MODULE I

THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

Authors:
Eunice Basario
John Patrick Del Rosario

October 13, 2015

II. INTRODUCTION

Pre-test
1. What part of the cell is responsible for breaking down and digesting
things?
a. Ribosomes
b. Lysosomes
c. Endoplasmic reticulum
d. Vacuole
2. What part of the cell makes proteins?
a. Ribosomes
b. Mitochondria
c. Lysosomes
d. Vacuole
3. Who is the scientist who first discovered the cell?
a. Theodore Schwann
b. Rudolf Virchow
c. Robert Hooke
d. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
4. What part of the cell serves as the fluid medium where organelles
are suspended?
a. Karyoplasm
b. Cytoplasm
c. Lysosome
d. Vacuole
5. What class of cell lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bounded
cellular substructures?
a. Prokaryotes
b. Eukaryotes
c. Nerve cells
d. Sensory cells
6. What part of cell controls its overall activity?
a. Nucleus
b. Nucleolus
c. Endoplasmic reticulum
d. Mitochondria
7. What is the study of cells named?
a. Cytokinesis
b. Histology
c. Cytology
d. Celography
8. What part of the cell serves to process, package, and export
proteins
a. Mitochondria
b. Endoplasmic reticulum

c. Nucleolus
d. Golgi apparatus
9. What process of cell division sex cells are formed?
a. Meiotic cycle
b. Mitotic cycle
c. Metaphase
d. Anaphase
10. In what stage of mitotic cycle do chromosomes are distributed at
the equator?
a. Anaphase
b. Metaphase
c. Prophase
d. Telophase

A. Discussion Proper
The concept that all living material is made up of cell is a central
unifying one in modern Biology. Both living and non-living things are
composed of molecules made from chemical elements such as Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. The organization of these molecules into
cells is one feature that distinguishes living things from all other matter.
1.1 HISTORY OF THE CELL
In the course of microscopic studies of cork, Robert Hooke (1665),
noticed that the material under study was made up of many little boxes.
Ten years later, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, using a hand-held lens,
described several tiny microscopic creatures later found to be Bacteria and
Protozoa.

The cell theory of life was develop over a period of many years. The
initial statement was formulated by Lorenz Oken in 1805. Theodore
Schwann stated the theory essentially in its present form. Subsequent
research led Rudolf Virchow to state that every cell forms from a preexisting cells. The current theory is a set of six statements;
1) all living material is made up of cells,
2) all cells are derived from pre-existing cellsmost cells arise
by cell division, but in sexual organisms they may be formed
by the fusion of sperm and egg,
3) a cell is the most elementary unit of life
4) every cell is bounded by a plasma membrane
5) all cells have strong biochemical similarities
6) most cells are small, about 0.001 cm in length
1.2 CELL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Cells contain a variety of internal structures called organelles. An
organelle is a cell component that performs a specific function in that cell.
Microscopic studies shown that a cell has three fundamental parts namely,
cytoplasm, cell membrane and nucleus.
The

cytoplasm consists of a thick, semifluid aggregate of

chemical compounds called cytosol. It serves as the
reservoir for the entry and exit of materials in the
cell.

The cell
known

membrane or plasma membrane, also

as

plasmalemma,

boundary of the cells.

serves

as

the

outer

Figure 1. The cell and its

organelles

It

consists of double layer of fats or lipid with scattered

proteins.

It

performs

three

major

functions:

a)

separates the contents of the cell from external

environment, b) regulates the passage of materials into and

Figure 2. The plasma

membrane

out of the cell, and c) allows communication with other cells.

The nucleus is generally an oval-shaped or spherical shaped structure.
It regulates and coordinates all the activities of the cell. The nucleus contains

the cells chromosomes (human, 46, fruit fly 6, fern 1260) which are normally
uncoiled to form a chromatinic network, which contain both
linear DNA and proteins, known as histones. These
proteins coil up (dehydrate) at the start of nuclear
division, when the chromosomes first become visible.
Whilst most cells have a single nucleus some
cells (macrophages, phloem companion cells)
Figure 3. The nucleus

have more than one and fungi have many nuclei

in their cytoplasm they are coenocytic (= common cytoplasm throughout)

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the
nuclear envelope, which has many nuclear pores through which mRNA,
and proteins can pass. These dimples make it look like a golf ball. Most
nuclei contain at least one nucleolus (plural, nucleoli). The nucleoli are
where ribosomes are synthesised.
Mitochondria

are

found

scattered throughout the cytosol, and

are relatively large organelles (second

Figure 4. The powerhouse of the

only to the nucleus and chloroplasts).

