CASE STUDY REPORT ON

HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEMS AND

COMPONENTS FOR OFF-HIGHWAY
VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the

Degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BY

NAME OF STUDENT

SAGAR .S.REVALE

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Prof MR.AJAY KASIKAR

LOKMANYA TILAK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

KOPARKHAIRANE NAVI MUMBAI 400 709
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
2014-15

ABSTRACT
This paper will identify some prerequisites for brake actuation circuit design,
describe three basic types of brake actuation circuitry, and will point out some
common problems to be avoided in brake actuation circuit design for off-highway
vehicles and equipment. It will deal only with the actuation of service brakes (as
opposed to parking brake). Service brake selection, pneumatic, and vacuum
powered brake systems are beyond the scope of this paper.
PREREQUISITES
Although we are assuming fully functional and operational brakes, this paper
outlines six key prerequisites that need to be known in order to design the brake
actuation circuit. These are: (1) stopping parameters, (2) required brake torque, (3)
capacity of the service brakes, (4) brake line pressure, (5) volumetric requirements,
and (6) required operator input effort. Because there are many brake actuation
circuits possible for a given application, this information must be understood in
order for the designer to choose the optimal circuit. In selecting the components for
a brake actuation circuit the designer needs to start at the foundation (service)
brakes and "work backward" to the method of actuation. By working backward the
designer avoids the pitfall described below under the heading "Service Brake
Capacity". Stopping Parameters The stopping parameters include deceleration rate,
stopping distance, percentage of grade for operation, and vehicle speed. The
desired stopping parameters, are used to determine the required brake torque. They
can be sourced from one of several publications, such as the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), the International Standards Organization (ISO), Federal,
State, Provincial Government agencies or specified by the vehicle designer. Brake
Torque Requirement The torque required to stop the vehicle within the desired
parameters can be calculated with the assistance of DESIGNING THE BRAKE
SYSTEM STEP BY STEP, a 1976 SAE publication, 760637, by Fred W. Cords and
John B. Dale, and MECHANICS OF VEHICLES, a 1957 Pento Publishing Co.
publication by Jaroslav J. Taborek. Service Brake Capacity The service brake
capacity is expressed as the torque at a given brake line pressure and is generally a
linear function. This information is acquired from the brake and or axle
manufacturer. To avoid the pitfalls of either underbraking or overbraking it is
important to calculate the actual required torque for the application. Do not

assume that the manufacturer's specified maximum brake line pressure is the same
as the required brake line pressure. This can be demonstrated in the following
examples in which the brake torque requirement is above then below the torque
capability of the service brake. Consider a vehicle that requires 680 Nm of brake
torque. The torque capability of the service brakes is 450 Nm at a maximum
pressure of 70 bar. Supplying the maximum 70 bar does not stop the vehicle as
required, the vehicle is underbraked. Conversely, consider the torque requirement
is now 110 Nm and the brake is still rated at 450 Nm and
70 bar. Supplying the 70 bar will stop the vehicle immediately (too severely). The
torque requirement is
satisfied with 25% of the available pressure resulting in aggressive, over sensitive
brakes. These scenarios will change in magnitude depending on the style of
actuation that you select. Through proper brake actuation and circuit design one
can match the circuit to the service brakes and avoid poor
performance characteristics such as these. Brake Line Pressure The brake line
pressure is determined by the brake torque requirement and the service brake
capacity. By establishing how much torque is developed at a given pressure, brake
torque can be expressed as brake line pressure. Required Volume
The volume requirement is critical in determining the type of system to be used.
The designer needs to know the minimum, nominal, and maximum volume of fluid
required. Different types of actuation operate in different ranges of volumetric
displacements

Input Pedal Force Input pedal force is generally expressed as a maximum force
allowed to generate the desired maximum brake line pressure. Again, there are
governing agencies that make recommendations to assist in identifying this value.
BRAKE ACTUATION CIRCUITS

