1986, The British Journal of Radiology, 59, 365-371
A method for increasing the resolution of scanned projection
radiography and other digital X-ray systems
By D. R. Checkley, M.Sc, X. P. Zhu, M.D., D. S. Hickey, Ph.D., J. K. Hughes, J. B. Carter, M.Sc.
and I. Isherwood, M.R.C.P., F.R.C.R.
Department of Diagnostic Radiology, The Medical School, University of Manchester, Oxford Road,
Manchester M13 9PT
(Received April 1985 and in revised form September 1985)
ABSTRACT
A method for increasing the sampling frequency of digital X-
ray systems is described. The method employs discrete,
stepwise magnetic deflection of the focal spot and the
recombination of the resulting displaced images. The technique
was applied to a GE CT/T 8800 scanner operating in "Scout
View" mode. The hardware and software modifications were
minor. The transverse resolution was shown to improve from
0.63 to 0.9 line pairs per mm, using a test phantom. The effect
of the improvement in resolution is also illustrated in the
human. The possibility of further improving the resolution of
the system is discussed.
This paper describes the development of a method for
increasing the sampling frequency of digital X-ray
detector systems by deflection of the X-ray focal spot.
The aim is to demonstrate that an increase in spatial
resolution of digital images can be obtained using
simple software and hardware modifications on a
commercial CT scanner. The method was implemented
using the scanogram, a line-scanned digital radio-
graphic facility usually employed to locate axial
sections. The good contrast resolution of some
scanogram systems (Sommer & Brody, 1982) has
stimulated a general interest in their direct use for
diagnosis. Initial results were disappointing (Lawson et
al, 1980; Baker, 1981) but with modifications more
encouraging data have been obtained (Foley et al, 1979;
Casselet al, 1981).
A limitation of the scanogram is its poor spatial
resolution. An increase in resolution would provide
useful diagnostic images, particularly in limbs, the head,
and the spine, where movement is not a problem.
Transverse and longitudinal resolution in scanograms is
controlled by different factors (Katragadda et al, 1979).
In our study the transverse sampling frequency and
spatial resolution were increased by electron-beam
deflection. To increase resolution in the longitudinal
direction, the X-ray beam was collimated and the
interpulse cradle travel reduced. These techniques are
described and high resolution images are presented.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
All experiments were performed on a GE CT/T 8800
scanner in scanogram, i.e. "Scout View" mode.
Attaching prototype magnetic coils to the X-ray
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APRIL 1986
generator required a minor hardware modification. All
images were produced using a standard Maxiray 100
X-ray tube. The machine was in full-time clinical use
and the high resolution facilities were introduced
without major disruption.
High contrast spatial resolution was measured with a
0.1 mm thick lead-bar phantom. This phantom offered
a convenient visual assessment of resolution in the
range of 0.5 to 5.0 line pairs per mm (lp/mm). Initially it
was used to estimate normal scanogram resolution in
the transverse and longitudinal directions. These
measurements were obtained on separate scanograms
with the phantom mounted on the patient cradle in the
centre of the field. For transverse measurements the
lead bars in the phantom were aligned parallel to the
scanner axis, whilst for the longitudinal measurements
they were at right angles to it.
Increasing the transverse resolution
The principle of the technique involves discrete
deflections of the focal spot. These deflections move the
X-ray image in small steps across the effectively
stationary detectors. A digital line image is recorded for
each position of the focal spot. Recombination of two
or more spatially displaced images then results in
improved resolution. The size of the steps between the
positions of the image is manipulated such that they are
a fraction of the detector width for the geometry of the
selected object plane.
To increase the transverse resolution we considered a
horizontal plane in the centre of the image field of the
scanner 780 mm from the focal spot and 320 mm from
the central detector. For simplicity, we considered first
a focal-spot deflection of 1.46 mm at the anode surface,
which would produce an image shift of half a detector
width (0.6 mm). Other deflections may be treated by a
simple extension of the geometry.
Lateral beam deflection for the image plane was
equivalent to lateral displacement of the curved detector
array. Out-of-plane tomographic blurring was ignored,
since for a slice effectively 400 mm thick the blurring
extends over less than 0.12 mm, or only 10% of the
detector width. The intensity distributions sampled by
the detectors are thus effectively the same for the
different positions of the focal spot.
VOL. 59, No. 700
D. R. Checkley, X. P. Zhu, D. S. Hickey, J. K. Hughes, J. B. Carter and I. Isherwood

freedom from the propagation of noise. For each

View 1 Ai A2 A3 detector we set,
D a = A,/2
and
View 2
(displaced D,2 = B,/2
Bi B2 B3
\ detector where D is a dummy array. Then it follows that an
width) estimate of the pseudodetector values is
(2)
and
Combined (3)
views -
pseudo \ Ci c2 c3 C5 c6 c7
width
detectors where e is an error term. This error is calculated and
distributed over the dummy array such that:
'Ai/2

