for a communitydimensionso thatvisitorscan
experiencean 'escape'to ruralcivilizationand appreapproach.Rural
ciate a total ethnological/foLklore

195

tourism should be a community-driven initiative in

which everybody participates to show how pluriactivity is central to the prevailing concept of modernity
(Rain, 1996). Sustainability must also be considered
with reference to the environment. It is clear that
rapid and uncoordinated development of tourism has
created problems in mountain areas such as the
Bucegi where more effective controls are needed to
check the thoughtless actions of walkers and campers
(Velceaetal., 1993).

sincetherevolution
onruraltourism
taken
Action
RegionsIn trSing to
for Mountainous
77le Commission
explain the speedy adoption of this new approach to
rural development reference must first be made to the
work of Radu Rey (1979), a veterinary specialist
who worked in the Carpathians during the later communist years and became well known for his views on
the future of mountain regions. While not explicitly
critical of communist policies, his proposals pointed to
the need for a modified approach to rural diversification (with less radical consolidation than was officially
based on his knowledge
envisaged under sistematizare),
of Alpine regions such as Switzerland. He advocated
Cmicro-cooperatives'in areas of dispersed mountain
settlement such as Vrancea and a growth of mountain
tourism. After the revolution his ideas were immediately taken up by the National Salvation Front government which set up a Commission for the Mountain
Zones within the Agriculture Ministry to disseminate
the principles of 'mountainology' through education
and publicity (Fig. 1). It was closely Cshadowed'by
a non-governmental organization, the Romanian
Federation for Mountain Development, which created
a basis for action. Although the Commission was
downgraded in the process of streamlining the
bureaucracy in 1992 and now operates a small
'National Agency for the Mountain Zones', a broad
strategy in 'mountainology' is still being pursued and
agriculturalexperts continue to support diversification
(Otiman, 1994). But, Rey's initial success has yet to be
crowned with sufficient resources for comprehensive
moc ermzatlon.
It was fortunate that thinking on rural tourism as a
form of rural diversification fitted in with the plans of
the Ministry of Tourism, faced with a sharp contraction in tourism immediately after the revolution, especially in the domestic sector (Cocean, 1993). Both
domestic and external advice suggested that tourism
had growth potential in the context of a restructured
Romanian economy. Rural tourism offered an option
for grovfth which not only anticipated a boost to rural
incomes but avoided the complications of privatization and attraction of foreign investment which have
plagued the former state sector.
Thus, the Ministry's desire to rebuild the tourist
industry, as a potential growth sector, coincided with
.

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196

SUSTAINABLE
RURALTOURISMINTHEROMANIANCARPATHIANS

Fig.2. Iburistvallages

the Agency'sruraldiversification
agenda.The initiative is demand-led in the sense that Romanian
town{lwellerslike to visitruralareas,but in the past
they have been restrictedto the farmsof friendsand
relatives.It is alsosupply-ledbecausemoreforeignvisitorsmightwellbe interestedin a formof tourismthat
has provedpopularin other partsof Europe.While
large groupstouringby bus would almost certainly
continueto use urbanhotels, ruraltourismoffersan
opportunityfor smallgroupsand familypartiesfrom
abroadto enjoya widechoiceof relativelyinexpensive
accommodationnot availableundercommunism.
On the basis of a 'meetingof minds'betweenthe
Agency and the Tourism Ministry,the Federation
forMountainDevelopmenthasencouragedfarmersto
diversitFinto rural tourism at a time when the
Romanianmediahasmademuchof the country'seconomicproblemsand the furtherdownsizingin industry.In 1992the Ministryof Tourismsuggesteda range
of criteriafortheidentification
oftouristvillages:

crafts,literatureand music)alongwith traditional

architectureandoccupations;
variedtouristpotentials;
goodaccessibility;
adequatelocalservices;
a goodgenerallivingstandard;and
qualified people to implement a local tourist
programme.

On this basis a startwas made in selectingsuitable

villages,extendingthe short-livedinitiativetaken in
the communistperiod.
It became apparentthat fiscal concessionswere
neededto stimulatehouseholders,
alongwithsomerelief
frombureaucratic
planningprocedures.As a resultof
legislationenactedin 1994for the mountainzone, the
DanubeDeltaandthe BlackSea coast,thereis exemption from the normalprocedurewherebydevelopers
mustobtainpermitsfromtheelectricity,
waterandsanitationauthorities.
Moreover,approvedfarmsandguesthouses(thelatterhaving3-20 rooms)providingquality
* picturesqueandnon-pollutedcountryside;
servicesreceivetaxexemptionsfortenyearsanda grad* traditionalculture(withregardto costume,hand- ing systemis beingadministered
(Mitracheetal.>1996).

