MECH 325 Notes April 2004

MECH-325: Introduction to Energy Systems
2004-05 MECH-325 Introduction to Energy Systems

Catalog Data: Credit: 4 (4-0-0-4)
Prerequisite: MATH-102 and Junior Standing
Co-requisite: None
Description: This introductory course is designed for non-mechanical engineering

students. It integrates the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics
and heat transfer. Basic principles of thermodynamics are followed by properties of
pure substances, application of the first and the second laws of thermodynamics to
thermal systems, application of conservation of mass, momentum and energy to fluid
systems, principles of conduction, convection and thermal radiation. Topics such as
thermodynamic cycles, internal and external flows, refrigeration, aerodynamic lift and
drag, pump performance, free and forced convection, and heat exchangers are covered.
Practical applications of the principles discussed are emphasized. A PEM Fuel Cell and
a Cylinder Convection experiment are incorporated into this course.
Textbook: Introduction to Thermal Systems Engineering: Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and

Heat Transfer, Michael J. Moran, Howard N. Shapiro, Bruce R. Munson, and David P.
DeWitt, 2002, Wiley
Reference: Introduction to Thermal Sciences: Thermodynamics Fluid Dynamics Heat Transfer,
2nd ed., Frank W. Schmidt, Robert E. Henderson and Carl H. Wolgemuth, 1993, Wiley
Coordinator: Ahmad Pourmovahed
Course Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to:
1. Apply the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat

transfer to a variety of thermal-fluid systems.
2. Apply measurement techniques and experimental methods to energy systems.
3. Apply team skills.
4. Conduct experiments, analyze and interpret data.
5. Communicate effectively.
Prerequisites by topic:
1. Elementary calculus
2. Basic computer skills
Topics covered:
Week Topic
1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Definitions
2 Properties of Pure Substances
3 System Analysis: First and Second Laws
Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 1 Introduction to Energy Systems

4 Control Volume Analysis
5 External Flows, Lift and Drag
6 Internal Flows, Piping System Losses
7 Conduction Heat Transfer
8 Forced and Natural Convection Heat Transfer
9 Heat Exchangers and Thermal Radiation
10 PEM Fuel Cell and Cylinder Convection Laboratory Experiments
11 Laboratory Presentations and Final Exam
Schedule: Two 120-minute sessions per week
Computer usage: Any Spreadsheet and Word Processing Software
Laboratory Experiments: Two laboratory experiments performed by the students at the

Energy Systems Laboratory during Week 10.
Prepared by: Ahmad Pourmovahed, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, 11/25/2003

THERMODYNAMICS
A science which deals with energy and its transformation and with relationships between
the properties of substances.
System: Any object, quantity of matter, or region of space selected for study.
Closed System: No mass crosses the boundary (only energy does).
Gas
W
Open System (Control Volume): Mass (as well as energy) flows through the
boundary.
m in m out
Q
Surroundings: Everything external to the system.

Property: A quantity which serves to describe a system.
Intensive Property: Independent of system mass e.g., p, T , ρ, v , u, h, s .
Extensive Property: Depends on system mass e.g., V , m,U , H , S , E .
Process: An event which takes the system from one state to another.
Isothermal: Constant temperature (T = const.).
Adiabatic: No heat transfer (Q = 0).
Isometric: Constant volume (V = const.).
Isobaric: Constant pressure (p = const.).
Reversible: When reversed, leaves no change in system or surroundings.
Isentropic: Constant entropy (S = const.) (reversible and adiabatic).
Laws of Thermodynamics:
Oth Law: Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system will be in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
1st Law: During a given process, the net heat input minus the net work
output equals the change in total energy.
2nd Law: A device operating in cycles cannot produce work continually

while exchanging heat with a single reservoir.
3rd Law: The entropy of a pure crystalline substance is zero at 0o K.
δQ
Entropy: dS ≡ 
T rev.
Comments about the 2nd Law
• A decrease in entropy is not possible for an isolated system.

• All systems, left to themselves, will reach an equilibrium state such that the
entropy function reaches a maximum.
• Entropy is not conserved in real processes.
• The entropy production depends on the magnitude of irreversibilities in the

system
• The increase in entropy corresponds to a decrease in the quality of energy.
Ideal Gas Law: pV = mRT

Ru
pv = RT ( p = ρ RT ) R=
M
kJ Btu ft. lb f
Ru = 8.314 =1.986 = 1545
kg mole ⋅ K
o
lb mole ⋅ R
o
lb mole ⋅ o R
Absolute Temperature: T ( o R ) = T ( o F ) + 460

T ( o K ) = T ( oC ) + 273
Enthalpy: H ≡ U + pV
p
h ≡ u + pv = u +
ρ
2
Quasistatic Compression Work: W = ∫ 1 pdV
1→ 2
P 1
Area = W
1→ 2

The Phase Rule: F =2+C − P
p, V
F = Number of intensive properties
required to fix the intensive state of each
phase.
C = Number of components.
P = Number of phases.
Specific Heats:
 ∂u  du
cV ≡   for an ideal gas
 ∂ T v dT
 ∂h  dh
cp ≡   for an ideal gas
 ∂ T P dT
1st Law for a Closed System:
∆ E = Q −W
(with negligible kinetic and potential energy changes, ∆ E = ∆ U )
E
W

1st Law for an Open System:
( W excludes flow work)
m in m out
E
Q
d E   v2 
 = Q −W + ∑ m  h + + gz 
d t  s y s te m in − o u t
 2 
TH
Carnot Efficiency:
Wnet = QH − QL (1st Law) QH
QH TH Heat
= Wnet
QL TL Engine
TL
ηth, max =1 −
TH QL
TL
2nd Law for Closed System:
2 δQ S produced
S 2 − S1 = ∫ +
1 T zero or positive

2nd Law for Open System:
dS Q
 = ∫∫ + ∑ m s + S produced
d t  system Area T
in − out
Isolated System: S 2 〉 S1
Ideal Gas Equations:
pv = RT c p − cv = R
cp
du = cv dT k≡ 〉 1.0
cv
pv k = const.
isentropic process
k −1
constant cp, cv T2  p2  k v 
k −1
=  = 1 
T1  p1   v2 
const. c p , cv :
T2 p T v
∆ s = c p ln − R ln 2 = cv ln 2 + R ln 2
T1 p1 T1 v1
variable c p , cv :
p2
∆ s = s20 − s10 − R ln
p1
(s 0
from table )
Incompressible Substance:
T2
∆ s = c ln ( const. c )
T1
Q = m c ∆T ( const. c )

Pure Substance:
mass of vapor
quality, x ≡ Vapor
mixture mass
x = 0 ( saturated liquid )
Liquid
x = 1 ( saturated vapor )
0 〈 x 〈 1 ( saturated mixture )
v = v f + x v fg
u = u f + x u fg P
T
c.p.
h = h f + x h fg
s = s f + x s fg
v or s
p
c.p.
superheated
vapor
liquid
mixture
T
P
v melting
liquid
evapor.
Triple Pt.
solid
vapor
sublimation
T
h P
T
c.p.
Mollier Diagram
s
The Rankine Cycle:
The Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for a steam power plant. It consists of the following
processes:
1→ 2 isentropic compression (ideal pump)

2→ 3 isobaric heat addition (boiler)
3→ 4 isentropic expansion (ideal turbine)
4→ 1 isobaric heat rejection (condenser)
3
B T
C
2
1
P
T
2
1 4
Example 1: s

Heat from a combustion process is supplied to an ideal Rankine cycle using steam as the
working fluid. Steam leaves the boiler at 800°F; 600 psia and turbine exhaust pressure is
1 psia. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.
Solution:
p3 = 600 psia and T3 = 800° F
From superheated steam tables:
h3 = 1407.55 Btu lbm

s3 = 1.6343 Btu lbm i R
p4 = 1 psia, assume saturated mixture.

s4 = s3 ( ideal turbine )
s4 = s f + x4 s fg
1.6343 = 0.13266 + x4 (1.8453)
x4 = 0.814
h4 = h f + x4 h fg = 69.74 + ( 0.814 )(1036 ) = 912.8 Btu lbm
h1 ≅ h f @1 psia = 69.74 Btu lbm
wp ≅ v f ( p2 − p1 ) = 0.016136 ( 600 − 1)(144 / 778 ) = 1.8 Btu lbm
h2 = h1 + wp = 71.5 Btu lbm
wT = h3 − h4 = 494.75 Btu lbm
wnet = wT − wP = 493 Btu lbm
qB = h3 − h2 = 1336 Btu lbm
qc = h4 − h1 = 843 Btu lbm
Note: wnet = qB − qc
Thermal Efficiency:

wnet 493
η = = = 36.9%
qB 1336
Example 2:
Consider heating a one-mile high building. Steam for the heating system enters a pipe at
ground level as dry saturated vapor at 30 psia. On the top floor, the pressure in the pipe
is 14.7 psia. The heat transfer from the steam as it flows up the pipe is 50 Btu/lbm. What
is the state of the steam at the top floor?
dE  v2 
First Law:  = Q − W + ∑ m  h + + g z
d t  system in − out
 2 
0 = q − 0 + ( h1 − h2 ) + g ( z1 − z2 )
h2 = h1 + q + g ( z1 − z2 )
h1 = hg @30 Psia = 1164.3 Btu

lbm
q = − 50 Btu
lbm
h2 =1164.3 − 50 + 32.2 ( −5280 ) / ( 32.2 × 778.2 ) = 1107.5 Btu

lbm
Btu Btu
p2 = 14.7 psia ⇒ h f =180.15 , h fg = 970.4
lbm lbm
h2 = h f + x2 h fg
x2 = 95.6%
1107.5 = 180.15 + x2 ( 970.4 ) ⇒
saturated mixture

Example 3:
A 2000 lb. automobile traveling at 60 mph stops suddenly. Its kinetic energy (309 Btu) is
converted to heat in the brakes raising their temperature from 80oF to 600oF. The
Btu
specific heat of the brake material is 0.1 o
. The ambient temperature is 520oR.
lbm . R
a. What is the change in the entropy of the system (the automobile)?
b. How much of the original kinetic energy of the vehicle is now unavailable?
Q
a Mass of the brakes, m =
c ∆T
309
m= = 5.94 lbm
0.1( 600 − 80 )
T2 460 + 600 Btu

∆ S =mc n = 5.94 × 0.1 n == 0.401 o
T1 460 + 80 R
∆ S system = 0.401 Btu o

R
b ∆ S surr . = 0 (no time for heat transfer )
Btu
∆ Suniv. = 0.401 + 0 = 0.401 o
R
Unavail. Energy = Irreversibility = T0 ∆ Suniv.
= 520 ( 0.401) = 208.5 Btu
Example 4:
One lbm of air is contained in a rigid, insulated tank at 500oR, 14.7 psia. There is a work
transfer of 146 Btu to the contents, paddling the air.
Btu
Neglect the mass of the container and the paddle wheel. Assume cv = 0.17 . The
lbm . o R
ambient temperature is 500oR. Determine the destroyed available energy.