Mitochondria have their own DNA, and new mitochondria arise only
when existing ones grow and divide. They are thus semi-autonomous
organelles. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration, in which
energy from organic compounds is transferred to ATP. ATP is the molecule
that most cells use as their main energy currency. Mitochondria are more
numerous in cells that have a high energy
requirement - our muscle cells contain a
large number of mitochondria, as do liver,
heart and sperm cells.
Ribosomes are the site of protein
synthesis in a cell. Unlike most other organelles, ribosomes are not

surrounded by a membrane.
They are the most common organelles in almost all
cells. Some are free in the cytoplasm (Prokaryotes);
others line the membranes of rough endoplasmic
reticulum (rough ER).
The

Endoplasmic

Reticulum

is

system

of

membranous tubules and sacs. The primary function

Figure 5. The
ribosomes

of the ER is to act as an internal

transport

system,

allowing

molecules to move from one

part

of the cell to another. The quantity of ER inside a cell

fluctuates, depending on the cell's activity. Cells with a lot
include secretory cells and liver cells.
The rough ER is studded
with

Figure 6. Endoplasmic
Reticulum

site

80s ribosomes and is the

of protein synthesis. It is an

extension of the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope,

so allowing mRNA to be transported swiftly
to the 80s ribosomes, where they are translated in protein synthesis
The smooth ER is where polypeptides are converted into functional
proteins and where proteins are prepared for secretion. It is also the site of
lipid and steroid synthesis, and is associated with the Golgi apparatus.
Smooth ER has no 80s ribosomes and is also involved in the regulation of
calcium levels in muscle cells, and the breakdown of toxins by liver cells.
Both types of ER transport materials throughout the cell.
The Golgi apparatus is the processing, packaging and
secreting organelle of the cell, so it is much more common
in glandular cells. The Golgi apparatus is a system of
membranes, made of flattened sac-like structures called
cisternae. It works closely with the smooth er, to modify
proteins for export by the cell.

Lysosomes are small spherical organelles that

Figure 7. Golgi
Bodies

enclose hydrolytic enzymes within a single membrane.

They are the site of protein digestion thus allowing

enzymes to be re-cycled when they are no longer required. They are also the
site of food digestion in the cell, and of bacterial digestion in phagocytes.
Lysosomes are formed from pieces of the Golgi apparatus that break off.
In animal cells, which have no cell wall, an internal framework called
the cytoskeleton maintains the shape of the cell, and helps the cell to
move. The cytoskeleton consists of two structures:
a) microfilaments (contractile). They are made of actin, and are
common in motile cells.
b) microtubules (rigid, hollow tubes made of tubulin).
Microtubules have three functions:
a)
b)
c)

To maintain the shape of the cell.

To serve as tracks for organelles to move along within the cell.
They form the centriole.
The

centriole

consists

of

two

bundles

of

microtubules at right-angles to each other. Each bundle

contains 9 tubes in a very characteristic arrangement.

At

the start of mitosis and meiosis, the centriole divides,

and one half moves to each end of the cell, forming the
spindle. The spindle fibres are later shortened to pull

Figure 8. Centrioles

the chromosomes apart.

Most of the organelles and other parts of the cell are common to all
Eukaryotic cells. Cells from different organisms have an even greater
difference in structure.
Plant cells have three additional structures not found in animal cells:
o Cellulose cell walls

o Chloroplasts (and other plastids)

o A central vacuole

Figure 9. An animal cell (left) and a plant cell (right)

One of the most important features of all plants is presence of a
cellulose cell wall. The cell wall is freely permeable (porous), and so has no
direct effect on the movement of molecules into or out of the cell. The
rigidity of their cell walls helps both to support and protect the plant.
The most prominent structure in plant cells is the large vacuole. The
vacuole is a large membrane-bound sac that fills up much of most plant
cells. The vacuole serves as a storage area, and may contain stored organic
molecules as well as inorganic ions.
A characteristic feature of plant cells is the presence of plastids that make or
store food.
The

most

common

of

these

are

chloroplasts the site of photosynthesis.

Each

chloroplast

flattened,

encloses

membranous

system

sacs

of

called

thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll. The

thylakoids are arranged in stacks called

grana.