The system designer can accomplish brake actuation in different ways. The use of
a direct means of actuation, such as hydraulic pressure to apply the brakes is but
one method of brake actuation. Another type of actuation is reverse modulation or
negative braking as it is referred to in the European community. Reverse
modulation uses hydraulic pressure to release a spring apply brake. Maximum
torque is produced when hydraulic pressure is absent either intentionally or due to
system failure. The subject of reverse modulation requires further detailed
explanation beyond the scope
for this paper. Also beyond the scope of this paper are pneumatic and vacuum
boosted hydraulic circuits as it is felt that the trend is clearly away from them
toward full hydraulic circuits. This paper will discuss three broad categories of
hydraulic pressure actuation circuits, these are:
_ Non-Boosted Brake Circuits
_ Boosted Brake Circuits
_ Full Power Hydraulic Brake Systems
NON-BOOSTED BRAKE CIRCUITS
These systems are manually actuated without the benefit of a power assist such as
air, hydraulic or
vacuum. Straight Bore Master Cylinders The Single Piston Straight Bore type
Master Cylinder has been a brake system component since the early 1930's and is
still in extensive use. The main components of such a cylinder can be identified as
the cylinder bore and piston (A), seals (B), fluid reservoir (C), and push rod (D),
see Figure 1. With the brake completely released (no input force on brake pedal),
the cylinder is at reservoir or atmospheric pressure. As force is applied to the brake
pedal, the push rod, through pedal linkage, is forced forward in the cylinder bore.
The primary cup seal, which is ahead of the piston, is forced down thecylinder bore
closing off the compensating port, see
Figure 1 (E). This completely seals the hydraulic system. Any additional force on
the push rod will now cause an increase in load induced fluid pressure. The
increased pressure and transfer of fluid is then transmitted to the brake. Releasing
the force on the brake pedal allows fluid to flow back to the cylinder bore and
ultimately to the reservoir. The residual valve Figure 1 (F), if used, maintains
pressure of 1-2 bar in the brake lines when the pedal is released. In drum brake

systems this low pressure aids in preventing

air from entering the brakes when the vehicle is at rest. The residual valve is
removed from models designed for disc brake systems because of the drag which
would develop in this type of brake, even at these relatively low pressures. The
advantages of this type of actuation is they are inexpensive and simple. They are
available for use with automotive type brake fluid or mineral base hydraulic oil.
On vehicles that use non-self-adjusting drum and shoe type brakes, as the brakes
wear the
need for servicing is indicated by the pedal position when actuated.
Considerations Some consideration must be given to the fact that these circuits are
limited in fluid displacement and operating pressure. Therefore, these systems
should generally be considered for low volume requirement, and system pressures.
However, if the volumetric requirement
is too small this style of actuator cashort component life due to cup cutting. If the
brakes have a low volumetric requirement they will fill quickly and thus come to
pressure quickly, often before the primary cup has passed the compensating port.
This action causes the primary cup to be forced into the
compensating port causing cup cutting as continued piston travel occurs. In
addition, because the operator actuates these cylinders through the mechanical
advantage of a pedal and linkage arrangement, and in the absence of relief
protection, the increased pedal effort can cause an over
pressure condition during panic stop conditions. These systems will consist of the
straight bore master cylinder (1) actuated through an actuating mechanism2) and
the brakes (3), see Figure 2

. Power Cylinders Through the years, larger brakes began to demand combinations
of larger volumes and higher pressures than were capable from straight bore master
cylinders. The power cylinder was designed to meet these demands without the use
of an external power source. The power cylinder incorporates two pistons
concentric within one housing. The large piston provides the fluid volume
necessary to fill the brakes while the small bore produces the pressure for
operation. Transfer from the volume piston to the pressure piston is accomplished
by means of an internal metered pressure relief valve.n suffer As shown in Figure
3, the main components of the power cylinder are the high volume bore and piston
(A), high pressure bore and piston (B), relief valve (C), reservoir (D), and push
rod (E). With the cylinder at rest, the relief valve is closed and both bores are open
to reservoir or atmospheric pressure. As force is applied to the push rod, the high
volume cup passes the compensating port (F) sealing the brake system from the
reservoir. Continued pedal movement begins to pressurize both cylinder bores as
fluid is forced out to the brakes. Displacement from the high volume bore
continues until the load induced pressure is greater than the relief valve pressure
setting.

