DYMAMICS OF FLUID FLOW

SPECIFIC ENERGY AND CRITICAL DEPTH

In open channel flows one of the important parameter is specific energy and is defined
as,
E y

V2
2g

(1)

where y is the water depth and V is the flow velocity. It is also called as energy grade
line (EGL). For a given flow rate, there are two possible states for the same specific
energy as shown in Fig. 1.
Horizontal

hf
EGL
E

Velocity head
y

Fig. 1: Illustrative sketch for specific energy.

In a simpler case, consider two possible states of specific energy in a rectangular
channel of width b . The discharge per unit width for this channel is given by,

Q
V .y
b

Eq. (1) can now be written as,

E y

q2
2 gy 2

(2)

For a given channel of constant width, the value of q remains constant along the channel
although the depth y may vary. The variation of q with y is plotted in specific energy
diagram (Fig. 2). From this curve, it is clear that specific energy attains to a minimum

value at certain depth for a given q . This depth is known as critical depth and it can be
obtained by setting

dE
0 in Eq. (2).
dy

y
Constant q

Sub-critical

yc

Critical
Super-critical

Emin

Fig. 2: Depth verses specific energy curve.

Minimum specific energy occurs at,
1

q2 3 Q2 3
y yc 2 ;
g b .g

Emin

3
yc
2

(3)

The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity Vc and the
corresponding discharge is qc Vc . yc .
Referring to Fig. 2, for E Emin , no solution exists and thus the flow is unrealistic.
For E Emin , there are two possible solutions;

Large depth with V Vc sub-critical flow.

Small depth with V Vc s called super-critical flow.

Frictionless flow over a bump

Consider an open channel flow over a bump as shown in Fig. 3. The behavior of the free
surface is sharply different based on the approach of the flow; i.e. sub-critical or supercritical. For frictionless two-dimensional flow, sections 1 and 2 are related by
continuity and momentum equation;

y1V1 y2V2 ;

y1

V12
V2
y2 2 h
2g
2g

Eliminating V2 between the above cubic polynomial equations for water depth y2 over
the bump:
V12 . y12
V12
y E2 y
0 where E2
y1 h
2g
2g
3
2

2
2

(4)

Supercritical approach flow

Subcritical approach flow

V1

y1

y2 V2
Bump

Fig. 3: Frictionless two-dimensional flow over a bump.

y
y1
y2

hmax

(1)

Sub-critical
bump

(2)
h

yc
Super-critical
bump

Ec E2

E1

Fig. 4: Specific energy plot for flow over a bump.

Following points may be noted down from the above analysis;

The Eq. (4) has one negative and two positive solutions if h is not too large. Its
behavior is illustrated in Fig. 4 and depends upon whether the point 1 is on the
upper or lower leg of the energy curve.

In sub-critical approach

Fr1 1 ,

the water level will decrease at the bump

whereas in super-critical approach flows Fr1 1 , the water level will increase
over the bump.

If the bump height reaches hmax E1 Ec , the flow at the crest will be critical

Fr1 1 . In this case, no physical solution is possible i.e. too large bump will
choke the channel and cause frictional effect, called hydraulic jump.

HYDRAULIC JUMP

A hydraulic jump is a discontinuity when there is a conflict between the upstream and
downstream control parameters in an open channel flow. It occurs, when the upstream
flow is fast and shallow, and the downstream flow is slow and deep and thus provides a
mechanism to make a transition between two types of flow. One such example is flow
under the sluice gate where the downstream portion of the gate (upstream of the channel)
is super-critical flow, while the flow is sub-critical in upstream side (downstream of the
channel).
Consider a simplest type of hydraulic jump that occurs in a horizontal, rectangular
channel as shown in Fig. 5. Take two sections 1 and 2 in upstream and down
streamside where the flow is nearly uniform, steady and one-dimensional. Neglecting the
wall shear stress, the momentum equation can be written as,
F1 F2 Q V2 V1 .V1. y1.b V2 V1

(5)

where b is the channel width. The pressure force at either side is hydrostatic and acts at
the channel cross-sections i.e.

.g.b. y1
.g. y1
F1 pc1. A1
. y1.b
2
2
.g .b. y22
. g . y2

F2 pc 2 . A2
.
y
.
b

2
2
2
2

(6)

Using Eq. (6) in Eq. (5), we get,

y12 y22 V1. y1

V2 V1
g
2
2

(7)

hL

Energy line

Control volume

(2)
V2

(1)

y1

F2
V1

y2

Q, F1
Shear stress = 0

Fig. 5: Hydraulic jump geometry.

