Distance Protection: © ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnología S. A

Distance Protection
ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.
PROTECTION FUNCTIONS
Function
Description
21+21N
Distance protection for phase and ground faults
50Sup
Overcurrent for distance monitoring

Load encroachment logic
Protection schemes for distance elements
Fuse failure detector
Close onto fault logic
Remote breaker open detector
Dead Line Detector
68/78
Power swing blocking and/or tripping (out of step tripping)
25
Synchronism check
79
3-pole/1-pole recloser
50BF
Breaker failure protection
Function
Description
46
Open phase detector
49
Thermal image protection
50F
Three phase instantaneous overcurrent elements (A,B,C)
50N
Three ground instantaneous overcurrent elements
50Q
Three negative sequence instantaneous elements
51F
Three phase time delay overcurrent elements (A,B,C)
51N
Three ground time delay overcurrent elements
51Q
Three negative sequence time delay overcurrent elements
67
Phase directional unit (A,B,C)
67N
Ground directional unit
67Q
Negative sequence directional unit

Protection schemes for 67N/67Q
Function
50STUB
Description
Stub bus protection
59
Three phase overvoltage elements (A,B,C)
27
Three phase undervoltage elements (A,B,C)
59N
Two ground overvoltage elements
81M
Three overfrequency elements
81m
Three underfrequency elements
81D
Three rate of frequency change elements

Single/three pole tripping for 21+21N and 67N/67Q
Suitable for cables and overheadlines with series capacitor
compensation
Mutual coupling compensation for parallel lines
ADITIONAL FUNCTIONS
Description
Breaker supervision
Fault locator (compensates for load flow and mutual coupling)
Trip masks for distance zones or for auxiliary units
Programmable logic (executed each 2 ms)
Oscillography with analog and digital signals
Records: events, fault reports and metering logs
Measurement
Control
Communications
User interface (alphanumeric display and keypad/programmable push bottons
for operations or commands)
Integrated simulator
INPUTS / OUTPUTS
4 x V + 5 x I 5 x V + 8 x I (depending on the model)
1 alarm output (watchdog)
Digital inputs (all programmable):
10 in 2 U box
22 in 3 U box
34 in 4 U box
37 in 6 U box
Outputs (all programmable and strong: anyone can be used as trip / close
output)
10 in 2 U box (4 can be fast for teleprotection)
Connectors with ring lugs
DISTANCE PROTECTION
5 distance zones (all reversible)
6 independent measuring elements for each zone
Impedance reaches, resistive reaches and time delays
independent for ground and phase units
Selectable characteristic independent for phase and ground
faults:
Mho (dynamic and variable)
Quadrilateral
Both combined (AND / OR)
Reaches (Z1) and zero sequence compensation factors
(K0=Z0/Z1) independent for each zone in module and angle
MHO CHARACTERISTIC
Advantages of polarizing with V1M:
Variable characteristic (V1 action):
Proper operation for zero voltage single phase and twophase faults
Dynamic characteristic (memory action):
Proper operation for zero voltage three phase faults and for
voltage inversions (series compensation)
MHO CHARACTERISTIC
ESL
IF2
IF1 -jXC
ZSL
ZSR
F1
F2
V1
XI
ZL
V2
XI
F2
V2
V1 F1
IF1=Irelay
ZSL I V1
F1
( ZSR+ ZL) I
R I
IF2
F2
V1
Irelay
R I
9
MHO CHARACTERISTIC
PHASE-GROUND FAULTS
PHASE-PHASE FAULTS
Fop = [I + I 0 (K0n 1)] Z1n V
Fop = I Z1n V
Fpol = V1M
Fpol = V 1M
XI
90 [arg (Fop ) arg (Fpol )] 90

Ieq1 Z11
F
IF RF
XI
I Z11
F
IF
V
I
Ieq1
ZSL (Ieq Icarga)
R I
V1M
RF
2
RI
ZSL (I Icarga)
V 1M
10
QUADRILATERAL CHARACTERISTIC
Reactance element (load and non homogeneity compensation)
Zr
Resistive limiters
Directional unit
11
REACTANCE ELEMENT
SINGLE PHASE TO GROUND FAULT
Va = Ieq Z 1LF + IFa RF