Thus, a Ai=Ci+C 2 ^ 1 2 — ^12 1" t B ( / 2 VT»-

series of Bi= C2+C3
simultaneous
equations is A2= C3
produced
B2=
FIG. 1.
Pseudodetector response. When a detector with a rectangular
response function is displaced laterally between two radio-
graphs of the same object, the two responses A, and B, can be
recombined to form a set of pseudodetector responses Cy.
These pseudodetectors have half the width and therefore twice
the sampling frequency of the original detector array.
The focal-spot intensity structure was assumed to be
Gaussian (Barrett & Swindell, 1981). This form has
previously been used to describe the GE CT/T 8800
focal spot in investigations of the resolution of CT
scanners (Glover & Eisner, 1979; Blumenfield &
Glover, 1981). The xenon gas detectors were each
considered to have an approximately rectangular
response function across a width of 1.2 mm.
In the image reconstruction pairs of detector readings
were combined to produce pseudodetector values, as
shown in Fig. 1. The result is a series of simultaneous
equations relating m pseudodetectors to the n detector
values. For simplicity, we consider recombination of
two images (m = 2n) displaced relative to each other by
half the width of a detector, thus:
"i+l =
(1)
where A; and B, are the response of the ith detector and
its deflected value respectively, and C ; is the jth.
pseudodetector value. There are several methods that
can be used to solve this form of equation although
image noise can invalidate direct solutions. For this
study we chose a simple, locally acting iteration. This
method had the advantages of simplicity and relative
366
After two or three iterations of the array using
equations (2), (3), and (4), the image data converged.
The coil produced distortion in the displaced focal
spots, which necessitated the use of simple smoothing
and grey-level normalisation procedures to produce
artefact-free images.
Deflecting the n detectors by half a detector width is
thus equivalent to sampling the X-ray intensity
distribution using In half width detectors. Other
possibilities, such as deflection of the spot to four
positions and effectively overlapping the shifted
detectors by one quarter of a detector length, involve
only simple modifications to the mathematics. The
technique may be used with non-rectangular detector
response functions by a simple extension, but the values
of the integral over the appropriate overlap regions
must be known.
Recombination of images spatially separated by a
fraction of the width of a single detector was modelled
by the convolution of the detector response function
with a comb fraction. The result was convolved with the
focal-spot intensity distribution to give a Modulation
Transfer Function (MTF) for the system. The algorithm
employed for the sampling process is essentially similar
to that described by Barrett and Swindell (1981).
Coil design
The coil prototype was designed for use with the
pulsed X-ray system of the scanner. This rectangular
coil had 200 turns and 1 ohm d.c. resistance and was
designed to fit around the initial collimator of the X-ray
tube, as shown in Fig. 2. The distance between the coil
centre and the electron beam was 10 cm. Current
switching for the coil was triggered by the couch
electronics of the scanner. These were modified to
provide a pulse that reversed the polarity of the current
in the coil with each X-ray pulse (25 times/s). Alternate
views recorded from the xenon detector array were thus
displaced by half the width of a detector.