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SUSTAINABLERU1GL TOURISM IN THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS

It is intendedthat therewill be facilitiesin 8500 rural

householdsby the year 2000, which could provide
Romaniawitha 'niche in thetouristmarketandspread
the benefitsof the industrymorewidelythroughoutthe
courltrywithoutthe need for heavy investment.The
accommodaiionis to be securedespeciallyin priority
CorridorbetweenBraaov
areassuchas the Bran-Rucar
and Campulung.On this basis, selectedhouseholds
as unitsof rural
wereinvitedto applyfor classification
tourism in 19954. These are spread somewhat
unevenlyover20 ofthe countieswithmountainterritory
have
withintheirlirnits(Fig.2). Specialistorganizations
cometo the foreto siimulateruraltourismandprovide
inputfrom the 'grassroots'.In particular,a National
Associationof RuralEcologicaland CulturalTourism

197

can be demonstrated.From a base in Cluj-Napoca,

OVR has developeda strategyfor tourismcoveringa
groupof countiesin Transylvania(Fig.2). Eachvillage
or group has produced an informationpack to
describethe local facilitiesand opportunities(including visitsto monasteries,folkfestivalsand craftworkshops)(Wortthelet,1997).In each case thereis a link
with a villagein Belgium(or anotherWest European
country)to help with externalmarketing:for example
Vadu Izei is pairedwith the Belgianvillageof Brain
le Compe. PHAREworkswii OVR on this scheme
and trainingfor rural
wii respectto infrastructure
tourism in a 'Village Tourism Pilot Project'.
40 000ECU(each)hasbeenallocatedto ie OVR pilot
projectsin the AriesValley,ie Iza Valleyand Varna
din anda similararnountis assistingdevelopmentin Bran.
Cultural
pentruEurignRuralEcologXcF
(Asociafia
J%aMionalw
Rurnans[ANTREC])was formedin 1994 to promote
tol?ryRadicalenvironmentalactionwas
thecounty andidentifybarri- Envzzonmental
ruraltourismthroughout
shelvedduringthe firstyears of the transitionwhen
thatmightexist.
ersto development
immediatesurvivalwas the most pressingpriority.
dimensionThroughANTREC'saffilia- However,the long-awaitedlegislationwas published
Ihe international
EuropeanFederationof only at the end of 1995 and adoptedin 1996. It seeks
tion to the Strasbourg-based
Rural Economic and Cultural Tourism (Eurogzks), to conservenaturalresourcesand maintainbiodiverRomaniawas able to drawon expertisefrom the 22 sityby protectingair, soil and waterand to safeguard
nationaland regionalmemberassociations;especially designated protected areas (nature reserves and
GESsde France(France'snationalfederationof rural nationalparks)and naturalmonumentsas well as setprotection,
forenvironmental
tourism)which has 40 years experience.Romanian tlements.Responsibility
entriesare now appearingin the Eurogtkscatalogue. includingenforcementof pollutionlimits, will now
But, equally importantis the financialsupportfor restwith the centralauthority(theMinistryof Water
Romania'sruraltourism.This comesfromindividual Forests and Environment)and the environmental
countries such as the UK, but most significantis agenciesin eachcountywhichwillrecordobservations
EU PEIAREmoneyfor advisorysupport,marketing, on air and waterqualityand monitorthe situationin
instituregulatory frameworks,training and equipment. the naturereserves.Thereareotherresponsible
to the Ministy, suchas the Institute
PHARE collaborates with ANTREC on the tionssubordinated
whilethe RomanianAcademyand the
'Promotionof Rural TourismProgramme'which is for Silviculture,
primarily intended to promote Romanian rural NationalCommitteeof UNESCO help to decidethe
tourismat exhibitionsandfairsof bothlocalandinter- criteriafor the designationof protectedareas. The
willneedto becomemoreinvolvedin
touristauthorities
nationalimportance.PHAREwillalso:
protectionin orderto ensurethatpolluenvironmental
* establishan effectiveruraltourismreservationnet- tion is reduced.Assessmentsof potentialin the mountains are being made in the light of findingsin the
worksustainablein the mediumterm;and
BucegiMountains(alreadynoted)wherea strictregime
* designbrochuresandsignposts.
of protectionis necessary.There is some assistance
Work is being done on promotion and marketing fromabroadin the formof workingholidaysto repair
through regional folders and catalogues.The first footpathsin the Bucegi;organizedby the BritishTrust
Volunteersbasedat Wallingford.
handbook advertisesa total of 4125 beds at 750 forConservation
addresses(halfof whichhave telephones)in a total of
regions
Eourist
116villages(ANTREC,1998).
Foreignexpertiseis also being introducedthrough Predictably,the potentials for rural tourism are
the parallel initiativeby OperationElluges Roumains uneven,evenwithinthe mountainregionand it is not
(OVR)which has its originsin a concertedcampaign suiprisingthatclustersin Figure2 endorsethe regions
mountedin WesternEuropein 1988to opposesistem- with the greatestattractions(Istrateand Buhu, 1990).
ahzare by the development of twinning links The potentialvariesaccordingto the:
(Moldovanand Moldovan, 1995). OVR mounteda
of the culturallandscape;
massiveAid operationafter the revolutionand has * attractiveness
now initiated programmesfor sustainability,local * scopeforrecreationalactivities;
and
piloteswherethe significanceof * degreeof accessibility;
democracyand zxlluges
local food industries,ruraltourismand infrastructure * proximityto largecities.