At this time the relief valve opens allowing the fluid in the high volume bore to
flow directly to reservoir. This pressure drop in the high volume bore isolates the
high pressure bore and further cylinder displacement continues from the high
pressure bore only. As the relief valve opens, it is common for the operator to feel
the transfer from the low pressure to the high pressure bore through the brake
pedal. Releasing the force on the brake pedal closes the relief valve and allows
fluid to flow back to the cylinder bore. The compensating port then provides the
fluid necessary to compensate for lining wear. The power cylinder provides the
advantage of higher pressure in systems without the added cost of a boosted
system. They are available in both D.O.T. brake fluid and mineral base hydraulic
oil models. Considerations Since each brake system is different, it is difficult to
determine at which point during the stroke of the cylinder the relief valve opens.
Therefore, power cylinders provide a range of fluid displacements. It is important
to determine the lower pressure "fill" volume as well as total volume at maximum
braking pressure prior to making a cylinder selection.
Fluid viscosity and line size must also be considered. A high viscosity fluid or
small line sizes may result in excess pressure drop causing the relief valve to open
prematurely. A common misconception about the
power cylinder is the function of its internal relief valve. The relief valve does not
limit maximum output pressure. Pressure is only limited by input force on the push
rod. Therefore, great care should be taken to
select a cylinder that best fits the pedal effort and pressure requirements.
BOOSTED BRAKE CIRCUITS
Boosted brake circuits are those systems where the brake actuation effort is
assisted by hydraulic, air, or
vacuum. Open Center Hydraulic Power Brake Valve The open center power brake
valve will provide hydraulic power braking when installed in an open
center hydraulic system. It can be used in the same circuit as other hydraulic
devices such as power steering, see Figure 4.

Using a single pump to provide flow and pressure, the brake valve should be
installed, in series, between the pump relief valve and the other hydraulic devices.
The entire hydraulic pump flow is directed through the brake valve and is available
to actuate the downstream devices. The brake valve requires a very small volume
of oil for its operation. Consequently, it does not interfere with the rest of the
system, nor does the usual actuation of downstream hydraulic devices affect
operation of the brake valve. Full system pressure is always available for operating
the rest of the system. This valve reduces the braking effort to any required degree
depending on the pedal ratio. The reactive brake pedal force is directly
proportional to brake line pressure, thus giving a sense of feel in the operation of
the brakes. Considerations The valve uses the system's hydraulic oil to operate the
brakes. Therefore, it should only be considered when using brakes compatible with
hydraulic oil. A mechanical follow through allows for manual braking whenever
the hydraulic power system is not functioning. However, a significantly longer
pedal stroke, usually with increased pedal effort, will be expected when braking in
this condition. Therefore, proper attention should be given to the space required for
this increased pedal stroke during power off braking. Figure 5 shows a cross
section of an open center power brake valve

.
Two Fluid Power Brake Actuators Two fluid power brake actuators permit the
addition of a power braking system to vehicles that are equipped with other

hydraulic devices. They combine a booster section with a master cylinder section
in a single unit. The term "two fluid" comes from their ability to utilize two
different types of fluid simultaneously. This feature enables the booster section to
be powered with anexisting mineral base hydraulic oil circuit while maintaining
the use of D.O.T. brake fluid in the rest of the brake system. To better understand
the two fluid brake actuator the two main sections, booster and master cylinder,
will be discussed. Open center boosters are hydraulic assisted devices that provide
the mechanical force to operate the master cylinder section, see Figure 6. With the
brakes released,
fluid from the hydraulic power system flows freely from the inlet, across the
metering lands, (A) to the outlet. Actuation causes this flow to become partially
restricted, developing a pressure differential across piston (C). As input piston (B)
travels inward, additional restriction causes greater hydraulic pressure differential
across piston (C). This additional pressure differential advances piston (D) and
advances the master cylinder piston (E). When the differential pressure reaches the
setting of relief valve (F) maximum
boosted pressure has been achieved. If booster pressure is lost, brake line pressure
is then determined by pedal effort, pedal ratio and master cylinder bore diameter. A
longer pedal stroke, usually with increased pedal effort will be expected when
braking in this
condition. The master cylinder section may be either a straight bore, power
cylinder, or tandem configuration. Most configurations contains an internal
reaction piston, Figure 6 item (G). During actuation, this piston is forced back
against the booster input piston, Figure 6 item (B), generating a force proportional
to the brakeline pressure.