Q = 0, W = − 146 Btu
1st Law: ∆ U = Q − W = 0 − ( −146 ) = 146 Btu

∆ U = m cv ( T2 − T1 ) (ideal gas )
∆U
T2 = T1 +
m cv
Air
146
T2 = 500 + =1358.8 o R
1× 0.17
 T v 
S 2 − S1 = m  cv ln 2 + R ln 2 
 T1 v1 
T2 1358.8 Btu
∆ S system = m cv ln =1× 0.17 ln = 0.16996 o
T1 500 R
∆ S surr . = 0
Avail. Destroyed = Irrev. = T0 ∆ Suniv.
= 500 ( 0.16996 + 0 ) = 85 Btu

FLUID MECHANICS
A branch of engineering concerned with forces and energy generated by fluids at rest or
in motion.
Fluid: A substance that moves and deforms continuously as long as a shear stress is
applied.
Liquids: Form a free surface in a gravitational field; relatively incompressible.
Gases: No free surface; highly compressible compared to liquids.
Isothermal Bulk Modulus: E V ≡ − V  ∂P 

 ∂V  T
4 o
E V ≅ 2 × 10 atm for liquid water @ 70 F.
( ∆P = 20 atm ⇒ 0.1% reduction in volume)

EV = P for any ideal gas (at constant temperature)
P2
(95% reduction in volume if = 20 )
P1
For a Fluid at Rest:
- Pressure, P, does not change horizontally.

- For a change in elevation by ∆z , P decreases by ρ.g. ∆z .
- Pressure is independent of orientation.
m
Density: mass per unit volume, ρ =
V
Specific Weight: weight per unit volume, γ = ρ g
ρ
Specific Gravity: S ≡ (13.6 for Hg)
ρ H2 0
Viscosity: Shear stress/rate of deformation
τ
µ =
 du 
 dy 
  v
y
τ u
µ= fluid h
(v / h )
x

µ
Kinematic Viscosity : ν≡
ρ
- The viscosity, µ , increases with the temperature for gases.

- The viscosity, µ , of a liquid decreases with the temperature.
- The viscosity, µ , increases slowly with the Pressure, for gases and most liquids.
- The kinematic viscosity, ν, varies significantly with both P and T for gases.
The Speed of Sound:
For an ideal gas, c = kR T

k = 1.40 for air
ft.lbf
R = 53.35 for air
lbm −R
c = 1129 ft/s for air at 70O F.
c is higher in “incompressible” substances (liquids and solids) than in gases.

Fluid Statics: Study of forces in fluids at rest.
Pressure variation in vertical direction:
dp z
= −ρg = − γ
dz
In a fluid at rest, the pressure varies only in the direction of gravity.
Pa
Gas Pgas − Pa = ρliq. gh

Gage Pr essure
h
liquid
U-Tube
Manometer
Pa = Atmospheric Pressure (can be measured with a
barometer).
At sea-level Pa = 101.35 kPa = 761 mm Hg

= 29.96 in Hg
Buoyancy:
B = net upward force on submerged or floating

object
∇ Air
∇ Air
Liquid
Liquid
B
B = Weight of displaced Liquid
B + weight of displaced Air
B = Weight of displaced Liquid
Example:
What percentage of the total volume of an iceberg floats above the water surface?
ρ ice =57.2 lb m ; ρ water = 62.4 lb m

ft 3 ft 3
Weight of iceberg = Buoyant force
ρ ice ∀iceberg = ρ water ∀submerged
∀submerged ρ 57.2
= ice = = 917%
. (8.3% above free surface)
∀iceberg ρ water 62.4
Example
A block of concrete weighs 100 lb f in air and “weighs” only 60 lb f when immersed in
. lbf
fresh water (γ = 624 ) . What is the average specific weight of the concrete?
ft 3

∇
W
W ' = 60 lb f
B
W = 100 lb f
B = 40 lb f
W
B = Weight of the displaced water.
B = γ water ∀ concrete
40
∀ concrete = = 0.641 ft 3
62.4
W 100 lb f
γ concrete = = = 156.0 3
∀ concrete 0.641 ft
Fluid Dynamics: Study of fluids in motion
Volumetric Flow Rate:

m3 ft 3
Q = A⋅V or = cfs
s s
V = Average velocity
Mass Flow Rate:

m = ρAV = ρQ
lbm kg
m has units of: or
s s
Reynolds Number:
ρ VD h VD h
Re≡ =
µ ν

V = Average velocity (in pipe).
Dh = Hydraulic Diameter
4(Cross Sectional Area)

Dh =
Wetted Perimeter
Dh = D for a circular pipe.
For Pipe flow:
R e 〈 2200 ⇒ laminar flow

2200 〈 R e 〈 4000 ⇒ critical flow
R e 〉 4000 ⇒ turbulent flow
Parabolic
Turbulent core
Laminar sublayer
laminar turbulent
Fundamental Equations:
Conversation of Mass (Continuity):
c.v.
min m mout
∂m 
 = min − mout
∂t  c.v .
Accumulation of mass in the c.v. (zero in steady flow).
Bernoulli’s Equation:

For steady, frictionless flow of an incompressible fluid along a streamline:
1
P+ ρ v 2 + ρ gz = const.
2
or:
P v2
+ + z = const.
γ 2g 2
P
= Pressure head
γ
v2
= Vel. Head 1
2g
z = Elevation head
Sum of all three = Total head
The Momentum Equation:

∂
∑F x =
∂t
( m ⋅ v x ) c.v. +(m v x ) out −in
x − mom. out −in
Accumulation of per unit time
x − mom.in c. v.per
unit time
Sum of all
external forces on
the c.v. including
pressure forces,
body forces, and
shear and contact
forces (x dir.)
The Energy Equation:
m in m out
E
Q
∂E   v2 
 = Q − WS + ∑ m  h + + gz
∂t  c.v. in − out  2 
Zero if steady
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Emptying a Large Tank
1
∇
A1 >> A 2
h
v1 ≅ 0
A2 P2 = P1 = 0
P1 v12 P v2
Bernoulli’s equation: + + gz 1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2
ρ 2 ρ 2
v 22
0 + 0 + gz 1 = 0 + + gz 2
2
v 22 = 2g (z 1 −z 2 )= 2gh
v 2 = 2gh
Q = Av = A 2 2 2
2 gh and m = ρQ
Venturi Meter

P1 v12 P v2
+ + gz 1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2
ρ 2 ρ 2
z1 = z 2
A2
Continuity: ρA 1 v1 = ρA 2 v 2 ⇒ v1 = v
A1 2
v2   A
2 2
P1 −P2 v2  A  v 22 
= 2 −  2  = 2 1− 2  
ρ 2  A1  2 2   A1  
 
2 (P1 −P2 )
v2 =
ρ  A 2
1− 2 
 A1 
Q = A2
2 (P1 −P2 )
ρ A 
2
1− 2 
 A1 
For compressible fluids, such as air, correction factors must be applied to the above
equation.
Pitot Tube

A simple device used to measure fluid velocity.
P0
P0 P
P
v 1
2
v12 P1 v2 P
+ + gz1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2
2 ρ 2 ρ
v 2 = 0, g (z1 − z 2 ) = 0, P2 = P0 , P1 = P
v12 P P0
+ =
2 ρ ρ
P0 − P
v1 = 2
ρ
1
or: P0 − P = ρ v2
2
Stag. Stat. Dyn.

Press. Press. Press.
Applications of the Momentum Equation:

Thrust of a rocket:
Example:
A rocket is tested on a test stand. Fuel is fed in at a rate of 1 kg/s and liquid oxygen
(LOX) at 10 kg/s. The flexible couplings and supporting rollers offer negligible
horizontal force. Exhaust gases exit at atmospheric pressure with a velocity of 2000 m/s.
Find the rocket thrust. Assume steady-state operation.