1.3 MULTICELLULAR ORGANIZATION

In a unicellular organism, one cell carries out all of the functions of
life. In contrast, most cells in a multicellular organism are specialized to
Figure 10.
perform
one or a few functions more efficiently. Because of cell
Chlorophyll

specialization, the cells of multicellular organisms depend on other cells in

the organism for their survival. In most Multicellular Organisms, we find the
following organization:
a. Cellular Level: The smallest unit of life capable of carrying out
all the functions of living things.
b. Tissue Level: A group of cells that performs a specific function
in an organism.
c. Organ Level: Several different types of tissue that function
together for a specific purpose.
d. Organ System Level: Several organs working together to
perform a function. The different organ systems in a multicellular
organism interact to carry out the processes of life
1.4 CELL CLASSES
Two classes of cells exist: the prokaryotes and the eukaryotes.
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells normally contain a nucleus while
prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and have no
membrane-bound organelles.
Characteristics
Organisms
Nuclear Membrane

Prokaryotes
bacteria and
cyanobacteria
absent

DNA

loop of DNA in the

cytoplasm

RNA and protein

both synthesized in the

same compartment

Eukaryotes
protists, fungi, plants and
animals
presents
thin, very long DNA organized
into chromosomes in the
nucleus
RNA synthesized in the
nucleus; protein synthesized
in the cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

no cytoskeleton; very few

organelles present

Cellular Organization

mainly unicellular

Cell size

generally 1 to 10 m in
linear dimension

cytoskeleton present; many

organelles present
mainly multicellular with
differentiation of cells
generally 10 to 100 m in
linear dimension

Table 1. Comparison of Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

1.5 CELL DIVISION

Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. It
depends on two complementary events-the replication of DNA molecules
that make up the basic genetic material of all cells and the orderly
separation of the products of this replication. In prokaryotes, where only a
single unit of DNA exists, these two events are intimately coupled with an
inward growth of the cell membrane.
In eukaryotes, the process is more complex. Here, the DNA is
combined with histone protein and is separated into two or more discrete
chromosomes that are enclosed in a distinct nuclear membrane.

The Mitotic Cycle

Mitosis is part of the overall cell cycle
that includes a long phase called interphase
which

may

be

subdivided

into

three

stages---G1, S, and G2 ---on the basis of the

synthetic activities occurring within them.
The synthesis of DNA occurs only during the
S

phase,

when

it

coincides

with

the

synthesis of the histone protein. As a result, of these coupled syntheses,

each chromosomes now consists of two sister chromosomes, called
chromatids, that are identical in their morphological and genetic organization

and that are joined at the kinetochore. Chromatids become visible when
mitosis sets in; the remainder of the mitotic cycle involves their separation
into two offspring nuclei. Mitosis depends on four essential stages of the
mitotic cycle.
I.

Prophase

Changes in the internal configuration of the

nucleoprotein component of each chromatid cause a cycle of

coiling to be initiated in which the chromosomes become shorter
and
the

thicker. Toward the end of

Figure 11. Diagrammatic
presentation of Mitotic Cycle

prophase,

the

microtubules forming the

spinder proliferate in the cytoplasm. The end of prophase is

II.

signalled by the disruption of the nuclear membrane.

Metaphase The manner in which chromosomes are distributed
at the equator following a reorientation mechanisms depends on
the relative sizes of the members of the chromosome set, as well
as on the size of the cell itself.

Figure 12. Prophase and Metaphase Stage of Mitotic Cycle

III.

Anaphase The connection between sister chromatids is broken

when the kinetochore divides and the component chromatids
have separated completely. All sister kinetochores begin their

IV.

movement toward opposite poles simultaneously

Telophase A new nuclear membrane begins to form at the
surface of each of the two separated sets of chromosomes. At

the same time, the chromosomes themselves uncoil and return

to an extended (and diffuse) interphase state.
Cytokinesis - The completion of cell division requires the
cytoplasm be divided following division of the nucleus.

Figure 13. Anaphase and Telophase Stage of Mitotic Cycle

Significance of Mitosis
Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the diploid
cells only. However, in some lower plants and in some social insects haploid
cells also divide by mitosis. It is very essential to understand the significance
of this division in the life of an organism.
Mitosis results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identical
genetic complement usually. The growth of multi-cellular organisms is due to
mitosis. Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to restore
the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell
repair. The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells of the lining of the
gut, and blood cells are being constantly replaced.