This hydraulic feedback, which is called the reactive pedal force, gives the
operator pedal "feel". The straight bore and power cylinder sections operate as
described earlier in this text. The tandem cylinder, Figure 8, incorporates two
independent master cylinder sections in one housing. These are typically used in
"split" brake circuits. These are circuits that have two independent halves. By
dividing one system into two separate systems, the tandem master cylinder
provides a backup in the event either half should become inoperable. They were
initially developed due to regulations governing brake systems for highway

vehicles. However, their popularity continues to grow in many off-road vehicle

markets. Considerations

The two fluid booster relies completely on fluid flow to create the differential
pressure needed to maintain power boost. This point must be considered when
designing a system with power beyond capabilities. When dealing with a power
beyond system, it is necessaryto include a second relief valve between the two
fluid actuator and the device downstream, as
shown in Figure 8. The purpose of this relief is toensure continuous flow through
the valve. Without this relief, it is possible for the downstream device to open the
main relief and divert all flow to tank. When considering a two fluid power brake
actuator, it is important to remember that the brake system depends on the limited
volume supplied by the master cylinder section.

FULL POWER HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEMS

The full power hydraulic brake system has several advantages over the systems
that have previously been discussed. There systems are capable of supplying fluid
to a range of very small and large volume service brakes with actuation that is
faster than air brake systems. Figures 9 and 10 represent a time comparison
between a typical air/hydraulic and full power hydraulic brake system.Full power
systems can supply significantly higherbrake pressures with relatively low reactive
pedalforces, while controlling the maximum brake line pressure. The brake valves
that are used will typically providevery good brake pressure modulation.
Thismeans that the reactive pedal force felt by the operator will be proportional to
the brake line pressure being generated. Internal valve components such as;spool
diameters, reaction piston diameters, and pedalratios can be adjusted to suit the
required brake pressureand pedal effort specification. Because these systems
operate with hydraulic oil, they can be filtered and will provide low maintenance
operation. By usinga properly sized accumulator, emergency power-off braking
that is identical to power-on-braking can beachieved. These systems can be either
dedicated or non-dedicated and all seals within the system must becompatible with
the fluid medium being used.These systems will vary in sophistication with the
various types of hydraulic systems available today; open center, closed center, and
load sensing.Open Center CircuitsBrake application circuits that are used in open
centerhydraulic systems will contain as a minimum; ahydraulic pump, a relief
valve positioned between the pump and an accumulator charging valve, an
accumulator, a low pressure warning switch, a brake modulatingvalve, and the
service brakes, see Figures 11 and

12.Figure 9 Time Response - Air/Hydraulic OperationIn an open center hydraulic

system the pump suppliesfluid to the accumulator charging valve; either single or
dual. The single accumulator charging valve is used in theopen center hydraulic
system in conjunction with anaccumulator and a modulating brake valve.

The charging valve controls the charging rate of the accumulatorand the pressure
of the fluid in the accumulator. Thevalve automatically halts charging when the
accumulatorpressure reaches its high limit.
When the accumulator pressure reaches its low limit,the charging valve diverts a
small amount of fluid from the main open center hydraulic system to charge
theaccumulator. The charging valve charges the accumulatorfrom the open center
circuit upon demand andwithin its preset operating charge rate and maximum
pressure. However, in a non-dedicated system if the downstream open center
circuit causes the hydraulic system pressure to rise over the high
accumulatorcharge limit, the accumulator will be charged to thishigher value.The
dual accumulator charging valve performs essentially the same functions as the
single charging valve. When the dual accumulator charging valve is used in a split
hydraulic brake system each individual axle is controlled separately by a
modulating valve and an accumulator. The charging valve charges both
accumulators. The primary advantage of the dual charging valve over the single
charging valve is that if half of the brake system fails the remaining half will
continue to
function. The charged accumulator supplies pressurized fluid to the closed center
brake modulating valve. These can be either single or dual depending on the
application. The modulating power brake valves of closed center design are used
for modulating output pressures to the
brake system. The fluid remains static at accumulator pressure until the operator
depresses the brake pedal. This action causes the brake valve to modulate fluid out
to the brakes to provide the braking means. The brake valve will modulate the
pressure in the brake system by increasing or decreasing pressure as required in
proportion to the input force from the operator via the brake pedal. Low pressure
warning switches are used to sense accumulator pressure and warn the operator
through some audible or visual device in the event the pressure in the accumulator
drops to an unsafe operating
level. For these systems there are also governing agencies that regulate the system
recovery rate, the number of power-off stops, and operator warning devices. The
full power hydraulic brake system is dependant on accumulated volume and
pressure so power-off stopping ability of the system must be considered to assure
the operator can stop safely in the event that the engine or pump fails. The number
of power-off stops is determined with the pump off. To do this lower the
accumulator fluid pressure to the low limit of the accumulator charging valve.
Apply the brakes fully and release repeatedly until the point where the accumulator
fluid pressure is no longer sufficient to supply adequate