Conservation of Mass:
∂m 
 = m in − m out = 0
∂t  c.v.
mout = min = 1 + 10 = 11 kg/s
x-Momentum Equation:
∑ Fx = 0 + m(v x out
− v xin )
kg
∑ Fx = 11 × 2000 m = 22000 N
s s
Force on c.v. = + 22 kN
Force on the thrust stand = - 22 kN
Rocket Thrust = 22 kN
Jet Deflected by Vane:

A jet is deflected by a stationary vane. If the jet speed is 100 ft/s and its diameter is 1 in.,
what force is exerted on the vane by the jet?
Bernoulli’s: V1 = V2
V2x = 100 Cos (60°) = 50 ft/s

V2y = -100 Sin (60°) = -86.6 ft/s
V1x = 100 ft/s
V1y = 0
The Momentum Equation
(
ΣFx = 0 + m v xout − v xin )
ΣFy = 0 + m(v yout − v yin )
Forces on the c.v. (water):
Fx = m(v2x − v1x )
2
lb m π  1  2 ft
m = ρA1V1 = 62.4 3 4  ft × 100
ft  12  s
m = 34.03 lbm/s
lb m lb f
Fx = 34.03 (50-100) ft = -52.9 lbf
s s ft
322
. lb m 2
s
(
Fy = m v2y − v1y )
Fy = 34.03 (-86.6 - 0) 1 = -91.6 lbf
32.2
Forces on the Vane

Fx = + 52.9 lbf
Fy = + 91.6 lbf
Force on a Bend
No Friction
Pipe Diameter = 2 cm
Fluid is water

1.5 × 10−3 m3 / s
v1 = v2 = Q = = 4.775 m/s
A 2
π 2  2
  m
4  100
A = 3.142 × 10-4 m2
V1x = -4.775 m/s V1y = 0
V2y = -4.775 m/s V2x = 0
ΣFx = Fwf x - P1A1 = ρ Q (0 - V1x)
Fwf x = P1A1 - ρ QV1x = 500 × 103 × 3.142 × 10-4 - 1000 × 1.5 × 10-3 (-4.775)
= 164.3 N
ΣFy = Fwf y + P2A2 = ρ Q (v2y - v1y)
-3 3 -4
Fwf y = 1000 × 1.5 × 10 (-4.775 - 0) - 500 × 10 × 3.142 × 10 = -164.3 N
Force on a U-Tube
Neglect Friction, P2 = Atmospheric
A1 V1 = A2V2
A1
V2 = V = 4 V1
A2 1
V2 = 20.8 ft/s
P2 = 0, z1 = z2
P1 v12 P v2
+ + gz1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2
ρ 2 ρ 2
P1 = P2 +
ρ 2
2 2 ( )
v − v12 ⇒ P1 =
62.4
2 (
. 2 − 52
208 . 2
1
)
. × 144
32174
= 2.73 psi
2
π 2
m = ρA1v1 = 62.4 ×   × 5.2 = 7.079 lbm/s
4  12
ΣFx = Fwfx + P1A1 = m (v2x - v1x)

Fwfx = m (v2x - v1x) - P1A1
Fwfx = 7.079 (-20.8 - 5.2)

1
- 2.73 π (2)2 = -14.3 lbf
32174
. 4
Force on the U tube = + 14.3 lbf
The K.E. Correction Factor

Corrects for nonuniform velocities at inlets and outlets.
1 v
A A∫
v= vdA
1
v= (centerline velocity) for laminar flow in a circular pipe
2
3
1  v
A A∫  v 
α=   dA
 10 . uniform flow

α = ≈ 105
. most turbulent flows
 2.0 laminar flow in a circular pipe

General Energy Equation for a Piping System
wP
wT 2
1 m steady flow
Pump Turbine
ρ = constant
P1 v2 P v2
+ α1 1 + z1 + h P − h T − h L = 2 + α 2 2 + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
wP wP
hP ≡ = Pump Head
mg γQ

wT wT
hT ≡ = Turbine Head
mg γQ
u 2 −u 1 Q
hL≡ − Head Loss
g mg
hL > 0 2nd Law
2
Total Head = P + α v + z
γ 2g
Elevation
Pressure Head
Head Velocity
Head
Head Loss for an Abrupt Expansion:
V1
hm =
(v1 − v 2 )2
2g
Head Loss for a pipe discharging into a large reservoir:
2
hm = v (entire velocity head is lost.)
2g

Example:
Find pump power for the system shown.
v 22 2
hL = 1.5
2g 2
Q = 0.25 m3/s
P1 = 0, v1 ≅ 0, α2 ≅ 1.0
P1 v2 P v2
+ α1 1 + z1 + h P − h T − h L = 2 + α 2 2 + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
Q 0.25
v2 = = = 354
. m/s
A2 π
4
( . )
030
2
P2 v 22 v 22
hP = + + (z2 − z1) + h L 15
.
γ 2g 2g
P2 v2
hP = + 2.5 2 + z2 − z1
γ 2g
hP =
100 × 103
+ 25
.
(3.54) + (10 - 6) = 15.79 m
2
9810 2 × 9.81
w P = γQhP = 9810 × 0.25 × 15.79 = 38.72 kw (minimum power required)

Example
zA = 30 m
zB = 32 m
zC = 27 m
zD = 26 m
- Head loss from inlet to B = 3 of velocity head

4
1
- Head loss from B to D = of velocity head
4
Find Q and PB
2
Remember hL = v at Point D
2g
2
Total head loss from A to C = 2 v
2g
2
PA vA2 v P v2c
+ + zA − 2 = c+ + zc
γ 2g 2g γ 2g
v2
= zA - zC = 3m ⇒ v = 981. × 3 = 5.42 m/s
g
Q = Av = π (0.3)2 × 5.42 = 0.384 m3 s

4
2
3 v
2
PA vA P v2
+ + zA − = B + B + zB
γ 2g 4 2g γ 2g
v2
PB = γ (zA - zB) - γ ( 1.75 )
2g
PB = 9,810 [(30-32) - 1.75 3 ] = -45,371 Pa = -45.4 kPa, gage

2
Head Loss Calculations
v D
Head Loss due to Pipe Friction:

v2
hf ≡ f L
D 2g
f = friction factor

For Laminar Flow (Re < 2200): f = 64
Re
ρvD
Re ≡
µ
For Turbulent Flow:
f = f (Re, ∈ ) (Moody’s Diagram)

D
∈
= Relative Pipe Roughness
D
Minor Losses (Valves, bends, fittings, etc…)

v2
hm = K (K ≡ Loss Coefficient)
2g
hL = hf + hm Total Head Loss

Loss Coefficients for Valves and Fittings*
Fitting or Valve K
Standard 45° elbow 0.35
Standard 90° elbow 0.75
Long-radius 90° elbow 0.45
Coupling 0.04
Union 0.04
Gate valve Open 0.20
¾ Open 0.90
½ Open 4.51
¼ Open 24.0
Globe valve Open 6.4
½ Open 9.5
Tee (along run, line flow) 0.4
Tee (branch flow) 1.5
Roughness of Pipe Materials

Type ∈ (mm) ∈ (ft)
Glass Smooth Smooth
Asphalted cast iron 0.12 0.0004
Galvanized iron 0.15 0.0005
Cast iron 0.26 0.00085
Wood stave 0.18-0.90 0.0006-0.003
Concrete 0.30-3.0 0.001-0.01
Riveted steel 1.0-10 0.003-0.03
Drawn tubing 0.0015 0.000005

Loss Coefficients for Sudden
Contractions*
A2/Al K
0.1 0.37
0.2 0.35
0.3 0.32
0.4 0.27
0.5 0.22
0.6 0.17
0.7 0.10
0.8 0.06
0.9 0.02

Example
a) Is the flow laminar?
constant - head tank

∇
µ =.015 Pa ⋅ s
ρ = 1200 kg m3
P1
D = 4 mm
(2)
v = 1ms
(1)
3m
fully-developed flow
b) Find P1.
ρvD 1200 × 1 × 0.004

a) R e = =
µ 0.015
Re = 320 < 2200 ⇒ laminar flow
b) f = 64 = 64 = 0.2000
Re 320
2
hf = f L v = 0.2 3
(1)2 = 7.65 m
D 2g 0.004 2 × 981
.
P v 2
P v 2
+α
1
− h = +α
1 2 2
γ 2g γ 2g
f
with α = 2.
v1 = v2 , P2 = 0 ⇒ P1 = γ h f = ρ gh f = 1200 × 9.81 × 7.65

= 90,000 Pa
= 90 k Pa, gage

Example
Determine the required reservoir depth to maintain water flow rate of 0.03 m3/s through
the pipe.
∇ (1)
Water ρ = 998
20°C Tables kg/m3
d Smooth Pipe D = 75 mm
(2)
γ = 9790 N/m3
z ν = 1.00 × 10-6 m2/s
L = 100 m
Q 0.03 m
v= = = 6.79
A π s
4
(.075) 2
Re = vD = 6.79 × 0.075 = 5.09 × 105 >> 2200 ⇒ Turbulent Flow

ν −6
. × 10
100
f = 0.0131 (Moody Diagram)
Ke = 0.50 Square-edged inlet
2
P1 v12 L v v 2 P2 v22
+ + z1 − f − Ke = + +z
γ 2g D 2g 2g γ 2g 2
z1 - z 2 = d
v2
d = (1 + f L + Ke)
2g D
6.792 
.  = 44.6 m
100
d = 1 + 0.0131 + 05
2 × 9.81  0.075 
17.47

Example (Pipes in Parallel)
What size pump will be necessary in the 3-inch pipe so that 5 ft3/s of water will flow
through each pipe? Neglect losses in bends and elbows. Assume that water is at 70°F
and all pipes are smooth.
6” Pipe: D = 6″, L = 100′
5 cfs
Q 5 ft
v = = = 2546
.
A π  6 2 s
 
4  12 
D = 3”, L = 100’
ρvD 10 cfs
Re = 10 cfs
(1) (2)
µ
Pump
6
62.3 × 2546
. × 5 cfs
Re = 12
2.02 × 10− 5 × 32174
.
Re = 1.2 × 106 (Turbulent Flow)
f = 0.011 (Moody chart, smooth pipe)
2
P1 Lv P
+ z1 − f = 2 + z2
γ D 2g γ
2
Lv
P1 - P2 = f ⋅γ
D 2g
P1 - P2 = 0.011 100
(2546
. )
2
62.3
( 12) 2 × 32.2
6
lbf
= 1381 = 9.59 Psi
ft 2
3” Pipe:
v = 4 (25.46) = 101.84 ft/s
Re = 2 (1.2 × 106) = 2.4 × 106
f = 0.0099
2
P1 Lv P
+ z1 − f + h P = 2 + z2
γ D 2g γ

2
Lv 1
hP = f + (P2 − P1 )
D 2g γ
100 (10184 . )
2
1
h P = 0.0099 + (-1381)
( 312) 2 × 32.2 623.
= 616.1 ft
lb f 5 ft 3
WP = γQh P = 62.3 × × 6161
. ft
ft 3 s
ft. lb f
= 191914 = 349 HP
s
(Minimum Power Required)
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity of

experimental variables which affect a given physical phenomenon (a compacting
technique).
Consider the drag on a sphere:
V
→ D
ρ, µ
The drag force, F, is a result of pressure forces and viscous shear. It is very difficult to
find F analytically (due to turbulence, boundary-layer separation, etc.). Thus, F must be
determined experimentally.
F = f ( D, V , ρ , µ )
Generally, it takes about 10 experimental points to define a curve. To find the effect of
D, we need to run 10 experiments. For each D, we need 10 values of V, 10 values of ρ ,
and 10 values of µ . This means 10,000 experiments are needed to get complete data. If
we plot F vs. V with D as a parameter, we will have 100 sheets of curves. Dimensional
analysis will significantly reduce the time and the cost of the experimental investigation.
It also allows us to present the data in a compact form.