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198

SUSTAINABLERURAL TOURISM IN THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS

Thus, it is widely appreciatedthat the Bran-Rucar

Corridoris a zone of particularopportunity.The
scenic and culturalresourcesare impressivewhile
major environmentalproblems are lacking. Local
servicesare availableand there is an urbandemand
for rural tourismwithin the region. There has also
been good cooperation between indigenous and
incoming families,leading to the formationof the
companyBranImex and the associationwhichdevelopedintoANTREC.Lookingfurtherafield,thereare
opportunitiesin the FagaraaMountains,especiallyin
the countiesof Sibiuand V5lceawherefinemountain
landscapesand other physical resources(including
mineralwaters)combinewith pastoraltraditions,historicmonumentsanda measureof ethnicdiversity.
Two other areas are highlightedby the selection
process. There has been a considerablegrowth of
ruraltourismin Maramurea,along the valleysof Iza)
Mara and Viaeu(Iacob,1994).Familiesare traditionallylarge,in contrastto otherpartsof the northwhere
smaller families and greater agriculturalpotential
resultin a reducedstimulusto seekotheroccupations.
AlthoughANTREC is very active,OVR is perseveringwithitspilotprojectsespeciallyin VaduIzeiwhich
is the main centreof the organization'soperationsin
the county.There is an informationand reservation
office;but there is need for more on marketingand
informationabroad(possiblyby meansof a websitein
the future).There are also notablepilot schemesin
Ieud and SalisteadeJos, whileMontana
BorBa
is active
in the area aroundthe town of that name, and other
localtouristassociationsaregrowingup. Visitorsrefer
to a particularlydynamic organizationin Botiza
where the communityhas close linkswith (:)VRand
appreciatesits concern for Caddingvalue' through
handicrafts,cart/bikerides,fishingand generalguiding. In 1997, (:)VR ran a folk violin festival(Mara
Muzicat)in Vadu Izei, Botizaand Ieud to help boost
ruraltourlsmand authentichandicrafts.
Thisfestivalis
now to be an annualevent integratedinto European
culturalitinerariesand combiningwith other local
festivals,withlocalcuisineand eventsorganizedby the
churches.Meanwhile,the villagesare to be developed
througha local authorityinfrastructure
plan which
includes the introductionof gas heating and the
encouragement
of smil and medium-sizedenterprises
to complementthegrowthoftourism.Effiorts
arebeing
madeto solvethe remainingpollutionproblemsassociatedwiththe non-ferrous
metallurgical
industry.
FinaSly,the Apuseni(Western)Mountainsconstitute a unique area of dispersedhamlet settlement
basedon cattlerearingandwoodeuttingon limestone
plateauxwhere a regimeof protectionis being introduced through the designationof a National Park
(Surd, 1992). PHARE money for mountainagriculture is being used in part to finance a specialprogramme of 'active employment measures'. Local
inhabitantshave regainedhistoricwoodeuttingrights