Increasing the resolution of digital X-ray systems
FOCAL SPOT
200 TURN COIL
12 -16amps AC
COLLIMATOR
"BOX
100c
XENON
DETECTORS
FIG. 2.
The position of the 200-turn coil, around the initial collimator
box. The experimental conditions for obtaining pinhole images
of the focal spot are also illustrated.
A number of experiments were required initially to
determine the relationship between coil current and
focal-spot displacement. From this calibration the coil
current required for deflection of the image by one
quarter of a detector width was determined (12 A).
Images obtained with focal-spot deflection were in effect
double sampled.
The result of combining four laterally displaced
images was investigated using a single strip of the bar
phantom as the object. This phantom was positioned in
the centre of the field on a travelling microscope and
moved laterally in steps, each of which corresponded to
an image displacement of one quarter of the detector
width.
Improving longitudinal resolution
Spatial resolution in the longitudinal direction was
increased by placing a 0.5 mm collimator centrally over
the output of the standard collimator box. This
produced an X-ray beam 3.5 mm wide at the detectors,
i.e. substantially narrower than the 5 mm width for the
normal scanogram.
A further increase in resolution was obtained by
halving the interpulse cradle increment. The number of
cradle-encoder output pulses for each cm of movement
was doubled for the combination of the two images.
Focal-spot structure
The effect of deflection on the form of the focal-spot
367
APRIL 1986
structure was determined using the pinhole technique
shown in Fig. 2. Pinhole images were recorded on
dental film using 80 kVp, 320 mA, and pulse width code
3 (a 4 ms pulse width). Precise alignment for these
images was achieved with simple software modifications
which allowed the projection data to be read for each
view. It was then possible for the pinhole or other
objects to be positioned accurately over the central
detector in the array. All objects placed within the
scanner ring were positioned by this method.
Data processing
Normal scanogram data are corrected for offsets,
normalised using the reference detectors, calibrated
using data from an axial air scan and filtered. For the
high resolution images we employed the normal offset
and reference data corrections, but used calibration
data from an air scanogram instead of an axial scan.
The air-calibration scanogram was carried out with the
0.5 mm collimator in place and with the coil producing
lateral beam deflection. The normal scanogram low
frequency suppression filter was not used.
Calibrated projections of the object were stored in
scanogram raw data files. Since in each interpulse
interval the cradle moved longitudinally, temporally
consecutive projections were not spatially equivalent
and could not be directly combined. Linear
interpolation, between adjacent projection values with
the same coil current direction, was therefore employed.
In the final image each interpolated projection was
combined with the equivalent real projection.
RESULTS
Theoretical MTF curves calculated from the
Gaussian focal spot and rectangular detector response
•Normal sampling
< 2 sampling
; 4 sampling
Spacing frequency •
cycles mm
FIG. 3.
System MTF curves calculated for a Gaussian focal spot and a
rectangular detector response function. The curves correspond
to normal, two-image and four-image recombinations.
 VOL. 59, No. 700
D. R. Checkley, X. P. Zhu, D. S. Hickey, J. K. Hughes, J. B. Carter and I. Isherwood
FIG. 4.
Pinhole images of the deflected focal spot obtained using the
200-turn coil.
functions are shown in Fig. 3 for normal, two-image
and four-image combinations. No further improvement
was obtained with eight-image combinations due to
limitation by the MTF of the focal spot.
Deflected pinhole images produced by the 200-turn
rapidly switching coil are given in Fig. 4. The
displacement produced by this coil differed at the top
and bottom of the pinhole images.
FIG.
Image of lead bar phantom to show transverse resolution, (A) The normal unfiltered scanogram, resolution limit 0.63 lp/mm, (B)
with electron beam deflection and image combination, resolution limit 0.9 lp/mm.
368
A normal scanogram and a combined image of the
bar phantom, reconstructed with half-width pseudo-
detectors, are shown in Fig. 5. An apparent
improvement in the transverse resolution can be seen in
the combined image. The four lead bars and five spaces
can be resolved at 0.63 lp/mm in the normal image and
0.9 lp/mm in the improved image. This is in agreement
with data derived from the predicted MTFs, which
indicated an improvement of 72% in the spatial
resolution.
The normal scanogram and combined image of the
bar phantom, with bars aligned transversely, are shown
in Fig. 6. An increase in longitudinal resolution from
less than 0.5 lp/mm to 0.7 lp/mm can be seen in the
combined image. Theoretically the decreased detector
length should produce up to 40% improvement in
spatial resolution. This appears to have been achieved.
Normal and beam deflected scanogram images of a
human ankle are given in Fig. 7. The combined image is
generally sharper and shows a number of features
resulting from the improvement in resolution. This
image demonstrates that despite the presence of
substantial focal-spot distortion, artefact-free images
can be produced.
Our preliminary results from the combination of four
5.
 APRIL 1986

Increasing the resolution of digital X-ray systems

FIG. 6.
Image of lead bar phantom to show longitudinal resolution, (A) Normal scanogram, resolution limit less than 0.5 lp/mm, (B) with
output collimation and decreased interpulse cradle movements, resolution limit 0.7 lp/mm.

FIG. 7.
(A) Normal scanogram and (B) increased resolution images of the human ankle. The images are similar but the combined image
both has an improved edge definition and appears less noisy. It is clear that an acceptable image quality was obtained despite the
distortion of the deflected focal spots in the prototype system.

369
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D. R. Checkley, X. P. Zhu, D. S. Hickey, J. K. Hughes, J. B. Carter and I. Isherwood