The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH)
If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship between variables in a physical

process, it will be dimensionally homogeneous; i.e., each of its additive terms will have
the same dimensions.
A = B e x/ y + C
A, B, and C must have the same dimensions; x and y also must have the same dimensions.
Dimensional Variables are quantities that actually vary during a given case and would
be plotted against each other to show the data. They all have dimensions, and all can be
nondimensionalized as a dimensional analysis technique ( D, V , ρ , µ , F in our example).
Dimensionless Variables ( ∏ ’s) are dimensionless and are constructed by combining

dimensional variables.
The Buckingham PI Theorem (1914)
If a physical process satisfies the PDH and involves n dimensional variables, it can be
reduced to a relation between only k dimensionless variables or ∏ ’s. The reduction
j = n − k equals the maximum number of variables which do not form a ∏ among
themselves and is always less than or equal to the number of dimensions describing the
variables.
Procedure to find ∏ ’s
1. List and count the n variables involved in the problem. If any important variables
are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.
2. List the dimensions of each variable. Use MLTθ or FLTθ .
3. Find j. Initially guess j equal to the number of different dimensions present.

Look for j variables that do not form a ∏ product. If no luck, reduce j by 1 and
look again.
4. Select j variables that do not form a ∏ product. These variables will appear in
every ∏ group when you are done.

5. Add one additional variable to your j variables and form a power product.
Algebraically find the exponents that make the product dimensionless.
Example 1: Drag on a sphere
F = f ( D, V , ρ , µ )
Step 1: n=5 F , D, V , ρ , µ
Step 2: F: MLT −2
D: L
V: LT −1
ρ: ML−3
µ: ML−1 T −1
Step 3: j = 3 ( M , L, T )
ρ, V , D ( Cannot form ∏ )
Step 4: Select ρ , V , D
Step 5: ρ , V , D, µ n− j=5−3=2
ρ , V , D, F 2 ∏ groups
ρ a V b D c µ d = M a L−3 a Lb T − b Lc M d L− d T − d = M 0 L0 T 0
M: a+d =0
L : − 3a + b + c − d = 0
T : −b −d = 0
Select any one: d = −1

a =1
b =1
c =1
∏1 = ρ V D / µ Reynolds Number
ρe V f
D g F h = M e L − 3 e L f T − f L g M h L h T − 2 h = M 0 L0 T 0
M: e+h=0
L : − 3e + f + g + h = 0

T : − f −2h = 0
Select: h =1
e = −1
f = −2
g = −2
F
∏ = Force Coefficient
ρ V 2 D2
2
There are only two ∏ groups.
∏1 = f (∏ 2 )
F
= f ( R e)
ρ V 2 D2
This will result in a single plot which requires about 10 experiments.
Example 2: Laminar Flow in a Circular Pipe
For laminar flow through a circular pipe, the volumetric flow rate Q is a function
only of the tube radius R, the fluid viscosity µ , and the pressure drop per unit
pipe length, dp/dx. Using the ∏ theorem, find an appropriate dimensionless
relationship.
 d p
1. Q = f  R, µ , , n = 4
 dx
2. R L
µ M L −1 T −1
dp
M L− 2 T − 2
dx
Q L3 T −1
3. Guess j = 3
dp
R, µ , and cannot form a ∏ group
dx

c
d p
R µ 
a b a b −b −b
 =L M L T M L T
c − 2c − 2c
= M 0 L0 T 0
dx
L : a −b −2c = 0
M: b+c=0 c=0 no ∏ group
T : −b − 2c = 0 b=0
a=0
j=3
4. n − j =1 only one ∏ group
γ
d p
Q R µ
1 α β
  =M L T
0 0 0
 d x 
L3 T −1 Lα M β L− β T − β M γ L− 2γ T − 2γ = M 0 L0 T 0
L : 3 + α − β − 2γ = 0 γ = −1
M: β +γ =0 β = +1
T : −1 − β − 2 γ = 0 α = −4
Qµ
∏1 = = const.
4 d p
R  
dx
π
Laminar-flow theory shows that ∏ 1 =
8

Aerodynamic Drag
separation separation
v0 v0
wake wake
Stag. Turbulent B.L.

Pt. Re > 5 × 105
Laminar B.L.
For streamlined objects (such as airfoils), skin friction is a major contributor to drag. For
blunt objects (cylinders, spheres, etc…) pressure drag is the primary component.
The Drag Coefficient
FD
CD ≡ 1
2 ρv 20 A P
Ap = Projected Frontal Area
FD = Drag Force

Example
Estimate the added power (kw) required for the car when the cartop carrier is used and
the car is driven at 80 km/h in a 20-km/h head wind over that required when the carrier is
not used under the same conditions.
V0 = 80 + 20 = 100 km/h (Velocity of Air relative to the car)
Assume Rectangular Plate

l 1.5
= = 7.5 ⇒ CD ≅ 1.25 (Table)
b 0.2
FD = 1 ρv 02 C D (b ⋅ l )
2
2
 3

FD = 1 × 1 ⋅ 2  100 × 10  × 1.25 × (0.2 × 1.5) = 173.6 N
2  3600 
3
Power = FD ⋅ V = 173.6 × 80 × 10 × 1 = 3.86 kW
3600 1000
Note: at 1atm, 20°C, ρair = 1.2 kg/m3
Example
A 3000-lb automobile with a projected frontal area of 20.0 ft2, a drag coefficient of 0.40,
and a rolling resistance coefficient of 0.10 is traveling at 65 mph. Determine the %
savings in gas mileage if the speed is reduced to 55 mph. The air temperature is 60°F.
Energy = Force x Distance
Energy required per distance of travel = force, F
F = Rolling Resistance + Aerodynamics Drag
1 2
3000 × 0.10 ρv ⋅ CD AP
2

F = 300 + 1 × 0.0763 V2 × 0.40 × 20 / 32.174
2
ρ
F = 300 + 0.00949 V2
(V in ft/s, F in lbf)
V = 65 mph = 95.33 ft/s ⇒ F = 386.24 lbf
V = 55 mph = 80.67 ft/s ⇒ F = 361.76 lbf
386.24 − 361.76
Energy savings = = 0.063
386.24
( 6.3 % Savings )
Example (Drag and Buoyancy)

A sphere 2cm in diameter rises in oil at a constant velocity of 3 cm/s. What is the
specific weight of the sphere if the oil density is 900 kg/m3
and its viscosity is 0.096 Pa. s? D
D = Drag Force
B = Buoyant Force B fluid
ρ
W = Weight of sphere
Sphere
1 2 π ρs
D = ρv C d 2
2 0 D4
3 W
B = Weight of Displaced Fluid = 4 π  d  ρ g
3  2
3
W = 4 π  d  ρs g
3  2
At constant velocity: W = B - D
3 3
4  d 4 d 1 π
π   ρs g = π  ρ g − ρv 02 C D d 2
3  2  3 2 2 4
V2C
ρs g = ρ g − 3 ρ 0 D
4 d
ρ V0 d
Re = = 900 × 0.03 × 0.02 = 563
. ⇒ C D ≅ 7.0
µ 0096
.
3 900 × (003
. ) 7.0
2
N
γ s ≡ ρ sg = 900 × 981
. − = 8616 3
4 .
002 m

Example
A 60 mph (88 ft/s) wind blows past the water tower shown. Estimate the bending-
moment at the tower base. T = 60°F
V0 = 88 ft
s Fs Ds
V0 D s 88 × 40 Ds = 40'
R es = = = 2.23 × 107
ν 1.58 × 10− 4 Dc = 15'
b = 50 ft Ds
VD 88 × 15 b+
Re c = 0 c = = 8. 35 × 106 Fc b 2
ν 1.58 × 10− 4 Dc
b
C Ds ≅ 03
. 2
C Dc ≅ 0.7
1 slug
F= ρ V02 C D A P ρ = 0.00237
2 ft 3
2
Fs = 1 × 0.00237 slug × 0.3 × π (40) ft 2 = 3460 lb f
2 ft
( )
2
88
2 3
ft 2
s 4
π D2
4 s
Fc = 1 × 0.00237 × (88) 2 × 0.7 × (50 × 15) = 4818 lb f

2
b ⋅ Dc
M = Fs  b +
Ds  b
 + Fc
 2 2
M = 3460  50 + 40 + 4818 50 = 362,650 ft.lbf

 2 2
Note: slug = 32.2 lbm

HEAT TRANSFER
Energy transfer due to a temperature difference.
Three heat transfer mechanisms:
Conduction: Transfer of energy due to interactions between particles.
Convection: Energy transfer by the bulk motion of the fluid.
Radiation: Energy emitted by matter through electromagnetic waves.
Fourier’s Law of Conduction:
dT T1
q x = − kA
dx T2
q x = Heat Transfer Rate
k = Thermal Conductivity x
A = Cross - sectional Area
dT
= Temperature gradient
dx

Newton’s Law of Cooling (Convection)
U∞ T∞
Velocity
Temperature q’’ = h(Ts - T∞)
distribution
distribution
q’’
Ts
Heated Surface
q’’ ≡ Heat Flux (Heat transfer rate per unit area)

h ≡ Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient
Ts ≡ Surface Temperature
T∞ ≡ Fluid Temperature far from the surface
Stefan-Boltzmann Law (Radiation):

q’’ = ε σ Ts4
Ts = Absolute Surface Temperature
ε = Surface Emissivity
q’’ = Heat Flux
Surface at Ts
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
W
= 5.67 × 10 −8
m ⋅K4
2

Thermal Resistance (steady state): 0 x x=L
dT T1
q x = −kA
dx
dT
q x = constant ⇒ = constant T2
dx
dT T2 − T1 T − T2
= =− 1
dx L L
kA
qx = (T1 − T2 ) qx
L
T −T
qx = 1 2 L
 L
  Plane Wall
 kA 
Steady-State
V − V2
Compare with i = 1 (Ohm' s Law)
R
L
∴ Conduction Resistance (plane wall) is : Rcond =
kA
 L
R= 
qx  kA 
T1 T2