that were annulledby the communistsand will also

enjoyfiscalconcessionsin marketingtheirhandicrafts.
Newly-wedscan buy amberfor housebuildingat subsidizedrates and there is a governmentprogramme
encouragingpeople to settle in the area if they have
specializededucation(orhighertraining)andworkfor
publicinstitutionsor in a religiouscapacity.A major
infrastructural
programme(8000biLlion
lei until2004)
is underway(inpartto compensateforrecentdamage
throughnaturalcalamities)and local handicraftsand
other businesses are being encouraged through
five-yearinvestmentallowances,with the traditional
annual Gaina Fair as a valuable focus for rural
tourism and handicrafts. Like Maramurea, the
Apuseniregion is close to the frontierand tourism
should benefit from programmesof cross-border
cooperationwhicharestartingto develop.
Assessrnent
In Romania, as elsewherein EasternEurope, the
mountain regions show significant variations in
human resources,reflectingdifferentstages in the
demographictransition.In some areas the human
resourcesremainvery substantialand the shiftin the
rural-urbanbalanceis temporarily'on hold' because
of the limitedopportunitiesin the towns.So far, East
Europeangovernmentshave been preoccupiedwith
urban-industrial
problemsbut while land restitution
meets an immediatepoliticaland socialneed it does
not address long-term issues in the rural areas.
Developingagriculturalskillsin the countrysideand
presentingagricultureas a worthwhilecareer for
young people would seem to be an economicnecessity. But, in view of the social importanceof small
farms there may be relevance in the CBavarian
approach'throughfamilyfarmslinkedwithrewarding
ancillaryemployment.So Romanias strategyfor the
mountainzone includessupportfor a rangeof ancillaryactivitiesincludingruraltourism.
Resultsso far appearmoderatelyencouraging,but
no detailedevaluationis availableyet. Althoughrural
tourismis relevantto both domesticand international
tourism,spreadwillcertainlybe greaterin the domestic contextbecause only relativelysmall numbersof
foreigrlvisitors travel by car. But business cannot
increaserapidlyuntilthe realincomesfor Romanians
beginto grow;hopefullyat the startof the new millennium.Evenso, it is doubtfillwhetherthe scaleof activity can everbe morethana pale shadowof the Alpine
equivalent.However,cross-bordercooperationcould
have an importantbearing on tourism now that
Euroregionsare being set up in virtuallyall border
areas(withtheBulgrian frontierthe onlymajorexception).In areassuchas the ApuseniWIountains,
CarasSeverinand Maramureaimprovedservicesin border
areas with Hungary,Ukraineand Yugoslaviacould
stimulatetouristtraEc in the future,althoughat the
presentiime Csmall
bordertouristtraffic'is verylimited

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SUSTAINABLERURAL TOURISM IN THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS

arefavourablein tenns
Of course,thesecircumstances
of sustainabilitywith regard to both environmental
pressureand the impact on communitieswhich are
unlikelyto suffersignificantdamageas a consequence
of commercialgainfora minorityof households.
However,even modestgrowthis dependenton the
preconditionsbeing satisfied;not only to assurethe
andinformation
necessarytransport,communications
but to stimulateentexprisein the villagesat both the
community and individualhousehold level. While
muchof the developmentcan be initiatedat the 'grass
roots' there is a need for legislationand encouragement by the authorities,while the developmentof
business skills is dependent on substantialsupport
from governmentand internationalagenciesfor economic restructuringin general. Furtherinstitutions
are neededto coordinatelocal effortsand ensurethat
thereis somereturnto communitiesas well as individuals.Muchwilldependon the successof pilotprojects
m t ze morepromlsmgreglons.
The 1998ANTREC handbook(heavilydependent
.

199

on PHARE support)representsan importantmilestone, since ruraltourismis not very well coveredby

officialstatistics.However,the 750 addresseslistedfall
a long way shortof the 8500 anticipatedfor the year
2000; and the businessappearsto be quite concentratedwith 85 per cent of the total accommodation
fallingto just 73 villagesin nine counties.In any event
it will be difficultto hold humanresourcesin the villages in view of the sheer volume of job creation
required.Meanwhile,the creationof additionalurban
centres,aroundwhich commutermovementsmight
develop, will depend on the improvementof infrastructureas well as investmentin large enterprises.
Therefore,it is importantthat such rural projects
shouldcontinueto attractappropriatefundingunder
the developingRomanianGovernment/EUPHARE
strategyfor regionaldevelopment.But, the mountain
zonesaredividedbetweensevenof the eightmacroregions approvedin 1998 and may not attractpriority
from each of the coordinatingcouncilsin the years
ahead.

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