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Materialistic attitude as an antecedent of organizational citizenship behavior

Omer Torlak Umut Koc

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Omer Torlak Umut Koc, (2007),"Materialistic attitude as an antecedent of organizational citizenship
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Materialistic attitude as an
antecedent of organizational
citizenship behavior
Omer Torlak and Umut Koc

Materialistic
attitude

581

Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences,

Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
Purpose Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has continuously been an important issue for
almost three decades. In contrast with the high interest in OCB, the effects of materialism on OCB
have not attracted sufficient attention in the literature. The aim of this study is to examine the
relationship between the materialistic attitudes of salespeople working in pharmaceutical and
household white goods and furniture (HWGF) sectors and their OCB.
Design/methodology/approach It is hypothesized that materialistic attitude is one of the
dispositional variables which is an antecedent of OCB. A total of 199 salespeople who work for
pharmaceutical and HWGF sectors in Eskisehir, Turkey were surveyed. The questionnaire consisted
of two scales to measure materialistic tendencies and OCB, respectively.
Findings The results of the study early indicate that materialistic attitude is one of the antecedents
that have negative impacts on OCB. There are negative correlations between all dimensions of OCB
and materialistic attitude.
Research limitations/implications Self-reporting for both materialistic attitudes and OCB may
inflate correlations. Since the differences in cultural context between Turkey and Western countries
and between the sectors can make it difficult to generalize the results universally, there is need for
further research in different cultural contexts and sectors.
Practical implications According to the literature and previous research, managers evaluations
of performance, organizational effectiveness, and customer perceptions of service quality are
positively related with OCB. Sales managers must pay more attention to decreasing salespeoples
materialistic tendencies and increasing the OCB.
Originality/value This is the first study that shows a relationship between materialistic attitude,
as a dispositional variable and an individual characteristic, and OCB.
Keywords Organizations, Citizenship, Behaviour, Salesforce, Turkey
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Numerous studies in the business literature have been conducted on the antecedents of
organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The reason for this popularity is the
existence of positive relationships between OCB and both individual and
organizational performance.
However, the information on the relationship between materialistic attitude, as a
dispositional variable and individual characteristic, and OCB are not sufficiently
provided. It is interesting that researchers have examined many dispositional factors
but not materialism. We think that materialism should influence employees OCB. OCB,
Note: An earlier version of this paper appeared in the Proceedings of the 15th World
Business Congress of IMDA Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The authors wish to acknowledge the helpful comments of anonymous reviewers on an
earlier version of this paper and the advice and suggestions of Joseph Sarkis, an Editor of
Management Research News.

Management Research News

Vol. 30 No. 8, 2007
pp. 581-596
# Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0140-9174
DOI 10.1108/01409170710773715

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as a special form of extra-role behavior in organizational contexts, means behaving as