Fluid
Convection
flow
T∞
q x = hA(Ts − T∞ )
T s − T∞
qx =
 1  Ts
  x
 hA 
1
Resistance for Convection is : Rconv =
hA
The Composite Wall
A B C
T∞,1
T1
Series T2 T3 T∞,4
T4
h1 kA kB kC h4
Hot LA LB LC Cold
Flu Flu
id id
 1   LA   LB   LC   1 
         
h A
 1  T1 k A
 A  T2  k B A  T3  kC A  T4 h A
 4 
T∞,1 T∞,4
qx
Total Thermal Resistance: n

Rtotal = ∑ Ri
i =1

1 L L L 1
Rtotal = + A + B + C +
h1 A k A A k B A k C A h4 A
T∞ ,1 − T∞ , 4
qx =
Rtotal
Define the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient as :
1
U≡
Rtotal A
Then
qx = U A ∆T
where ∆T = T∞,1 - T∞,4.
1
U=
1 LA LB LC 1
+ + + +
h1 k A k B kC h4

Radial Systems
B
A
r1 = internal radius of pipe
r2 – r1 = thickness of pipe wall (A) h1, T∞,1
r1 h3
r3 – r2 = thickness of insulation layer (B) r2 r3
T∞,1 = fluid temperature inside the pipe T∞,3
T∞,3 = fluid temperature outside the pipe
1 ln(r3 / r2 )
h1 (2πr1 L ) 2πk B L
T∞,1 T∞,3
ln (r2 / r1 ) 1
qr
2πk A L h3 (2πr3 L )
L = Pipe Length
T∞ ,1 − T∞ ,3
qr =
Rtotal (Radial Heat Transfer Rate)

Example
Determine the heat loss per foot from a 3 inch steel schedule 40 pipe (3.07
inch I.D., 3.50 inch O.D., ks = 25 Btu/hr-ft-°F) covered with a ½ inch
thickness of insulation (ki = 0.11 Btu/hr-ft-°F). The pipe transports a fluid at
300°F with h1 = 40 Btu/hr-ft2-°F and is exposed to ambient air at 80°F with
h3 = 4.0 Btu/hr-ft2-°F.
steel insulation
r = 1.535"
1
h1
r = 1.750"
2
T∞, 1= 300° F
r = r + " = 2.250"
r1
1
h3
3 2 2
k s
= 25
Btu
hr ⋅ ft ⋅ F
r2 r3
k = 0.11
Btu T∞,3=80° F
hr ⋅ ft ⋅ F
i
Btu
h = 40
hr ⋅ ft ⋅ F
1 2
Btu
h = 4.0
hr ⋅ ft ⋅ F
3 2
 1 1 F
internal flow  R = = = 0.0311
h ( 2π r L )  1.535  Btu / hr
1
 40  2π 1
1 1
 12 
 ln(r / r ) ln(1.750 /1.535) F
steel  R = = 2 1
= 0.00083
2π k L 2π × 25 ×1 Btu / hr
2
 s
 ln(r / r ) ln(2.250 /1.750) F

insulation  R = = 3
= 0.3636
2
2π k L 2π × 0.11× 1 Btu / hr
3
 i
 1 1 F
external to pipe  R = = = 0.2122
h ( 2π r L )  2.250  Btu / hr
4
 4.0  2π 1
3 3
 12 

F
Rtotal = R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 = 0.6077
Btu / hr
T∞ ,1 − T∞ ,3 300 − 80 Btu
qr = = = 362.0
Rtotal 0.6077 hr
Without Insulation
R1 and R2 will not change, R3 = 0
1 1 F
R4 = = = 0.2728
h3 (2πr2 L )  1.750  Btu / hr
4.0 2π 1
 12 
F
Rtotal = R1 + R 2 + R3 + R 4 = 0.3047
Btu / hr
300 − 80 Btu
qr = = 722.0
0.3047 hr
Removing the insulation nearly doubles the heat loss.

Convection Heat Transfer
- Forced Convection: Flow caused by external means, e.g. fans, pumps,

wind.
- Free (Natural) Convection: Flow induced by buoyant forces.
VL
Reynolds Number, Re ≡
ν
µc P ν
Prandtl Number, Pr ≡ =
k α
hL
Nusselt Number, Nu L ≡
k
gβ (Ts − T∞ )L3
Grashof Number, GrL ≡ 2
ν
Dimensionless Numbers:
L = length; V = fluid velocity
ν = kinematic viscosity = µ/ρ
cp = specific heat; k = thermal conductivity
α = thermal diffusivity ≡ k/(ρ cp)
β = coefficient of thermal expansion (β = 1/T for an ideal gas)
h = heat transfer coefficient

Convective Heat Flux:
U∞
q’’ = h(Ts - T∞) Ts
For a flat plate:

T∞
L
( )
4 1
q’’
Nu L = 0.037 Re L 5 − 871 Pr 3 Solid Fluid
U∞L
Re L ≡
ν
hL
Nu L ≡ ( Nu L & h are average values)
k
0.6 < Pr < 60, Re L ≤ 108
Ts + T∞
Tf ≡ (Film Temperature)
2
All fluid properties are evaluated at Tf.
Circular Cylinder in Cross Flow:
1 U∞
 Pr  4
T∞
Nu D = C Re D Pr n  
m
 Prs 
Ts
U D
Re ≡ ∞
ν
D
hD
Nu ≡ ( Nu & h are average values)
k
D D
0.7 < Pr < 500, 1 < Re < 10 D

6
All properties at T∞ except for Prs (@ Ts).

Constants for Cross-flow over a Cylinder
ReD C m
1 – 40 0.75 0.4
40 – 1000 0.51 0.5
1000 – 2x105 0.26 0.6
2x105 - 106 0.076 0.7
If Pr ≤ 10, n = 0.37.
If Pr > 10, n = 0.36.
Flow over a Sphere:
( ) µ  4
1 2
Nu D = 2 + 0.4 Re D + 0.06 Re D
2 3
Pr 0.4  ∞ 
 µs 
0.71 < Pr < 380

3.5 < Re D < 7.6 × 10 4 U∞ Ts
D
µ∞ T∞
1.0 < < 3.2
µs
All properties at T∞ except for µ s (@ Ts ).

Internal Pipe Flow
Laminar Flow:
- Constant wall temperature ⇒ NuD = 3.66
- Constant wall heat flux ⇒ NuD = 4.36
Both for fully-developed flow, Pr > 0.6.
Turbulent Flow:
4 1
Nu D = 0.023 Re D 5 Pr 3
Fully-developed ⇒
L
  > 10, Re D > 10 4 , 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 160
 D
For Liquid Metals:
Nu D = 4.82 + 0.0185(Re D Pr )
0.827
(Turbulent, constant heat flux)
3600 < Re D < 9.05 × 105 , 10 2 < Re D ⋅ Pr < 10 4
Nu D = 5.0 + 0.025(Re D Pr )
0.8
(Turbulent, constant wall temperature)
Re D ⋅ Pr > 100

Noncircular Tubes
Hydraulic Diameter: 4 AC
Dh ≡
P
AC = Cross-sectional Area
P = Wetted Perimeter
ρV D hD
Re ≡ ,
h
Nu = h
µ k
For turbulent flows:
Use circular tube correlations.
For laminar flows, use Table below:

Concentric Tube Annulus
Do
Dh = D'− D0
ho hi
Adiabatic Wall
h0 Dh
Nu0 ≡
k
Di
D’
If the flow is laminar, use table below:

D0/D’ Nu0
0 ----
0.05 17.46
0.10 11.56
0.25 7.37
0.50 5.74
1.0 4.86

Heat Exchangers
Devices used to exchange heat between two fluids that are at different temperatures and
separated by a solid wall.

The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U
D 
ln o  ''
1 1 1 1 R  Di  R 'f' ,o 1
= = = + + +f ,i
+
UA U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai Ai 2πkL Ao ho Ao
Rf’’ = fouling factor (See Table below)

Heat Exchanger Analysis
m = mass flow rate

c = constant pressure specific heat
P
C = m⋅ c P
h = hot fluid
c = cold fluid
i = inlet
o = outlet
q = heat transfer rate from hot fluid to cold fluid (W or Btu )
s
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
∆Tlm or LMTD = log-mean temperature difference
A = heat transfer area
L = heat exchanger length
•
( ) •
q = mh cP,h Th,i − Th,o = mc cP,c Tc,o − Tc,i( )
C C
h c

Parallel-Flow, Concentric Tube
Th,o
Th,i
Th,o
Tc,i Tc,o
∆T1 ∆T2
Tc,o
Th,i
Tc,i
∆T1 = Th,i − Tc ,i
∆T2 = Th,o − Tc,o
∆T2 − ∆T1
∆Tlm ≡
∆T2
ln
∆T1
q = UA ⋅ ∆Tlm
A o = π Do L
A i = π Di L
U o Ao = U i Ai
Counter-Flow, Concentric Tube
Th,o
Th,i
Tc,o Tc,i
∆T1
Th,o
Th,i Tc,o ∆T2
Tc,i
∆T1 = Th,i − Tc ,o
∆T2 = Th,o − Tc,i
∆T2 − ∆T1
∆Tlm ≡
∆T2
ln
∆T1
q = UA ⋅ ∆Tlm

Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers
q = U A F ∆Tlm,CF
∆Tlm,CF = Counter-Flow LMTD
F = Correction Factor (See Figures 11.10-11.13)
∆T1 = Th,i - Tc,o

∆T2 = Th,o - Tc,i
In the following figures, t is always assigned to the tube-side fluid. It

does not matter if the hot fluid or the cold fluid flows through the shell
or the tubes.