Similarly, the mass and energy conservation equations can be written for section 1 and
2 respectively i.e.
y1.bV
. 1 y2 .bV
. 2 Q
y1

V12
V2
y2 2 hL
2g
2g

(8)
(9)

The head loss hL is due to violent turbulent mixing and dissipation that occurs within the
jump itself. All Eqs. (7 to 9), are satisfied for y1 y2 ; V1 V2 and hL 0 . It represents a
trivial case when there is no jump. The other possible solution can be obtained by
combining Eqs. (7 and 8) to eliminate V2 i.e.
V 2.y
y12 y22 V1. y1 V1. y1

V1 1 1 y1 y2

2
2
g y2
g . y2

(10)

Simplification of this equation gives,

2

y2 y2
2
2 Fr1 0
y1 y1
where Fr1

(11)

V1
is the upstream Froude number. The possible solution for Eq. (11) is
gy1

y2 1
1 1 8Fr21
y1 2

(12)

h
The dimensionless head loss, L can then be obtained from Eq. (9) as,
y1

2
hL
y2 Fr21 y2
1
1
2 y1
y1
y1

(13)

y
For a given values of Fr1 , the depth ratios 2 are obtained from Eq. (12) and then
y1
h
the head loss L is calculated from Eq. (13). It will be negative if Fr1 1 (since the
y1

negative head loss violates second law of thermodynamics). The flow must be supercritical Fr1 1 to produce the discontinuity called as hydraulic jump and there is a
considerable energy loss across the hydraulic jump. This in fact is extremely useful in
many situations; e.g. the relatively large amount of energy contained in the fluid flowing
down the spillway of dam causes damage to the channel below the dam. By placing
suitable flow control objects in the channel downstream spillway, it is possible to produce
hydraulic jump on the apron of the spillway and thereby dissipate a considerable portion
of the energy of the flow i.e. the dam spillway produces super-critical flow and the
channel downstream of the dam requires sub-critical flow. Hence, the hydraulic jump
provides a means to change the character of the flow.

Classification of hydraulic jump

The principal parameter affecting hydraulic-jump performance is Froude number. The

Reynolds number and the channel geometry have the secondary effect. Based on the
Froude number, the hydraulic jumps are classified as;

Fr1 1 : Jump is impossible as it violates second law of thermodynamics.

Fr1 1 to 1.7 : Standing wave or undular jump; low dissipation less than 5%.

Fr1 1.7 to 2.5 : Smooth surface rise known as weak jump; dissipation is 5 to
15%.

Fr1 2.5 to 4.5 : Unstable, Oscillating jump; each irregular pulsation creates a
large wave which can travel downstream for miles, damaging earth banks and
other structures. Dissipation is 15 to 45%.

Fr1 4.5 to 9 : Stable, well balanced, steady jump; best performance and action,
insensitive to downstream conditions. Dissipation is 45 to 70%.

Fr1 9 : Rough, intermittent strong jump but good performance. Dissipation is 70

to 85%.

UNDERFLOW GATES

These gates are typical structures constructed at the crest of an overflow spillway, or at
the entrance of an irrigation canal/river for controlling the flow rate. Some of the typical
structures are vertical gates (commonly called sluice gate), radial gates, and drum gates.
Water level

Water level
Water level
a

y1

y2
(b)

(a)

(c)

Fig. 6: Underflow gates; (a) vertical gate, (b) radial gate, (c) drum gate.
The flow under the gate is said to be free flow when the fluid issues as a jet of
supercritical flow with free surface open to atmosphere as shown in the Fig. 6. The
discharge per unit width of the gate can be expressed as,
q Cd .a. 2 g . y1

(14)

The discharge coefficient Cd is a function of the contraction coefficient Cc y2 a and

depth ratio y1 a . The typical values of discharge coefficient from a vertical sluice gate
with free out flow are of the order of 0.55 to 0.6.
There are certain situations where the depth downstream of the gate is controlled by
some downstream obstacle. The jet of water issuing from underflow gate is overlaid by
mass of water that is quite turbulent (Fig. 7). Such a gate is known as
drowned/submerged gate. The flow rate can be obtained from the same equation (Eq. 14)
with appropriate modification in Cd .

Water level

y1
q

y2

Fig. 7: Drowned outflow from a sluice gate.