Meiotic Cycle
The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes the fusion
of two gametes, each with a complete haploid set of chromosomes. Gametes

are formed from specialized diploid cells. This specialized kind of cell division
that reduces the chromosome number by half results in the production of
haploid daughter cells.
The key features of meiosis are as follows:
Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division
called meiosis I and meiosis II but only a single cycle of DNA
replication.
Meiosis I is initiated after the parental chromosomes have
replicated to produce identical sister chromatids at the S phase.
Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and
recombination between them.
Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
Meiotic events can be grouped under the following phases:
a. MEIOSIS I
1. Prophase I.
First stage. Leptotene (literally thin thread), the chromosomes
become visible but initially remain uncoiled. Localized areas of
increased coiling, called chromomeres, then form.
Second Stage. Zygotene (yolked thread), in a process called
synapsis, the chromosomes shorten and homologous chromosomes
associate or meet.
Third Stage. Pachytene (thick thread), is a long period in which the
bivalent chromosomes shorten and appear to be rodlike. Crossing
over takes place where there is an exchange of chromosomal
segments.
Fourth Stage. Diplotene (double thread), is characterized by partial
separation of the chromosomes into for separate chromatids, but
are still connected together in a portion called chiasmata.

Fifth Stage. Diakinesis, the chromosomes contract further, thereby

increasing the tightness of the coiling.
2. Metaphase I.
The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate. The
microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the
pair of homologous chromosomes.
3. Anaphase I.
The chiasmata complete their terminalisation, freeing the sister
kinetochore pairs to move poleward.
4. Telophase I.
The nuclear membrane reforms, nuclei reappear, and cytokinesis
occurs, forming two daughter cells.

Figure 13. Prophase I and Metaphase I Stage of Meiotic Cycle

b.
MEIOSIS II
1. Prophase II: Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis,
usually before the chromosomes have fully elongated. In contrast to
meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal mitosis. The nuclear
membrane disappears by the end of prophase II. The chromosomes
again become compact.

2. Metaphase II: At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator

and the microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get
attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
3. Anaphase II: It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the
centromere of each chromosome (which was holding the sister
chromatids together), allowing them to move toward opposite poles
of the cell.
4. Telophase II:

Meiosis ends with telophase II, in

groups of chromosomes once again get

which the two

enclosed by

a nuclear

envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of

cells i.e., four haploid daughter cells.

Figure 14. Second phase of Meitotic Division

Significance of Meiosis
Meiosis is

the mechanism by

which conservation of

specific

chromosome number of each species is achieved across generations in

sexually reproducing organisms, even though the process, per

se,

paradoxically, results in reduction of chromosome number by

half. It also

increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms from one

generation to the next. Variations are very important for the process of
evolution.

III. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

Activity #1: Cell Show and Tell Students are assigned a single part
of the cell, like the mitochondria and are tasked to bring in object from
home that represents the structure.

Any item will work, but students

must present the object and explain how it represents the cell structure.
Activity #2: Cell Charades This is a fun game to play at the end of
the cell unit, students must act out the part of the cell structure while
their team-mates try to guess the structure. Each team have only at
least three tries to guess. An alternative to the game format is to ask
students to come up with hand signals for each structure and then
practice using the symbols instead of the words.
Activity #3: 3D Cell this is a standard project for entry level biology
classes, where students use various objects from around the house to
design a three dimensional cell.
cardboard, or Styrofoam.

Popular models are made of clay,

An alternative to the game format is to

replace the materials found instead of house but rather inside the
school premises.
Activity #4: Post- IT Cell this model can be build in class using post
it notes.

The post-its can be drawn on, labeled or cut to particular

shapes. This is a good activity for one class period and students can
work in groups to discuss their models, cell structures, and functions.
Activity 5: What part? This game is connected to the third suggested
activity. The end product design of cell will be brought in front of the

class. The teacher will ask which part of the cell is he pointing or what is
the function of that particular organelles. Students will be compensated
once their answer is correct, if wrong, consequences will be given.

IV.