Example 1 (Calculation of U)
Hot water at 90° C flows on the inside of a 2.5 cm I.D. steel tube
(wall thickness = 0.8 mm, k = 15 W/m.K) at a velocity of 4 m/s. This
tube forms the inside of a double-pipe heat exchanger. The outer pipe
has a 3.75 cm I.D. Engine oil at 20° C flows in the annular space at 7
m/s. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
outside diameter of the inner tube.
oil 7 m/s 20 C
water 4 m/s 90 C

Properties of Water at 90° C:
kg
ρ = 965
m3
kg
µ = 3.16 × 10− 4
m⋅s
W
k = 0.676
m⋅ C
Pr = 1.96
kg m
965 × 4 × 0.025m
ρV D m 3
s
Re = = = 3.05 × 105 > 2300
µ 3.16 × 10− 4
kg
m⋅s
Turbulent Pipe Flow:

4
Nu = 0.023 Re 5 Pr 0.33
k k 0.676
Nu = (0.023) Re 5 Pr 0.33 = (0.023)(3.05 × 105 ) 5 (1.96)0.33
4 4
hi =
D D 0.025
W
hi = 1850 2
m ⋅K

Properties of Engine Oil at 20° C:
m2
ν = 0.0009
s
W
k = 0.145
m⋅ C
Pr = 10400
Dh = D '− Do = 0.0375 − 0.0266 = 0.0109m
V Dh 7 × 0.0109
Re =
ν
=
0.0009
= 85 ( Laminar Flow )
 Do 0.0266 
Nu o ≅ 5 (from Table)  = = 0.71
 D' 0.0375 
k 0.145 W
ho = Nu o =5 = 67 2
Dh 0.0109 m ⋅C
Ao = π Do L, Ai = π Di L
D
ln o
1 1 Di 1
= + +
U o Ao hi Ai 2π kL ho Ao ( No Fouling )
D
ln o
1 1 Di 1
= + +
U o Do hi Di 2k ho Do
−1
 D 
 ln o 
1  1 Di 1 
Uo = h D
+ +
Do 2k ho Do 
 i i 
 
−1
 0.0266 
1   1 ln 1 
Uo = + 0.0250 + 
0.0266 1850 × 0.025 2 ×15 67 × 0.0266 
 
W
U o = 64
m2 ⋅ C

Example 2
A transmission oil cooler is used to cool hot transmission oil from 160
to 60 °C using engine coolant at 25 °C. The oil and coolant mass flow
rates are both 2 kg/s. The outside diameter of the inner tube is 50 mm.
The oil flows in the inner tube and Uo = 2500 W/m2.K. How long
must this counter-flow heat exchanger be?
160 + 60
Average oil temperature = = 110 C = 383K
2
J
cP,h = 2260
kg ⋅ K
Assuming an average temperature of 40 C for water:
J
cP,c = 4179
kg ⋅ K
( )
•
q = mh cP ,h Th,i − Th,o
q = 2 × 2260 (160 − 60 ) = 452,000W
( )
•
q = mc cP ,c Tc,o − Tc,i
452,000 = 2 × 4179 (Tc,o − 25) ∆T1
h
Tc,o = 79 C
∆T1 = Th,i − Tc,o = 160 − 79 = 81 C
∆T2
∆T2 = Th,o − Tc,i = 60 − 25 = 35 C
c
81 − 35
∆Tlm = = 54.8 C
81
ln
35
452,000
q = U oπ Do L∆Tlm ⇒ L =
π ( 0.050) × 2500 ( 54.8)
= 21m ( must coil up )

Example 3
Water at the rate of 30,000 lbm/hr is heated from 100 to 130°F in a shell-
and-tube heat exchanger. On the shell side, one pass is used with water as
the heating fluid, 15,000 lbm/hr entering at 200°F. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is 250 Btu/(hr-ft2-°F) and the average water velocity in 3/4 inch
I.D. tubes is 1.2 ft/s. The heat exchanger length must not exceed 8 feet.
Determine the number of tube passes, the number tubes per pass and the
length of the tubes. 15,000 lbm/hr
200°F
30,000 lbm/hr
100°F
130°F
U=250 Btu/(hr-ft2-°F)

q = m c cP , c (Tc , o − Tc , i )
•
Btu
q = 30,000 × 1(130 − 100 ) = 900,000
hr
q = m h cP , h (Th , i − Th, o )
•
900,000 = 15,000 × 1(200 − Th , o ) ⇒ Th , o = 140 F

• π
m c = ρAc V n = ρ D 2V n
4
•
4 mc 4 × 30,000
n= = = 36
ρπD V 2 2
 3/ 4 
π × 62.4  1.2 × 3600
 12 
For counter - flow, ∆T1 = Th, i − Tc , o & ∆T2 = Th , o − Tc , i
∆T1 = 200 − 130 = 70 F
∆T2 = 140 − 100 = 40 F
∆T1 − ∆T2 70 − 40
∆Tlm = = = 53.6 F
∆T1 70
ln ln
∆T2 40
q = (UπDLn )∆Tlm (n = number of tubes )

900,000 = 250 π ×
(3 / 4) n ⋅ L 53.6
 
 12 
n ⋅ L = 342 ft
342
n ⋅ L = 342 ⇒ L = = 9.5 ft (not acceptable)
36
Use 2 tube passes (see Figure 11.10).

to − ti 130  − 100
P = = = 0 . 30 
T i − ti 200  − 100
 ⇒ F ≅ 0 . 88
Ti − To 200 − 140 
R = = = 2
to − ti 130 − 100 
q = (nU π DL )F ⋅ ∆ T lm × 2 (2 passes )
q
L =
2 π D ⋅ U ⋅ F ⋅ n ∆ T lm
900 , 000
L = = 5 . 40 ft
 3 / 4 
2π ×   250 (0 . 88 )36 (53 .6 )
 12 

Radiation
Energy emitted by matter through electromagnetic waves.
Radiation propagates at the speed of light: c = 3×108 m / s
The wavelength λ is related to the frequency υ by:
c
λ=
υ
λ is usually expressed in micrometers:
1 µ m ≡ 10−6 m
Thermal radiation lies in the range of 0.1 to 100 µ m . The visible portion is very narrow
(0.4 to 0.7 µ m ).
Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.

Blackbody: An ideal surface.
• A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation.
• For a prescribed T and λ , no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.
• A blackbody is a diffuse emitter. Radiation emitted by a blackbody is independent of

direction.
The Stefan Boltzman Law:
Eb = σ T 4
W
Eb = Blackbody emissive power (energy emitted per unit time and per unit area, ).
m2
T = Absolute temperature.
W
σ = 5.669 ×10−8 2 4
m .K
Radiation Properties: Incident Reflection

Radiation
Reflectivity, ρ = fraction reflected
Absorptivity, α = fraction absorbed Absorption
Transmissivity, τ = fraction transmitted
ρ + α + τ =1
Transmission
Most solid bodies do not transmit thermal

radiation:
τ = 0 ⇒ ρ + α =1
Emissivity: Ratio of the emissive power of a body to that of a blackbody at the

same temperature.
E
∈≡
Eb

Kirchhoff’s Law:
∈=α
In general, ρ , α , τ , and ∈ are all functions of the wavelength, λ .
Monochromatic Emissive Power: Eλ
The emissive power per unit wavelength.
Monochromatic Emissivity:
∈λ
Eλ
∈λ ≡
Ebλ
Ebλ is the monochromatic emissive power of a blackbody at the same λ and T.
For a graybody, ∈λ is independent of λ .
∈ = ∈λ
Spectral Distribution of Blackbody Emission (Plank Distribution):
c1 λ −5  W 
Ebλ =  
exp ( c2 / λT )  − 1  m 2 . µ m 
W . µ m4
c1 = 3.7420 ×108
m2
c2 = 1.4388 ×104 µ m . K

Spectral blackbody emissive power.
Wiens Displacement Law:

Area = σ T 4
λ max .T = 2897.6 ( µ m. K )
Ebλ T = const.
λ max is the wavelength at which Eb λ is a
maximum.
The emissive power:
∞ o λ
Eb = ∫ Ebλ d λ = σ T 4
o

The View Factor:
The view factor Fi j is the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i, which is
intercepted by surface j:
Reciprocity Relation: dA2
A2
A1 F12 = A2 F21
n1
For N surfaces forming an θ1 θ2
R
enclosure: n2
Σ Fi j = 1
A1
dA1
j =1
Ai Fi j = A j F j i

View factors for two-dimensional geometries.

View factors for two-dimensional geometries.

View factors for three-dimensional geometries.

View factor for aligned parallel rectangles.
View factor for coaxial parallel disks.

View factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge.
Areas used to illustrate view factor relations.

Blackbody Radiation Exchange:
q i → j = Ai E bi Fi j Aj
Tj
q j → i = A j E b j F ji
Net Radiation Exchange:

Ai , Ti
q i j = q i → j − q j →i
Eb = σ T 4
(
q i j = Ai Fi j σ Ti − T j
4 4
)
If Ai is a part of N blackbodies forming an enclosure, the net radiative energy leaving Ai
is:
N
qi = Σ Ai Fi j σ (Ti 4 − T j4 )
j =1
Radiation Between Nonblackbodies:
All surfaces are assumed to be gray.

Aj
∈λ = ∈
Jj
G = irradiation ≡ total radiation incident
upon a surface per unit time and per unit Gj
area. Ji
Gi
J = radiosity ≡ total radiation that leaves Ai
a surface per unit time and per unit area.
Assume that the surfaces do not transmit

radiation:
τ = 0; ρ + α = 1; ∈≡α

ρ =1−∈
Assumptions:
• Each surface is isothermal, opaque, diffuse, and gray.

• Radiosity and irradiation are uniform for each surface.
• The medium within the enclosure is nonparticipating.
Radiation exchange in an enclosure of diffuse-gray surfaces with

a nonparticipating medium.
q i = net rate at which radiation leaves surface i.