ESLC
Z1SL
Ieq = Ia + I 0 (K 0 1)
Z1LF
Z1LF
Ic
ESLB
Z1SL
Z1LF
Z1LF
Z1SR
ESRB
Ib
Z1LF
Z1LF
Z1SL
ESRC
Ic
Ib
ESLA
Z1SR
IFa
Ia
Z1SR
ESRA
Ia
RF
ZSN
ZN
ZN
ZSN
Vc Vb Va
12
REACTANCE ELEMENT
PHASE-PHASE (TO GROUND) FAULT
Vab = Ieq Z 1LF + IFab RF / 2 Ieq = Iab = Ia Ib

ESLC
Z1SL
Z1LF
Z1LF
Ic
ESLB
Z1SL
Z1SR
IFab = IFa IFb

ESRC
Ic
Z1LF
Z1LF
IFb
Ib
RF/2
Z1SR
ESRB
Ib
Rg
RF/2
ESLA
Z1LF
Z1SL
Ia
IFa Z1LF
Z1SR
ESRA
Ia
Vc Vb Va
13
REACTANCE ELEMENT
Vr = Ieq Z1LF + IF RF
IF
Zr = Z1LF +
RF
Ieq
ERROR
X I Ieq Z1F
IF RF
Fr
F
Ieq Z1LF
Z1F
Vr
Z1LF
IF
RF
Ieq
Fr
Zr
Ieq
RI
R
14
REACTANCE ELEMENT
LOAD FLOW
depends on
HOMOGENEITY
NO LOAD FLOW AND HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM
LOAD FLOW AND HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM
<0
>0
FORWARD LOAD FLOW

REVERSE LOAD FLOW
NO LOAD FLOW AND NON HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM

= arg
Z1LF+Z1SL
Z1L+Z1SL+Z1SR
15
REACTANCE ELEMENT
LOAD FLOW AND HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM
Fpol = I 2
Fpol = I Ipf
Single line to ground fault
Fpol parallel to IF
Phase-phase fault
(with or without ground)
Avoid Underreaching effect (>0)

Z1F
Fr
IF
RF
Ieq
F
Z1LF
Avoid Overreaching effect (<0)

X
Z1LF F
Zr
IF
RF
Ieq
Fr
Z1F
Zr
Fpol
Ieq
R
Fpol = I Ipf
Fpol
Ieq
R
16
REACTANCE ELEMENT
NO LOAD FLOW AND NON HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM
Z1LF+Z1SL
Fpol NON parallel to IF (angle= ) = arg Z1L+Z1SL+Z1SR

X
Z1LF
Z1F
Zr
Tilting angle is introduced
IF
RF
Ieq
Fr
Fpol
Ieq
= arg
Z1L+Z1SL
Z1L+Z1SL+Z1SR
Faults at 100%
R
17
REACTANCE ELEMENT
PHASE-PHASE FAULTS
PHASE-GROUND FAULTS
Fop = [I + I 0 ( K 0n 1)] Z1n V
Fop = I Z1n V
Fpol = I Ipf
Fpol = I Ipf
Fpol = I 2
0 [arg (Fop ) arg (Fpol ) ] 180

XI
C2
Ieq1 Z11
Fop
IF RF
XI
C2
Fop
I Z11
C1
Fpol
Ieq1
RI
C1
Fpol
IF RF / 2
RI
18
DIRECTIONAL UNIT
Advantages of polarizing with V1M:
Variable line (V1 action):
Proper operation for zero voltage single phase and twophase faults
Dynamic line (memory action):
Proper operation for zero voltage three phase faults and for
voltage inversions (series compensation)
19
DIRECTIONAL UNIT
ESL
ZSL
IF2
IF1 -jXC
ZSR
F1
F2
XI
ZL
V1
V2
XI
V1 F1
IF1=Irelay
ZSL I
V1
F1
R I
IF2
F2
V2
( ZSR+ ZL) I
F2
V1
Irelay
R I
20
DIRECTIONAL UNIT
PHASE-PHASE FAULTS
PHASE-GROUND FAULTS
Fop= I
Fop = I
Fpol = V1M
Fpol = V1M
(90+ ) [arg(Fop) arg(Fpol)] (90 )