KEY CONCEPTS
Anaphase: The stage of mitosis or meiosis during which centromeres
split and chromatids separate and chromatids move to opposite poles.
Bivalent/ Tetrad: A homologous pair of chromosomes in the synapsed,
or paired, state during prophase I of the meiotic division.
Cell Cycle: The cell cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell
leading to its replication.
Centromere: It is the primary constriction in chromosome to which the
spindle fibres attach during mitotic and meiotic division. It
appears as a constriction when chromosomes contract during cell
division.
Chromatin: Chromatin is the complex of DNA and protein
that
makes
up chromosomes. It is found inside the nuclei of
eukaryotic cells, and within the nucleoid in prokaryotes.
Chromosomes: Thread like strands of DNA and associated proteins in
the nucleus of cells that carry the genes and functions in the
transmission of hereditary information.
Crossing over: Crossing over is a process in which homologous
chromosomes exchange genetic material through the breakage and
reunion of two chromatids with the help of enzyme recombinase.
Cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm of a cell following division of
the nucleus that occurs in mitosis and meiosis, when a parent cell
divides to produce two daughter cells.
Diakinesis: This is the final stage of meiotic prophase I in which the
chromatids break at the chiasmata and exchange their parts.
Diplotene: This is the stage of the first meiotic prophase, following the
pachytene, in which the two chromosomes in each bivalent begin to
repel each other and a split occurs between the chromosomes, which

are then held together by regions where exchanges have taken place
(chiasmata) during crossing over.
Karyokinesis: The indirect division of cells in which, prior to division of
the cell protoplasm, complicated changes take place in the nucleus,
attended with movement of the nuclear fibrils. The nucleus becomes
enlarged and convoluted, and finally the threads are separated into
two groups, which ultimately become disconnected and constitute the
daughter nuclei.
Kinetochore: These are disc shaped structures present on the sides of
centromere.
Leptotene: This is the stage of meiosis in which the chromosomes are
slender, like threads.
Metaphase: A stage in mitosis or meiosis during which the
chromosomes are aligned along the equatorial plane of the cell.
Metaphase chromosomes are highly condensed, scientists use these
chromosomes for gene mapping and identifying chromosomal
aberrations.
Metaphase plate: The plane of the equator (a plane that is equally
distant from the two spindle poles) of the spindle into which
chromosomes are positioned during metaphase.
Meiosis: This is a special method of cell division, occurring in
maturation of the sex cells, by means of which each daughter
nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes characteristic of
the somatic cells of the species.
M Phase: The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell
division or mitosis occurs i.e., during which the chromosomes are
condensed and the nucleus and cytoplasm divide.
Nonsister chromatids: Nonsister chromatids are not identical to each
other as they represent different but homologous chromosomes and
they will carry the same type of genetic information, but not exactly
the same information.
Pachytene: In meiosis, the stage following synapsis (zygotene) in
which the homologous chromosome threads (synaptonemal complex)
shorten, thicken, and continue to intertwine, and each of the conjoined

(bivalent) chromosomes separate into two sister chromatids, which are

held together by a centromere, to form a tetrad.
Prophase: Prophase is the first stage of mitosis in which chromosomal
material becomes untangled during the process of chromatin
condensation and the centriole, begins to move towards opposite poles
of cell.
Sister chromatids: During S phase of the cell cycle the DNA is
replicated and an identical copy of the chromatid is made. These
identical copy of chromatids are called sister chromatids.
S-Phase or Synthesis Phase: The S phase, short for synthesis phase, is
a period in the cell cycle during interphase, between G1 phase and the
G2 phase. In this phase DNA synthesis or replication occurs.
Spindle fibres: It is a group of microtubules that extend from the
centromere of chromosomes to the poles of the spindle or from pole to
pole in a dividing cell.
Synapsis: The pairing of homologous chromosomes along their length;
synapsis usually occurs during prophase I of meiosis, but it can also
occur in somatic cells of some organisms.
Synaptonemal complex: A ribbon like protein structure formed between
synapsed homologues at the end of the first meiotic prophase, binding
the chromatids along their length and facilitating chromatid exchange.
Telophase: The last stage in each mitotic or meiotic division, in which
the chromosomes are assembled at the opposite spindle poles, nuclear
envelope assembles around the chromosomes and nucleolus golgi
complex and endoplasmic reticulum reform.
Zygotene: This is the synaptic stage of the first meiotic prophase in
which the two leptotene chromosomes undergo pairing by the
formation of synaptonemal complexes to form a bivalent structure.

V.
SUMMARY
According to the cell theory, cells arise from preexisting cells.
Cells vary in structure in relation to the functions they perform.
No matter how different in shape and size cells are, they have the
same main part; cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
The process by which this occurs is called cell division.