= The rate at which energy would have to be transferred to surface i by other means
to maintain it at a constant temperature.
q i = Ai ( J i − G i )

E bi − J i
qi =
 1 − ∈i 
 
 ∈i Ai 
q i = net radiation heat transfer from the surface.
E bi − J i = the driving potential
1 − ∈i
= surface radiative resistance
∈i Ai
N
E bi − J i
= Σ Ji − J j
1 − ∈i
(A Fi − j )
−1
j =1 i
∈i Ai
qi = Σ Ji − J j
j = 1 (A Fi j )
−1
i

Network representation of radiative exchange between surface i
and the remaining surfaces of an enclosure.
RADIATION SHIELDS
Low emissivity (high reflectivity) materials used to reduce the net radiation transfer
between two surfaces.
Assumptions
• Each surface is isothermal, opaque, diffuse, and gray.
• Radiosity and irradiation are uniform for each surface.
• The medium within the enclosure is nonparticipating.
Since the surfaces do not transmit radiation,
τ = 0; ρ + α = 1; ∈≡α; ρ =1−∈

1 2
q12
A1 , T1 , ε1 A2 , T2 , ε 2
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
q1 1−∈1 1−∈
1 2
∈1 A1 A1F12 ∈ A
2 2
Radiation Exchange Between Large Parallel Planes with No Shield

Radiation
Shield
1 2
3,1 3,2
q13 q32
ε 3,1 ε 3,2
A3 , T3
A1 , T1 , ε1 A2 ,T2 , ε 2
Eb1 J1 J3,1 Eb3 J3,2 J2 Eb2
q1 1−∈1 1 1−∈ 1−∈ 1−∈
3,1 3,2 1 2
A1F13
∈1 A1 ∈ A ∈ A A3F32 ∈ A
3,1 3 3,2 3 2 2
Radiation Exchange Between Large Parallel Planes with One Shield
The Heat Transfer Rate
With no shield:

E −E
(q ) = b1 b2
12 0 1− ε 1 1− ε
1
+ + 2
ε 1 A1 AF
1 12
ε 2 A2
With A
1
= A2 = A and F12 = 1, we get:
Aσ ( T14 − T24 )
( q )0 =
12 1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
With one shield:
E −E
(q ) = b1 b2
12 1
1− ε 1 1− ε 1− ε 1 1− ε
+ + + + +
1 3 ,1 3 ,2 2
ε 1 A1 AF
1 13
ε 3 ,1 A3 ε 3 ,2 A3 AF
3 32
ε 2 A2
With A
1
= A2 = A and F13 = F32 = 1, we get:

Aσ ( T 4 − T 4 )
(q ) = 1 2
12 1
1 1 1− ε 1− ε
+ + +
3 ,1 3 ,2
ε1 ε2 ε 3 ,1 ε 3 ,2
Note that for a radiation shield to be effective, ε 3 ,1 and ε 3 ,2 should be small (high
reflectivity).
For N radiation shields, when all the emissivities are equal,
1
(q ) = (q )
12 N 12 0
N +1
Where (q ) is the radiation heat transfer rate with no shields.

12 0

Example
Two very large parallel plates with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8 exchange heat by radiation.
Find the percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminum shield with an
emissivity of 0.04 is placed between them.
No Shield:
Aσ ( T14 − T24 )
( q12 ) 0 = = 0.2791 Aσ ( T14 − T24 )
1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.8
With one Shield:
Aσ ( T14 − T24 )
( q12 )1 = = 0.0190 Aσ ( T14 − T24 )
1 1 1 − 0.04 1 − 0.04
+ + +
0.3 0.8 0.04 0.04
93.2% reduction in q.

Introduction to Fuel Cells
References:
Larminie, J. and Dicks, A. (2003), Fuel Cell Systems Explained, 2nd ed., Wiley.
Sonntag, R.E., Borgnakke, C. and Van Wylen, G.J. (2003), Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics, 6th ed., Wiley.
TVN Systems (2004), http://www.tvnsystems.com
Nomenclature:
At total electrode area

A/F air-fuel ratio
E reversible open circuit voltage
e charge on one electron (1.602 x 10-19 C)
F Faraday constant (Na .e = 96485 C/kmol)
hRP (lower) enthalpy of combustion of hydrogen (119,953 kJ/kg)
I current
i current density
Na Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 1023 molecules/kmol)
m mass flow rate
P power
V voltage
Vc individual cell voltage
x excess air ratio
∆g f change in Gibbs free energy of formation (molar)
η stack efficiency
ηc individual cell efficiency
µf fuel utilization coefficient
Introduction:
A fuel cell is a power source that uses a fuel to provide electric current without
combustion. Many different fuel cells have been developed and used in a variety of
applications. All fuel cells function much like a battery, having an anode and a cathode
that conduct current. Gaseous fuel enters the anode side while oxygen or air is
introduced on the cathode side. On the anode side, electrons are separated from the fuel.
The electrons flow from the anode through an external load to the cathode side. Of the
fuel cells that have been researched and manufactured, the most widely used and
promising include alkaline, phosphoric acid and PEM fuel cells.

Alkaline fuel cells (Figure 1) are among the simplest fuel cells used in an application.
They use pure hydrogen as fuel and oxygen to output DC current, water and heat. The
United States space program used alkaline fuel cells in the Apollo space missions. The
electricity was harnessed to power devices on the spacecraft and the astronauts collected
the water for use. In an alkaline fuel cell, pure hydrogen (H2) is input on the anode side
of the fuel cell. In the presence of a platinum catalyst, it splits into two hydrogen ions
(H+) and two electrons. The electrons are passed through an external load to the cathode.
Pure oxygen gas (O2) is input to the cathode side where it splits into separate oxygen
atoms. In the electrolyte, potassium hydroxide solution (KOH), the oxygen reacts with
the electrons and electrolyte solution to create hydroxyl ions (OH-). The hydroxyl ions
then pass across the electrolyte to the anode where they react with the hydrogen ions in
the anode to produce water (H2O). Output water can be gathered and stored. Alkaline
fuel cells are good energy producers but cannot be exposed to air. Carbon dioxide is
poisonous to the alkaline electrolyte.
2 H2O
+ -
_
H OH O
_
H OH O
Anode Cathode
Electrolyte
2 H2 O2
Figure 1: Alkaline Fuel Cell
Phosphoric acid fuel cells were the first commercially available fuel cells. They have
been used since the 1970’s to provide power for stationary buildings such as hotels and
hospitals. In the mid 1990’s phosphoric acid fuel cells provided by International Fuel
Cells Corporation were tested in buses.
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (Figure 2) use compressed hydrogen gas and oxygen. The fuel
cell uses a phosphoric acid electrolyte and produces water and electricity. The hydrogen
gas reacts with a platinum catalyst on the anode, splitting electrons from the hydrogen
molecule. Electrons are passed through an external load and returned to the cathode.

Hydrogen ions are passed through the phosphoric acid to the cathode. Oxygen taken
from air then reacts with the hydrogen ions to create water.
PEM fuel cells are becoming an industry standard for consumer applications. The
defining characteristic is the electrolyte. Instead of phosphoric acid, PEM fuel cells use a
polymer film as an electrolyte. With operating temperatures ranging from 30 to 100oC,
modern PEM fuel cell stacks are used in a variety of applications such as vehicles,
mobile applications and for low power “combined heat and power” (CHP) systems.
Currently, the most sought after use is to power electric motors for transportation
vehicles. The future dubbed as “The Hydrogen Economy” will incorporate PEM fuel
cells into all aspects of everyday life. Future applications of electricity created by PEM
fuel cells will include anything from cell phones, laptops and other portable devices to
larger applications such as to power large buildings as well as residential homes
independent of large power grids.
2 H2O
+ -
H H4PO4 O
H
O
H3PO4
Anode Cathode
Electrolyte
2 H2 O2
Figure 2: Phosphoric-Acid Fuel Cell
Having low operating temperatures, PEM fuel cell stacks can be used in mobile
applications. The solid flexible electrolyte makes it possible to avoid cracks and leaks.
Emissions from PEM fuel cells are very clean. Automotive companies can lower carbon
dioxide output from vehicles by implementing PEM fuel cell stacks. Output from the
fuel cell will only be water and excess hydrogen and air. Fuel cells produce a small
amount of voltage individually. Stacks of cells are used and their output to an inverter
can provide a usable constant voltage. PEM fuel cells are expensive to manufacture and
platinum catalysts are not cheap. Fuel must be processed before hydrogen gas can be
input to the system. If impure hydrogen is used, carbon monoxide will quickly
contaminate the polymer membrane electrolyte. Additionally, since the electrolyte is a
thin film, constant and equal pressure must be applied to each side of the membrane or it
will balloon and burst.

The basis for operation of a PEM Fuel Cell is hydrogen and oxygen creating a voltage at
two poles by reacting to form water. The basic fuel cell is composed of a membrane and
electrode assembly known as an MEA, flow field plates, current collectors, and endplates
(Figures 3 and 4). Heating or cooling plates may also be contained in the fuel cell.
Hydrogen and oxygen react on opposite sides of the MEA to produce water, electricity,
and heat. In order to accomplish this, the hydrogen and oxygen half reactions are
separated by a solid polymer electrolyte (known as either a proton exchange membrane
or a polymer electrolyte membrane). This electrolyte separates the two reactant gases
while providing an ionic connection through which the protons may pass. The electrolyte
has a catalytic electrode layer on each side to speed the reaction rate and provide
electrical contact for the conduction of electrons. The reactant gases flow through
channels cut into the flow field plates. While the gas flows parallel to the MEA the gas
can diffuse the catalyst layer of the MEA to react. The product water is wicked out to the
flow field, where it is swept away by the excess gas flow. The electrical potential is
transferred to the current collectors, which can be connected to a load to perform
electrical work. Electrochemical reactions in a PEMFC are shown schematically in
Figure 5.
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of a PEM fuel cell (Courtesy of TVN Systems, Inc.)