XI
XI
F
V
I
ZSL (Ieq Icarga)
R I
V1M
C3
ZSL (I Icarga)
I
RI
V 1M
C3
21
RESISTIVE LIMITER
PHASE-PHASE FAULTS
PHASE-GROUND FAULTS
Fop = I RGn V
Fpol = I RGn
Fop = I RPnV Fpol = I RPn
= bucle= n [arg(I) arg(Ieqn)]
= n
(90 + ) [arg(Fop) arg(Fpol)]

XI
XI
Ieq1 Z11
IF RF
C4
F
V
buc1
I RG1
I Z11
F
IF
RF
2
I
Ieq1
11
RI
C4
I RP1
11
RI
22
QUADRILATERAL: PHASE-GROUND FAULTS
23
QUADRILATERAL: PHASE-PHASE FAULTS
24
PHASE SELECTOR
Based on angle between Ia2 and Ia1 fault currents
For faults with zero sequence infeed uses phase
undervoltage units
Allows:
Single pole tripping on single-phase-ground faults
Blocking leading phase on phase-phase-ground faults
For phase-phase-ground faults the lagging phase-earth
loop can not be blocked: helps phase-phase loop in some
kind of faults
25
PHASE SELECTOR
PHASE-PHASE FAULT
Ia 2 > 0.05 In
Ia 2
> 10%
Ia1
GROUND FAULT
Ia0 > 0.05 In
Ia0
> 8%
Ia1
= arg(Ia 2) arg(Ia1 _ f )
26
PHASE-PHASE-GROUND
FAULTS
ABG FAULT:
AG BG FAULT:
AG unit overreaches
BG unit underreaches
AG and BG units operate

correctly
Ia
Z1LF
Ia
Z1LF
Z1LF
Z1LF
Ib
Va
Vb
RF
IFa
Rg
ZN
RF
IFb
Ib
Va
Vb
RF
IFa
RF
IFb
IFT
IFT
ZN
The AB unit can be complemented with the BG unit
27
FAULT DETECTOR
Sequence currents increment detection (I0, Ia1, Ia2)
Sequence currents levels exceeded (I0, Ia2)
Sealed-in by operation of distance units, overcurrent units, close onto
fault detector and stub bus protection
Supervises the tripping produced by distance units, overcurrent units,
close onto fault detector, stub bus protection and remote breaker open
detector
Determines the fault inception time (allows the selection of prefault and
postfault values: current and voltage)
28
FAULT DETECTOR
29
LOAD ENCROACHMENT
1
R2
R1
R: minimum Rload
: minimum PF
30
FUSE FAILURE DETECTOR

Activation when:
Phase undervoltage units pick-up without
activation of fault detector
Input coming from MCB activates
Inhibited when any pole is open
Can block distance elements, weak infeed trip,
synchronism, dead line detector and voltage units
31
FUSE FAILURE DETECTOR
32
OPEN POLE DETECTOR

Detects what pole of the breaker has opened
Detection based on breaker contacts plus undercurrent
detectors
Outputs used by phase selector, distance units, fault
detector, power swing detector, fuse failure detector,
ground and negative sequence overcurrent units, recloser,
etc
33
OPEN POLE DETECTOR
34
OPEN POLE DETECTOR
35
DISTANCE UNITS OPERATION

SINGLE PHASE UNITS
36
DISTANCE UNITS OPERATION

PHASE-PHASE UNITS
37
DEAD LINE DETECTOR

Operated based on undervoltage and undercurrent units
Only applicable when the VT is on the line side
Allows detecting the breaker closing without the need from
external contacts
Can be used to activate the close onto fault function
38
CLOSE ONTO FAULT DETECTOR

Activated with manual close or reclose commands:
internal or external
Phase overcurrent units with second harmonic
restraint (inrush stabilization)
Zone 1 extension:
Always activated for close commands
Adjustable for reclose commands
39
CLOSE ONTO FAULT DETECTOR
40
POWER SWING DETECTOR

ZONE EXT
ZONE MED
X ZB
ZONE INT
Unstable
oscillation
Fast trip
Stable
oscillation
ZL
Slow trip
R
ZA
T
41

Selectable zones to be blocked
Unblocking of blocked distance zones when a fault is
detected:
Ground or phase-phase fault detection (phase selector)
Time the impedance remain inside the external zone
Tripping for unstable swings: slow/fast trip
42
43
DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEMES

Basic Scheme:
Stepped distance
Schemes without communication channel:

Zone 1 extension
Remote breaker open detector
44

Schemes with communication channel:
Permissive underreach transfer trip (PUTT)
Direct transfer trip (DTT)
Permissive overreach transfer trip (POTT)
Directional comparison unblocking (DCUB)
Directional comparison blocking (DCB)
User defined (programmable logic)
Binary information transmission (virtual inputs/outputs)
45
Complementary logics:
Echo and weak infeed trip logic
Transient blocking for current reversal (parallel lines)
46
STEPPED DISTANCE
Independent timers for phase and ground faults
Timers do not drop out for evolving faults
Blocking signals coming from:
Power swing detector
Fuse failure detector
Series compensated lines logic
47
STEPPED DISTANCE
48
ZONE 1 EXTENSION
Zone 1 extended to overreaching zone (zone 2 or 3)
Requires fast reclosing to restore the supply as fast as
possible
Inhibited when the breaker opens; enabled again when
the breaker remains closed for a settable time
Avoids zone 1 extension when reclosing
49
ZONE 1 EXTENSION
50
PUTT
Carrier sending by zone 1 (underreaching)
Settable carrier time
Can be complemented by weak infeed logic (trip)
Optional carrier sending by open breaker
Digital input
51
PUTT
52
DTT
Similar to PUTT but with direct trip by carrier reception
Settable security time to avoid erroneous operations
due to noise in the communication channel
Power swing detector (only blocks carrier sending)
Digital input
53
DTT
54
POTT
Carrier sending by overreaching zone
Can be complemented by weak infeed (echo or
echo+trip) and current reversal logics
Digital input
55
POTT
56
DCUB
Similar to POTT but allows instantaneous tripping for a
time window (150 ms) even if the carrier is lost
Requires frequency-shifted PLC equipment
Can be complemented by weak infeed (echo or echo+trip)
and current reversal logics
Digital input
57
DCUB
58
DCB
Carrier sending by reverse zone (zone 4 or zone 5) or nondirectional overcurrent units (fast carrier sending)
Settable time delay for overreaching zone operation
Implicit current reversal logic
Carrier stop input / output
Blocking signals (inhibite tripping and generate carrier)
coming from:
Digital input
59
DCB
60
WEAK INFEED LOGIC

Selectable logic output: NON, ECHO or ECHO+TRIP
Settable security time to avoid erroneous echo sendings
due to noise in the communication channel
Implicit current reversal logic
Settable voltage threshold for weak infeed trip
Phase selector based on undervoltage units
Optional weak infeed trip blocking by fuse failure detector
61
WEAK INFEED LOGIC
62
CURRENT REVERSAL LOGIC

Can be applied in any permissive overreaching scheme
Blocking signal for overreaching zone is activated by
reverse zone (zone 4 or zone 5) pick-up
Settable blocking time delay
63
CURRENT REVERSAL LOGIC
64
REMOTE BREAKER OPEN DETECTOR