A specific application of beam deflection may be in

A digital tomosynthesis systems (Maravilla et al, 1983). In
digital tomosynthesis the detector array is moved
relative to the patient, and a series of images is
collected. Tomographic planes within the patient are
then formed by simple manipulation of the data. The
techniques and algorithm described here could be
applied to increase resolution.
Deflecting the electron beam, and therefore the X-ray
beam, with a magnetic field is relatively simple and
B inexpensive. The technique can be used to achieve
increased sampling frequencies, and in systems limited
by detector width these modifications will improve the
spatial resolution. Resolution also depends upon the
intensity distribution and structure of the focal spot
(Glover & Eisner, 1979). If beam deflection is
employed, resolution is restricted by focal-spot size. Our
results are consistent with the published analyses of
oversampling (Glover & Eisner, 1979; Blumenfield &
Glover, 1981), which also indicate that the increase in
spatial resolution with oversampling on the CT/T 8800
is limited by the size of the focal spot. An estimate of the
effective width of the detector aperture and thus the
suitability of the beam deflection method may be
obtained from:

in Iff
I 20
0-5 line pairs/mm Xe[ = [X2 + (M-l)2S2~\yM
where Xe{ is the effective detector aperture width, M is
the magnification, X is the actual detector aperture
width, and S the spot size (Yester & Barnes, 1977).
2-8
The disparity in transverse and longitudinal
40 resolution, although not readily apparent in the images,
could be rectified by tube and detector-box collimation.
FIG. 8. This would be an effective method for decreasing the
The potential of beam deflection, for further improving the width of the X-ray beam, but would result in wasted
resolution of a scanogram. A single strip of the bar phantom is patient dose. Normal scanogram images do not have
shown with (A) single-image, (B) two-image and (c) four-image equal transverse and longitudinal resolution. The entry
recombinations. For these images the object, not the focal dose for a full-length scanogram is approximately
spot, was moved. 2.5 mGy, a dose which it is anticipated would be
proportionately increased by decreasing the interpulse
travel.
images show that further substantial increases in The reconstruction algorithm effectively smooths the
resolution are possible. In Fig. 8 three images of the images in the longitudinal direction and removes some
same strip of the bar phantom are shown. These images of the linear artefact caused by pulse-to-pulse
illustrate normal transverse resolution and the effect of differences in photon flux. Pulse-to-pulse variations
combining two and four deflected images. These data may be caused by deflecting the focal spot and changing
were obtained by moving the object relative to a the electron beam track on the anode surface (Braun,
stationary X-ray beam. Since focal-spot distortion was 1979). Electron-beam focusing may also be a cause,
not a problem in this experiment only a simple, although our results suggest that non-uniformity of the
unweighted moving average procedure was required for applied magnetic field is the major problem. There is
smoothing. considerable potential in the design of coils to produce a
more uniform X-ray output with alternately deflected
DISCUSSION pulses. Improved calibration procedures should reduce
We have demonstrated that an increase in the pulse-to-pulse variations and improve scanogram
transverse and longitudinal resolution of a scanogram images still further.
system can be obtained by making relatively minor Some focal-spot distortion was present, but it did not
changes to a conventional CT scanner. The technique of affect our production of higher resolution images. This
beam deflection could have general applications in distortion was not present when a larger coil, situated
digital radiography and CT. further from the electron beam, was used for deflection.

370

Increasing the resolution of digital X-ray systems
A computer simulation of the magnetic field in the
region of the electron beam was performed. This
simulation used the Bio-Savart formula (e.g. Kip, 1969)
and involved a summation of the vector field for 600
elements of the coil wire in each of the 200 turns in the
small coil, and 100 elements in each of 4000 turns in the
larger coil. Non-circular geometry in the small coil
wrapped round the collimator box was included in the
simulation. The results indicated a 25% change in the
magnitude of the field across the electron beam in the
small coil and 1% with the large coil, consistent with
our experimental results and the apparent cause of focal-
spot distortion. Two coils, one on either side of the tube
casing, could be balanced to produce a more uniform
field across the electron beam.
Detector dimensions, and hence the sampling
frequency, are factors which limit the resolution of
many digital systems, including line-scanned projection
radiographic systems (Brody et al, 1980) and CT
scanners (Barnes et al, 1979). A method which achieved
increased image sampling rates, and hence an improved
spatial resolution, without detector or other major
hardware modifications, could have widespread
applications in digital radiology.
The increased resolution obtainable by combining
overlapped images is limited by the focal-spot intensity
distribution. This distribution is convolved with the
images obtained and produces smoothing and blurring.
Deconvolution in real space by direct matrix inversion
(Bracewell, 1978) could provide a suitable method for
removal of this focal-spot limitation.
We have shown in principle that reconstructions from
four deflected images is possible as indicated in Fig. 8.
Production of improved resolution images by
combination of four deflected data sets is only slightly
more involved than the technique used for the
combination of two. The transverse resolution expected
from combination of four images is close to 1.4 lp/mm.
Such resolution may be sufficient for a digital
alternative to conventional imaging in a number of
clinical situations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We extend our sincere thanks to Brian Pullan for his help
and would like to acknowledge grants from the North Western
Regional Health Authority and the Peter Kershaw Trust. We
also thank I.G.E. for technical help with this study.
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