a citizen who cares about the well-being of both his country and other citizens. This
kind of behavior is not parallel to materialism and its consequences. This study, first,
reviews prior studies about OCB and materialism in both organizational behavior and
marketing literature. Then, it presents the method and results from the field study on
salespeople in the household white goods and furniture (H.W.G.F), and pharmaceutical
sectors. Finally, the study concludes by discussion of the results.
Literature overview
OCB and materialism have been a large body of research both in the organizational
behavior and marketing literature. The following sections discuss these concepts
through examining their definitions, antecedents, and consequences.
Organizational citizenship behavior
The concept of citizenship behavior is used for the first time to express supra-role (or
extra-role) behaviors whose relations are examined with job satisfaction (Bateman and
Organ, 1983). These kinds of behaviors cannot be prescribed or required in advance for
a given job (Katz and Kahn, 1966). Supra-role behaviors strengthen social structure of
the organization but do not affect the task performance directly.
In the related literature, one of the most cited definitions for OCB is Organs (1988,
p. 4) statement: . . . individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly
recognized by the formal reward system, and in the aggregate promotes the efficient
and effective functioning of the organization. MacKenzie et al. (1993, p. 71) defines
OCB within a marketing perspective as discretionary behaviors on the part of a
salesperson that directly promote the effective functioning of an organization, without
necessarily influencing a salespersons objective sales productivity. A quite different
approach is conceptualizing OCB as a global concept that contains all positive
organizationally relevant behaviors (no matter even if it is an extra or in-role behavior
or political behaviors) of individual organization members (Graham, 1991; Van Dyne
et al., 1994).
According to Organ (1988), OCB has five dimensions including altruism, courtesy,
sportsmanship, civic virtue, and conscientiousness. Altruism consists of behaviors that
help a specific other person (Morrison, 1994, p. 1550). Courtesy includes efforts to prevent
work-related problems with others (MacKenzie et al., 1993). Sportsmanship is defined as
any behavior demonstrating tolerance of less than ideal circumstances without
complaining (Bell and Menguc, 2002, p. 134). Civic virtue represents a macro-level
interest in, or commitment to, the organization as a whole (Podsakoff et al., 2000, p. 525)
just like the citizenship to a country and conscientiousness includes arbitrary behavior
that goes well beyond the minimum requirement (Podsakoff et al., 1990, p. 115).
Grahams (1991, p. 255) OCB categorization has three components. The first
component, organizational obedience, reflects acceptance of the necessity and
desirability of rational rules and regulations governing organizational structure, job
descriptions, and personnel policies. The second component, organizational loyalty is
identification with and allegiance to an organizations leaders and the organization as a
whole, transcending the parochial interests of individuals, work groups, and
departments. The final component, organizational participation is interest in
organizational affairs guided by ideal standards of virtue, validated by an individuals
keeping informed, and expressed through full and responsible involvement in
organizational governance.

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Podsakoff et al. (2000) provide a detailed critical review of the theoretical and
empirical literature for both antecedents and consequences of OCB. They study
approximately 200 studies published between 1983 and 1999 and examine empirical
research on four major categories of antecedents: individual (employee) characteristics,
task characteristics, organizational characteristics, and leadership behaviors.
Employee attitudes, dispositional variables, employee role perceptions, demographic
variables, and employee abilities and individual differences are dimensions of
individual characteristics. While task characteristics include task feedback, task
routinization and intrinsically satisfying task, organizational characteristics contain
organizational formalization, organizational inflexibility, advisory/staff support,
cohesive group, rewards outside the leaders control, spatial distance from leader, and
perceived organizational support (POS). Finally, Core transformational leadership,
reward punishment behaviors, leader role clarification, leader specification of
procedures, supportive leader behaviors, and leader-member exchange compose
leadership behaviors.
The results of the study can be summarized as follows: satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and trust in leader have positive correlations with OCB under an
employee attitudes dimension. In employee role perceptions, both role ambiguity and
role conflict generally have negative effects. While the OCB is positively related with
need for independence, task feedback, and intrinsically satisfying task, the sign of its
relationship with indifference to rewards and task routinization under task
characteristics category. In the organizational characteristics category, cohesive group
affects OCB positively but a reward outside the leaders control affects it negatively.
Finally, leadership behaviors; transformational leadership, contingent reward
behavior, leader role clarification and supportive leader behaviors encourage the
behavior, while, non-contingent punishment behavior discourages OCB (Podsakoff
et al., 2000, pp. 527-529).
Many studies post-1999 continue to examine the antecedents. Lambert (2000) finds
significant and positive relationships between workers assessments of the usefulness
of work-life benefits (e.g. child care and elder care) and OCB. Bell and Menguc (2002)
having insurance salespeople as a sample show that the relationship between
organizational identification and OCB is positive and significant. Yoon and Suh (2003)
indicate in their research on the contact employee of travel agencies that the more trust
employees have in their managers the more OCB they demonstrate. Moreover, Turnely
et al.s (2003) study suggests that the extent of psychological contract fulfillment is
positively related to OCB.
In the literature, there are some studies about consequences of OCB also. Generally,
it is expected that OCB has a positive impact on the groups and organizations.
However, despite this expectation, the issue has received little empirical attention
(Podsakoff et al., 2000). Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1994) report that while civic virtue
and sportsmanship have positive effects; helping behavior has a negative effect on
sales performance of insurance agency units. In a study on paper mill work crews,
helping behavior affects both the quantity produced and product quality while helping
behavior affects quantity produced positively (Podsakoff et al., 1997). Koys (2001)
longitudinal study on stores from a regional restaurant chain shows that OCB is related
to the profit and profit as a percentage of sales positively. Finally, OCB has a positive
impact on customer perceptions of service quality which is indicated by Bell and
Menguc (2002) and Yoon and Suh (2003).