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of a single PEMFC assembly (Courtesy of TVN Systems, Inc.)
H2 Air
Humidifier
(Water)
Diffusion
Layer
H+
H2 O2
H2 → 2H+ + 2e- O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O
H20
Membrane
Catalyst
H20, H2 (Pt) H20, Air
Figure 5: Electrochemical reactions in a PEMFC
Definitions and Theoretical Analysis:

Current density is the amount of current supplied by the fuel cell divided by the total
area of the fuel cell electrode. This is analogous to the power to weight ratio of a car
engine. The current density of a fuel cell is defined as
I
i= (1)
At
and is usually expressed in (A/cm2). Current density is used to compare one fuel cell
stack to another. For example, in automotive applications, it is important to optimize this
number such that the overall size of the fuel cell stack is reduced for any given output.
Electrical power output of the fuel cell (usually expressed in Watts) is easily found
from
P = VI (2)
Specific Power and Power Density are defined as
power
Specific Power = (W / kg ) (3)
mass
power
Power Density = (W / m3 ) (4)
volume
The reversible open circuit voltage (OCV) of a fuel cell using pure hydrogen and
oxygen at standard pressure (0.1 MPa) is given by (Larminie and Dicks, 2003)
−∆ g f
E= (5)
2F
where ∆ g f is the Gibbs free energy released and F is the Faraday constant (96485
C/kmol). The values of ∆ g f for the simple reaction H 2 + 12 O2 
→ H 2 O at various
temperatures are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 ∆ g f for the reaction H 2 + 12 O2 
→ H 2 O at various temperatures
Phase of Water Produced Temperature, ºC ∆ g f (kJ/kmol)
liquid 25 -237.2
liquid 80 -228.2
vapor 80 -226.1
vapor 100 -225.2
vapor 200 -220.4
vapor 400 -210.3
vapor 600 -199.6
vapor 800 -188.6
vapor 1000 -177.4
Source: Larminie, J. and Dicks, A. (2003), Fuel Cell Systems Explained, 2nd ed.,
Wiley.
As current is drawn from a fuel cell, the cell potential (voltage) drops. This is shown in
Figure 6. The voltage drop is caused by four factors:
1. Activation losses
2. Fuel crossover and internal currents
3. Ohmic losses
4. Mass transport or concentration losses
Detailed discussion of these factors can be found in Larminie, J. and Dicks, A. (2003).

1.25
Open-circuit voltage is lower than thermodynamic voltage due to

1.15 gas crossover and peroxide formation
Cell Potential (V)
1.05
0.95 Voltage Loss due to Activation

Resistance
0.85
0.75
Voltage Loss due to Ohmic
Resistance and Concentration
0.65 Polarization
0.55
0.45
Voltage Loss due to Mass
Transport Limitation
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Current Density (A/cm2)
Figure 6: Cell potential versus current density for a PEMFC (Courtesy of TVN
Systems, Inc.)
One way to define fuel cell stack efficiency is to compare the energy output from a fuel
cell to the lower enthalpy of combustion of hydrogen.
VI
η= (6)
mH 2 h RP
This definition provides a method for comparing the power output of a fuel cell stack to
that of an internal combustion engine utilizing the same fuel (hydrogen) with water vapor
in the combustion products.
The efficiency of an individual cell has been derived by Larminie, J. and Dicks, A.
(2003, p. 35) as

Vc
ηc = µ f (7)
1.48 or 1.25
Where 1.48 is the number to be used in conjunction with the “higher heating value” and
1.25 corresponds to the “lower heating value” of hydrogen. The fuel utilization
coefficient, µ f , is usually taken to be 0.95.
Stoichiometric reaction is a complete reaction where the quantity of oxidizer is the

precise amount needed to completely consume a quantity of fuel. Consider
stoichiometric reaction of hydrogen with air inside the fuel cell stack,
1
H2 + [O 2 + 3.76 N 2 ] → H 2 O + 1.88 N 2 (8)
2
0.5[32 + 3.76(28)]
( A / F ) stoich . = = 34.32 (9)
2(1)
•
m Air
( A / F ) actual = •
(10)
mH 2
Define excess air ratio (x) as
( A / F ) actual
x= (11)
( A / F ) stoich .
For example, if x = 2, we have 100% excess air or 200% theoretical air (double the
amount of air required for complete reaction of hydrogen and oxygen).
The actual reaction is
x x −1
H2 + [O 2 + 3.76 N 2 ] → H 2 O (liquid) + (1.88 x) N 2 + O2 (12)
2 2
The minimum (stoichiometric) reactant flow rate required for current generation at
standard pressure and temperature may be determined as follows. The stoichiometric
reaction of hydrogen and pure oxygen to form water can be written as

H 2 → 2 H + + 2e − (a)
1 O + 2 H + + 2e − → H O (b)
2 2 2
which combine to :
H 2 + 1 O2 → H 2O ( a + b)
2
At standard temperature and pressure (STP), 1 kmol of any gas (such as hydrogen)
occupies 22.41 liters and consists of 6.022 x 1023 molecules (Avogadro’s number, Na).
The charge on one electron is e = 1.602 x 10-19 C. For each kmol of hydrogen that reacts,
2 electrons are released. The electric charge produced is 2 Na e = 2F = 192,970 C.
Therefore, a hydrogen volumetric flow rate of 22.41 liters/s (at STP) corresponds to an
electric current of 192,970 C/s (or Amps). To produce 1 Amp, the minimum volumetric
flow rate of hydrogen at STP is 22410/192970 = 0.11613 ml/s = 6.97 ml/min ≈ 7 ml/min.
For every oxygen molecule, two hydrogen molecules are needed. This will result in a 2:1
ratio for hydrogen/oxygen volumetric flow rates. If air is used instead of pure oxygen,
since air is comprised of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen by volume, the volumetric flow
rate of air would have to be ≅ 4.76 times greater than that of oxygen to react with the
same amount of hydrogen.
Table 2 shows the stoichiometric (minimum) reactant flow rates required for current
generation at STP.
Table 2 Stoichiometric reactant flow rate required for current generation at

standard temperature and pressure , STP (Courtesy of TVN Systems, Inc.)
Current H2 O2 Air Current H2 O2 Air

(A) (ml/min) (ml/min) (ml/min) (A) (ml/min) (ml/min) (ml/min)
0.5 3.5 1.7 8.3 10.5 73.1 36.6 174.1
1 7.0 3.5 16.6 11 76.6 38.3 182.4
1.5 10.4 5.2 24.9 11.5 80.1 40.0 190.7
2 13.9 7.0 33.2 12 83.6 41.8 199.0
2.5 17.4 8.7 41.5 12.5 87.1 43.5 207.3
3 20.9 10.4 49.7 13 90.5 45.3 215.6
3.5 24.4 12.2 58.0 13.5 94.0 47.0 223.9
4 27.9 13.9 66.3 14 97.5 48.8 232.2
4.5 31.3 15.7 74.6 14.5 101.0 50.5 240.4
5 34.8 17.4 82.9 15 104.5 52.2 248.7
5.5 38.3 19.2 91.2 15.5 108.0 54.0 257.0
6 41.8 20.9 99.5 16 111.4 55.7 265.3
6.5 45.3 22.6 107.8 16.5 114.9 57.5 273.6
7 48.8 24.4 116.1 17 118.4 59.2 281.9
7.5 52.2 26.1 124.4 17.5 121.9 60.9 290.2
8 55.7 27.9 132.7 18 125.4 62.7 298.5
8.5 59.2 29.6 141.0 18.5 128.8 64.4 306.8
9 62.7 31.3 149.2 19 132.3 66.2 315.1
9.5 66.2 33.1 157.5 19.5 135.8 67.9 323.4
10 69.6 34.8 165.8 20 139.3 69.6 331.7

MECH 325 Notes April 2004

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MECH-325: Introduction to Energy Systems

2004-05 MECH-325 Introduction to Energy Systems

Description: This introductory course is designed for non-mechanical engineering

Textbook: Introduction to Thermal Systems Engineering: Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and

Coordinator: Ahmad Pourmovahed

Course Learning Objectives:

1. Apply the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 1 Introduction to Energy Systems

Schedule: Two 120-minute sessions per week

Computer usage: Any Spreadsheet and Word Processing Software

Laboratory Experiments: Two laboratory experiments performed by the students at the

Prepared by: Ahmad Pourmovahed, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, 11/25/2003

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 2 Introduction to Energy Systems

Closed System: No mass crosses the boundary (only energy does).

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 3 Introduction to Energy Systems

Intensive Property: Independent of system mass e.g., p, T , ρ, v , u, h, s .

Extensive Property: Depends on system mass e.g., V , m,U , H , S , E .

Isothermal: Constant temperature (T = const.).

Adiabatic: No heat transfer (Q = 0).

Isometric: Constant volume (V = const.).

Isobaric: Constant pressure (p = const.).

Reversible: When reversed, leaves no change in system or surroundings.

Isentropic: Constant entropy (S = const.) (reversible and adiabatic).

2nd Law: A device operating in cycles cannot produce work continually

3rd Law: The entropy of a pure crystalline substance is zero at 0o K.

Comments about the 2nd Law

• A decrease in entropy is not possible for an isolated system.

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 4 Introduction to Energy Systems

• Entropy is not conserved in real processes.

• The entropy production depends on the magnitude of irreversibilities in the

• The increase in entropy corresponds to a decrease in the quality of energy.

Ideal Gas Law: pV = mRT

Absolute Temperature: T ( o R ) = T ( o F ) + 460

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 5 Introduction to Energy Systems

1st Law for a Closed System:

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 6 Introduction to Energy Systems

( W excludes flow work)

Wnet = QH − QL (1st Law) QH

2nd Law for Closed System:

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 7 Introduction to Energy Systems

Ideal Gas Equations:

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 8 Introduction to Energy Systems

The Rankine Cycle:

1→ 2 isentropic compression (ideal pump)

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 10 Introduction to Energy Systems

p3 = 600 psia and T3 = 800° F

From superheated steam tables:

h3 = 1407.55 Btu lbm

p4 = 1 psia, assume saturated mixture.

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 11 Introduction to Energy Systems

h1 = hg @30 Psia = 1164.3 Btu

h2 =1164.3 − 50 + 32.2 ( −5280 ) / ( 32.2 × 778.2 ) = 1107.5 Btu

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 12 Introduction to Energy Systems

a. What is the change in the entropy of the system (the automobile)?

T2 460 + 600 Btu

∆ S system = 0.401 Btu o

b ∆ S surr . = 0 (no time for heat transfer )

= 520 ( 0.401) = 208.5 Btu

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 13 Introduction to Energy Systems

1st Law: ∆ U = Q − W = 0 − ( −146 ) = 146 Btu

Avail. Destroyed = Irrev. = T0 ∆ Suniv.

= 500 ( 0.16996 + 0 ) = 85 Btu

Dr. A. Pourmovahed, Kettering University 14 Introduction to Energy Systems