pressure to attain the maximum brake line pressure. The number of brake
applications between the low limit and maximum brake line pressure is considered
the power-off stopping capacity of the system and is
regulated by governing agencies. As an example, the SAE J1473-DEC84
recommendation states that rubber-tired earthmoving machines shall have five full
power brake applications with the energy source (pump) disconnected. The
capacity of the accumulator(s) shall be sufficient to supply a sixth application of
not less than that pressure required to meet the secondary stopping requirements. In
addition,the service brake system recovery capacity shall be such that at full engin
RPM the service braking system shall have the capability to deliver at least 70% of
the pressure measured during the first brake application after the service brakes
have been applied twenty times at a rate of six times per minute. This applies to
loaders, graders, tractors, and backhoe loaders. The number of power-off stops can
be varied by
changing the accumulator size, dry nitrogen precharge, the fluid pressure in the
accumulator, or by increasing the pressure differential between the lowaccumulator
charge limit and the maximum brake line pressure required. Proper consideration
must be given when selecting apump. Most pumps can deliver constant flow and
pressure capable of sustaining a full power brake system while rotating at a
constant high speed. problems occur when the speeds drop, such as in variable
RPM engine driven mobile equipment, to an idle condition. As the speed drops so
does the volume of oil displaced and the efficiency of the pump. At low RPM the
pump may be unable to deliver flow at a pressure and an efficiency level capable
of reaching the accumulator charging valve high limit. Thus, the accumulator
charging valve cannot unload. This causes the pump to get hot and usually results
in premature pump failure. It is
recommended that pump efficiency be strongly considered when used in this type
of system.
While selection of pumps based on high efficiency could lean toward axial or
radial piston models, it is not
recommended that variable displacement pressure compensated models be selected
for use in dedicated
brake systems without the use of an accumulator charge valve. In dedicated brake
systems the pump
supplies only the demands of the brake system.Typically long periods of time can
elapse between brake applications. If a pressure compensated pump is
used in a closed center circuit without the charge valve, it would then be required
to operate destroked
at full compensator pressure for extended periods. This condition has been known
to cause heat related

pump failure. By using the pressure compensated

pump with the accumulator charge valve in an open center circuit the charge valve
will unload the pump
allowing the pump to displace fluid at low pressure differential. In the nondedicated closed center brake system where the pressure compensated pump
supplies fluid to both the brake circuit and some secondary requirement, this
concern is not so great. The secondary
requirement will usually allow the pump to work. The load sensing circuit
Load sensing circuits are very similar to the open center circuits with respect to the
required components. In both the open center and load sense brake circuits the
accumulator acts as the primary source for brake fluid as well as the power-off
braking source of energy. The difference comes in the form of the pump and the
charge valve that is used. This type of system will operate as a flow and pressure
on demand system. The control section of the load sense accumulator charge valve
sends a pilot signal to the pump when fluid is required. Since load sense hydraulic
pumps are generally high efficiency piston equipment, the concern over low speed
operation is not as great. Again, these circuits can be either single or split,
seeFigure 13.

The closed center circuits The full power hydraulic brake circuit that is
incorporated in a closed center hydraulic system is usually a non-dedicated circuit.
The pressure compensated pump that supplies fluid to the brake system will almost
always supply fluid to some other system requirement as well. In these circuits the
brakes will operate off of the pump displacement and the accumulators will act as
the energy source for the power off braking re3quirements. It is important in these
systems to be sure that the pump can fulfill all of the volume requirements and that
the brakes will never suffer a lack of fluid, see Figure 14.

SUMMARY
Today's brake actuation systems are highly sophisticated and the applications are
many and varied. Numerous factors affect the design of these systems, of these
operator safety is the most important.

To achieve maximum safety the designer must have a thorough understanding of

the components and circuitry. The operating parameters and performance
specifications must be carefully analyzed. The reliability of the brake actuation
system depends directly upon the quality of the data and the accuracy of the system
designer. Figure 14 Dual Closed Center Brake Circuit in a Non-Dedicated