 Any sexually reproducing organism starts its life cycle from a singlecelled zygote. Cell division does not stop with the formation of the
mature organism but continues throughout its life cycle
The stages through which a cell passes from one division to the next
is called the cell cycle.
Cell cycle is divided into two phases called (i) Interphase a period
of preparation for cell division, and (ii) Mitosis (M phase) the actual
period of cell division. Interphase is further subdivided into G1, S
and G2. G1 phase is the period when the cell grows and carries out
normal metabolism.
Most of the organelle duplication also occurs during this phase. S
phase marks the phase of DNA replication and chromosome
duplication. G2 phase is the period of cytoplasmic growth.
Mitosis is also divided into four stages namely prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Chromosome condensation occurs during prophase. Simultaneously,
the centrioles move to the opposite poles. The nuclear envelope
and the nucleolus disappear and the spindle fibres start appearing.
Metaphase is marked by the alignment of chromosomes at the
equatorial plate.
During anaphase the centromeres divide and the chromatids start
moving towards the two opposite poles.
Once the chromatids reach the two poles, the chromosomal
elongation starts, nucleolus and the nuclear membrane reappear.
This stage is called the telophase.
Nuclear division is then followed by the cytoplasmic division and is
called cytokinesis. Mitosis thus, is the equational division in which
the chromosome number of the parent is conserved in the daughter
cell.
In contrast to mitosis, meiosis occurs in the diploid cells, which are

destined to form gametes.

In sexual reproduction

when

the

two

gametes

fuse

chromosome number is restored to the value in the parent.

Meiosis is divided into two phases meiosis I and meiosis II.

the

 In the first meiotic division the homologous chromosomes pair to

form bivalents, and undergo crossing over.
Meiosis I has a long prophase, which is divided further into five
phases. These are leptotene, zygote, pachytene, diplotene and
diakinesis.
During metaphase I the bivalents arrange on the equatorial plate.
This is followed by anaphase I in which homologous chromosomes
move to the opposite poles with both their chromatids.
Each pole receives half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
In telophase I, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis. During anaphase II the sister
chromatids separate. Thus at the end of meiosis four haploid cells
are formed.

VI.

POST-TEST

1. Who are the three principal contributors to the cell theory? State
their contribution to the development of the theory.
2. What enabled cytologists to gain more knowledge and better
understanding of the cell theory?
3. Describe the events taking place during interphase.
4. How does cytokinesis in plant cells differ from that in animal cells?
5. What is the significance of meiosis?
6. Differentiate plant and animal cells as to their protective covering
or envelope?
7. Name two organelles which are:
a. Present in plant cells but not in animal cells
b. Present in animal cells but not in plant cells
8.10 Make an analogy of the functions and structures of the cell and
its organelles.

VII.

APPENDIX
Answers for Pre-test:
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. C
8. C
9. A
10. B
Answers for Post-Test
1. Mattias Schleiden (working on plant cells) and Theodore
Schwann (working on animal cells) made the generalization that
all living things are made up of cells. Meanwhile, Rudolf Virchow
came to the conclusion that cells come from pre-existing cells.
2. The invention of the microscope, its subsequent improvements
and the use of modern techniques in studying cells enabled
cytologists to gain more knowledge and better understanding of
the cell theory.
3. Interphase may be divided into three stages. In Gap 1, all the
necessary materials are prepared by the cell. Synthesis phase is
where DNA is replicated. In Gap 2, organelles are being
replicated.
4. In animal cells, where no rigid wall exists, the cytoplasm
becomes shaped like a dumbbell as the result of constriction
initiated at the cell's surface, which extends inward. In plants, a
new cell wall is built across the middle of the cell and gradually
extends outward.
5. It is

very

essential to

understand the significance of this

division in the life of an organism. Mitosis results in the

production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic

complement usually. The growth of multi-cellular organisms is
due to mitosis. Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential
for the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. A
very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair.
6. In addition to the cell membrane which envelops the
cytoplasm of both plant and animal cells, the plant cell has
another outer protective covering known as the cell wall.
7. Plastids are large vacuoles present in plant cells, whereas
lysosomes and centrosomes are found in animal cells.
VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rabago Ph.D., Lilia M., Joaquin Ph.D., Crescencia C., Lagunzad
Ph.D, Catherine Genevieve B. (2003)

Functional Biology: Modular

Approach. 68-79.
The Grolier Family Encyclopedia. International Edition (2003) p.
211-216.
Biologymad. (2012) Retrieved from:
http://www.biologymad.com/resources/Ch%201%20-%20Cells.pdf
Learning basket Biology. Retrieved from:
http://www.ncert.nic.in/html/learning_basket/biology/cc&cd.pdf