Flow under a sluice gate

The flow pattern under a sluice gate is shown in Fig. 8. If the flow is allowed free
discharge (Fig. 8-a), then it smoothly accelerates from sub-critical (upstream) to critical
(near the gap) to super-critical (downstream). For free discharge the friction may be
neglected. Applying continuity and momentum equation,
V1. y1 V2 . y2

V12
V22
y1
y2
and
2g
2g

(15)

Eliminating V2 , we get
V12
2 V12 . y12
y
y1 y2
0
2g
2g

3
2

(16)

Thus, for a given sub-critical upstream flow V1 , y1 , there is only one real solution
i.e. super-critical flow at the same specific energy as shown in Fig. 8-b. The flow rate
y
y 2
varies with the ratio 2 and reaches to a maximum when 2 . When the depth
y1 3
y1

y2 contracts to 40% less than the gates gap height, the flow pattern is similar to that of a
free orifice discharge and can be approximated in the range

H
0.5 as,
y1

Q Cd .H .b 2 gy1 where Cd

0.61

(17)

H
1 0.61
y1

If the tail-water is high as in the case of Fig. 8-c, the free discharge is not possible.
The sluice gate is said to be drowned or partially drowned. There will be energy
dissipation in exit flow, in the form of drowned hydraulic jump and the downstream flow
will return to sub-critical. Hence, Eqs (16 and 17) will not be applicable for such
situations and experimental correlations are necessary.

Water level

Sub-critical

y1

V 1 , y1
Vena contracta

Water level

(1)
V1, y1

V2, y2

V 2 , y2

(2)

y2

Super-critical

E1 = E2
(a)

High tail water

Dissipation

E
(c)

(b)

Fig. 8: Flow under a sluice gate; (a) Free discharge; (b) Specific energy for free
discharge; (c) Dissipative flow under a drowned gate.

Example 1
A rectangular channel 6m wide carries 168 lits/min at a depth of 0.9m. What is the height
of a rectangular weir which must be installed to double the depth? Discharge coefficient
of weir may be taken as 0.85.
Solution
The discharge for a broad crested weir is given by,
3

V 2 2
Q 1.7Cd Lw . H a
2g

Here, Q 168 m3 min 2.8 m3 s ; Lw 6m ; Cd 0.85

Then,
2

V 2 Q 3
2.8
3
H a

0.47m
2 g 1.7Cd Lw 1.7 0.85 6
9

The depth of the flow required = 2 0.9 = 1.8m

The velocity of approach is given by,
Q
2.8

0.26 m s
6 1.8 6 1.8
V2
ha a 0.0034m
2g
H 0.47 0.0034 0.4666m

Va

Height of the broad crested weir = 1.8 0.4666 = 1.3334m.

Example 2
Water flow in a wide channel approaches a 10cm high bump at 1.5m/s. and a depth of
1m. Estimate: (a) the water depth over the bump; (b) the bump height that will cause the
crest flow to be critical. Take the head loss as 0.1m and the flow is frictionless.
Solution
(a) First, the Froude number is calculated as,
Fr1

V1
1.5

0.48
2 gy1
2 9.81 1

It means that the flow is sub-critical. Take two sections 1 and 2 in the entire length of
the flow (Fig 8).
Specific energy of the flow is,

1.5
V2
E1 1 y1
1.0 1.115m
2g
2 9.81
E2 E1 h 1.115 0.1 1.015m
2

Applying continuity and energy equations,

V1. y1 V2 . y2 and

V12
V2
y1 2 y2 h
2g
2g

Eliminating V2 ,
y23 E2 y22

V12 . y12
V2
0 where E2 1 y1 h
2g
2g

or, y23 1.015 y22 0.115 0

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Three real roots of the above equation are, y2 0.86m, 0.45m and -0.29m . The
negative root is physically impossible. For sub-critical conditions, y2 0.86m and for
super-critical condition, y2 0.45m .
The surface level has dropped by y1 y2 h 1 0.86 0.1 0.04m .
The crest velocity, V2

V1. y1 1.5 1

1.745 m s
y2
0.86

The Froude number at the crest is, Fr 2

V2
1.745

0.424 i.e. the flow

2 gy2
2 9.81 0.86

downstream of the bump is sub-critical.