Allows zone 2 instantaneous tripping once the remote
breaker is detected as open (three-phase):
Loss of load (undercurrent detectors)
Capacitive current detection (long lines)
(90 ) [arg(I ) arg(V )] (90 + )
65
REMOTE BREAKER OPEN DETECTOR
66
OVERCURRENT UNITS
Phase, ground and negative sequence / instantaneous and
time delayed
Selectable torque control: non-directional / forward /
reverse
Selectable directional unit (torque control type)
Torque control disable input
Time delay reset input
Digital input
Open pole detectors (ground and negative sequence
units)
Series compensated lines logic
67
PHASE INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT UNITS
68
GROUND INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT UNITS
69
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT UNITS
70
PHASE TIME-DELAYED
OVERCURRENT UNITS
71
GROUND TIME-DELAYED
OVERCURRENT UNITS
72
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
TIME-DELAYED OVERCURRENT UNITS
73
DIRECTIONAL UNITS
Phase directional units:
Polarized by quadrature memory phase-phase voltage
Ground directional units:
Polarized by zero-sequence voltage
Polarized by current coming from an earth clamp
Negative sequence directional units:
Polarized by negative sequence voltage
Distance zone 2 can act as directional unit for o/c
Two setting options available in case of loss of polarization
(can be applied to fuse failure): blocking/permission
74
DIRECTIONAL UNITS
75
DIRECTIONAL UNITS
Polarization voltage compensator factor for ground
and negative sequence directional units:
F _ POL67 N = (V 0 + I 0 KCOMP _ 67 N ANG _ 67 N )
F _ POL67Q = (V 2 + I 2 KCOMP _ 67Q ANG _ 67Q)
Applications:
Increase polarization voltage: makes it higher than
minimum level for polarization (strong zero/negative
sequence sources)
Invert polarization voltage: compensates inversions in
series compensated lines
76
DIRECTIONAL UNITS
V 0 = ZA0 ( I 0)
Forward fault
IF
IF
I0
ZA0
p x ZL0
V 0 = ( ZL0 + ZB0) I 0
Reverse fault
I0
(1-p) x ZL0
ZB0
ZA0
V0
ZL0
ZB0
V0
I0 K
-V0
COMP_67N
ANG_67N
I0
Forward
Reverse
77
DIRECTIONAL UNITS
Negative sequence voltage inversion if, with
line side CT: XC>XSL2
Vpolarization Compensation
K COMP _ 67Q > XC
FORWARD FAULT
I2
I 2 jXSL2
I 2 K COMP _ 67Q
IF
I2
jXSL2
-jXC
jmXL2
V2
j(1-m)XL2
jXSR2
V 2 = I 2 ( jXSL 2 jXC )
I 2 ( jXC )
78
DIRECTIONAL UNITS
Attention with reverse faults!: do not
overcompensate Vpolarization
K COMP _ 67 Q < XL 2 + XSR 2
V 2 = I 2 ( jXL2 + jXSR2)
REVERSE FAULT
IF
jXSL2
-jXC
I2
jXL2
I 2 KCOMP_ 67Q
jXSR2
V2
I2
79
O/C PROTECTION SCHEMES

For ground or negative sequence directional O/C (67N/67Q)
Permissive underreach transfer trip (PUTT)
Direct transfer trip (DTT)
Permissive overreach transfer trip (POTT)
Directional comparison unblocking (DCUB)
Directional comparison blocking (DCB)
User defined (programmable logic)
Echo and week infeed tripping
Transient blocking for current reversal
80
OPEN PHASE DETECTOR

Only operates with series faults (broken conductor)
Independent from load current (I2/I1 ratio)
81
SYNCHROCHECK UNIT
Includes logic to check voltages on both sides of the
breaker. Setting options that allow reclose or manual
close:
Dead line/live bus
Live line/dead bus
Dead line/dead bus
In case of live line/live bus three conditions can be
checked:
Voltage magnitudes difference
Voltage angles difference
Frequency difference
Compensation for the breaker closing time
Synchronism for two breakers
82
SYNCHROCHECK UNIT
83
BREAKER FAILURE
Current detection levels and timers are independent for
single and three phase trips
Breaker failure pick ups initiated by single pole trips
include phase segregated current detectors and timers
Non overcurrent breaker failure detection (trips from
overvoltage, frequency, Buchholz etc)
Retrip command (single/three phase)
Initiation by external protection trip: single/three pole
Breaker arc detection
Supervision of two breakers
84
BREAKER FAILURE
85
TRIP LOGIC
Can trip single pole for a single phase to ground fault
with:
Any distance zone
Accelarated overreaching zone
Instantaneous ground or negative sequence unit 1
Accelarated overreaching overcurrent units
Includes the following inputs:
Programmable trip
Trip Blocking
Pole n (n=A, B, C) trip blocking
Three pole trip preparation blocking
86
RECLOSER
Single/three pole reclose
4 reclosing modes: 1p, 3p, 1p/3p and dependent
Up to three reclose cycles
Can operate with external protections
Internal or external synchronism check
Programmable recloser initiation masks
Can control two breakers
Independent timers for single and three pole

recloses
87
RECLOSER
88
SUPERVISION
Breaker supervision:
Excessive number of trips
Maintenance (accumulated kA2)
Supervision of trip and/or close circuits (up to 6)
Pole discrepancy detector
89
BREAKER AND A HALF

FUNCTIONALITY
L1
B1
I1
VA VB VC VSINC1
IA1 IB1 IC1
52-1
ILNE=I1+I2
VSINC2
IA2 IB2 IC2
52-2
I2
B2
L2
90
BREAKER AND A HALF