(b) For critical flow, Froudes number is unity at the crest and
1

3
3 q 2 3 3 V . y 3 3 1.52 3
Ec yc 1 1
0.918m
2
2 g
2 g
2 9.81
Maximum height for the bump, h E1 Ec 1.115 0.918 0.197m
The cubic polynomial equation becomes,
y23 Ec y22

V12 . y12
0
2g

or, y23 0.918 y22 0.115 0

The solution is y2 yc 0.61m

The surface level has dropped by y1 yc h 1 0.61 0.197 0.193m

Example 3
Water flows under a sluice gate on a horizontal bed at the inlet to a flume. The water
depth is 50cm in the upstream of the gate and the speed is negligible. At the venacontracta downstream of the gate, the flow streamlines are straight and the depth is 6cm.
Determine the flow speed downstream from the gate and discharge per unit width.

Solution
Referring to the Fig. 13-a, Bernoullis equation can be applied upstream and at the venacontracta of the flow field as,

11

V12
V22
gz1
gz2
2
2
Solving for V2 ,
V2 2 g z1 z2 V12 2 9.81 0.5 0.06 0 2.94 m s
The discharge per unit width is given by,
q

Q
V2 .D2 2.94 0.06 0.1764 m3 s
b

EXERCISES
1. Water flows freely under a sluice gate with upstream depth of 5m and gate opening of

1.5m. Determine: (i) the discharge per unit width; (ii) water depth just upstream of the
gate; (iii) what will be the discharge if the water depth immediately downstream of the
gate is 2m; (iv) compare this value with estimation of discharge under submerged
condition assuming the flow immediately downstream of the gate to be unaffected by
submergence.
2. Water in an open channel flows under a sluice gate. The flow is incompressible and

uniform at two sections 1 and 2 upstream and downstream of the flow respectively.
The depth of water and velocity at the section 1 are 1.5m and 2m/s respectively. The
corresponding values in section 2 are 0.05m and 5m/s respectively. Determine the
direction and magnitude of the hydrostatic force per unit width exerted on the gate by the
flow.
3. Water flows at a rate 10m3/s.m (per unit width) in a wide channel with upstream depth

of 1.25m. If the water undergoes a hydraulic jump, compute the following parameters in
the downstream of the gate: (i) depth of the water; (ii) velocity of the flow; (iii) Froude
number; (iv) head loss; (v) percentage dissipation; (vi) the power dissipated per unit
width; (vii) temperature rise due to dissipation if c p =4.2kJ/kg. K.
4. A rectangular channel with a bottom slope of 1:150 carries water at a rate 20m3/s.

Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical condition. Take
Mannings coefficient as 0.016.

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5. In a rectangular canal 3.2m wide is laid with a slope of 0.004. The uniform flow occurs

at a depth of 2m. How much height can the hump be raised without causing transition? If
the upstream depth of flow is to be raised to 2.5m, what should be the height of the
hump? Assume Mannings coefficient as 0.016.
6. Water flows steadily in a rectangular channel laid with a slope of 0.001. The base

width of the channel is 5m and depth of flow is 2m. It is desired to obtain a critical flow
in the channel by providing a hump in the bed. Sketch the flow profile and calculate the
height of the hump required. Take Mannings coefficient as 0.016 for channel surface.
7. A 3.6m wide rectangular channel conveys 10m3/s of water with a velocity of 6m/s.

(i) Is there a condition for hydraulic jump to occur? If so, calculate the height, length and
strength of the jump?
(ii) What is the loss of energy per kg of water?
8. In a rectangular canal of 0.5m width, a hydraulic jump occurs at a point where the

depth of flow is 0.12m and Froude number is 2.5. Determine,

(i) the specific energy; (ii) the critical and subsequent depths; (iii) loss of head; (iv)
energy dissipated.
9. A hydraulic jump occurs in a V-shaped channel with side slope of 450. Derive the

expression for flow rate in terms of upstream and downstream depth. If the depths of flow
before and after the jump are 0.4m and 0.8m, determine the flow rate and Froude number
before and after the jump.
10. The depth and velocity of the flow in a rectangular channel are 0.9m and 1.5m/s

respectively. If a gate at the downstream of the channel is abruptly closed, what will be
the height and absolute velocity of the resulting surge? If the channel is 1000m long, how
much time will be required for the surge to reach the upstream end of the channel.
11. A rectangular canal carries a discharge of 1.8m3/s per meter width of the canal. The

energy loss due to a hydraulic jump is found to be 3m. Determine the conjugate depths
before and after the jump.

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