FUNCTIONALITY
Programmable directional unit
Stub bus protection more secure for CT saturation
2 breaker failure units
2 synchrocheck units
2 coordinated reclosers
Supervision (accumulated kAN) for 2 breakers
91
NEW DIRECTIONAL UNIT

Directional unit more stable for CT saturation during external
faults (created with the programmable logic)
WITHOUT CT-1 SATURATION WITH CT-1 SATURATION

CT-1
I-1
I-2
I-LINE
ZL
I-2
WEAK SOURCE
CT-2
I-1
I-2
I-1
I-LINE
I-LINE
NEW DIRECTIONAL UNIT

STRONG SOURCE
-90<arg(I-1)-arg(I-2)<90
92
STUB BUS PROTECTION

Overcurrent unit only in operation when the line isolator
opens
Retraint by through fault current
WITHOUT CT SATURATION: ILINE=0
L1
TI-1
89-L1
WITH CT SATURATION: ILINE0

I LNEA
I-1
ZONA DE OPERACIN
I-2
TI-2
IMIN
ZONA DE NO OPERACIN
I 1 + I 2
2
93
BREAKER FAILURE
B1
I1
L1
52-1 failure
B1 Open and intertrip
52-1
Detection with I1
52-2
52-2 failure
I2
52-3 open and intertrip

52-3
Detection with I2
L2
B2
94
SYNCHROCHECK UNIT
Breaker and a half
Double busbar
L1
B1
B1
B2
89-1
52-B1
VSINC1
52-0
VSINC2
VA VB VC
89-B2
89-B1
52
VSINC1
VSINC2
Position 89-2
VA VB VC
52-B2
89-2
IN-1
Position 89-B1
IN-2
Position 89-B2
B2
L2
95
RECLOSER
Possibility for sequencial reclosing to avoid
closing onto fault both breakers
B1
I1
L1
52-1
Selection of the master and slave reclosers

Permission / blocking of the slave recloser when
the master one is blocked
52-2
Blocking of the recloser associated to a manually

open breaker
I2
52-3
L2
B2
96

Distance Protection: © ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnología S. A

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Distance Protection: © ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnología S. A

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Distance Protection

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

Distance protection for phase and ground faults

Overcurrent for distance monitoring

Power swing blocking and/or tripping (out of step tripping)

Breaker failure protection

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

Open phase detector

Thermal image protection

Three phase instantaneous overcurrent elements (A,B,C)

Three ground instantaneous overcurrent elements

Three negative sequence instantaneous elements

Three phase time delay overcurrent elements (A,B,C)

Three ground time delay overcurrent elements

Three negative sequence time delay overcurrent elements

Phase directional unit (A,B,C)

Ground directional unit

Negative sequence directional unit

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

Three phase overvoltage elements (A,B,C)

Three phase undervoltage elements (A,B,C)

Two ground overvoltage elements

Three overfrequency elements

Three underfrequency elements

Three rate of frequency change elements

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

Fop = [I + I 0 (K0n 1)] Z1n V

90 [arg (Fop ) arg (Fpol )] 90

ZSL (Ieq Icarga)

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

Va = Ieq Z 1LF + IFa RF

Vab = Ieq Z 1LF + IFab RF / 2 Ieq = Iab = Ia Ib

IFab = IFa IFb

NO LOAD FLOW AND HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM

LOAD FLOW AND HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM

FORWARD LOAD FLOW

NO LOAD FLOW AND NON HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM

Single line to ground fault

Avoid Underreaching effect (>0)

Avoid Overreaching effect (<0)

Fpol NON parallel to IF (angle= ) = arg Z1L+Z1SL+Z1SR

Tilting angle is introduced

0 [arg (Fop ) arg (Fpol ) ] 180

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

(90+ ) [arg(Fop) arg(Fpol)] (90 )

ZSL (Ieq Icarga)

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

Fop = I RPnV Fpol = I RPn

= bucle= n [arg(I) arg(Ieqn)]

(90 + ) [arg(Fop) arg(Fpol)]

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

QUADRILATERAL: PHASE-GROUND FAULTS

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

QUADRILATERAL: PHASE-PHASE FAULTS

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.

AG and BG units operate

The AB unit can be complemented with the BG unit

ZIV Aplicaciones y Tecnologa S. A.