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OCB does not have effects only on organizational performance but also on
managerial evaluations and decisions. MacKenzie et al. (1999) examine whether OCB
accounts for a greater proportion of a persons performance evaluation at higher levels
of the organizational hierarchy. The results show that when the effects of common
method biases are controlled, the magnitude of the impact of OCB on evaluations is
higher at managerial levels than at the levels of the sales agent. The managers and
agents who are perceived to be the most effective are the ones who are not only
productive themselves but also make those around them more productive as well by
helping, being good sports, and/or exhibiting civic virtue.
Podsakoff et al. (2000, p. 543) summarize the findings from their meta-review about
managerial evaluations and decisions as follows: (a) OCB/contextual performance has
a positive impact on several important personnel decisions made by managers; (b) the
weight of this evidence suggests that the effect of this form of performance is at least
as great as the effect of in-role performance; (c) there is evidence to suggest that in-role
and extra-role performance may interact when influencing managerial judgments and
decisions; (d) common method (using the same source both for the measures of OCB
and managerial performance evaluations) variance has a substantial impact on the
relationships between OCB/contextual performance and managerial judgments;
although this bias generally weakens these relationships, it does not eliminate them.
Salespeople control perspective and OCB
Anderson and Oliver (1987) classify salespeople control systems into those monitoring
the final outcomes of a process (outcome-based control) and those monitoring individual
stages (behavior-based control) in the process. Later, Oliver and Anderson (1994)
empirically present that behavior control is an affect strategy that correlates with a
more accepting or respective sales representative and might also foster greater intrinsic
motivation. Outcome control is an uninvolved strategy, one in which salespeople can be
expected to be more self-oriented and less accepting of managerial direction. Oliver and
Anderson (1995) also show that intermediate positions between these two philosophies
may be taken to strike a balance between the organizations circumstances and its goals.
A hybrid form of control is linked to higher levels of performance of salespeople.
Cravens et al. (1993) find a positive relationship between behavioral performance,
activities and strategies of salespeople in their job responsibilities, and outcome
performance in organizations employing behavior-based control approaches, and also
a positive relationship between outcome performance and financial effectiveness.
Similarly, Baldauf et al.s (2002) studys findings indicate the positive role of behaviorbased sales management control strategy in improving important salespeople
consequences, support the strong relationship between salesperson behavior and
salesperson outcome performance, and offer indirect support that organizations
employing a greater extent of behavior-based control appear to be using a strategy that
results in higher levels of effectiveness.
Piercy et al. (2006) investigated OCB on salespeople control and performance. They
make several departures from prior research approaches. The authors investigate the
relationships between OCB, salesperson performance, sales management behavior
control, and POS. The study findings confirm that sales manager behavior-based
control activities have a positive impact on the level of salesperson OCB and the impact
of behavior control appears much greater acting through POS. In-role behavior (IRB)
performance, which refers to activities and strategies of salespeople in carrying out
their job responsibilities (e.g. teamwork, sales planning, sales adaptability, sales

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support), mediates the relationship between OCB and outcome performance. The
results indicate that OCB have a positive impact on the salesperson IRB performance
construct.
Materialism
Materialism and related subjects have been quite popular since the early Greek
philosophers. For instance, Pythagoras required that students relinquish their personal
possessions before entering the school (Kilbourne et al., 2005). Belk (1983) describes that
since Ancient times philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas, Machiavelli, Hobbs, Locke,
Mandeville, Hume, Adam Smith, Bentham, Mill and Marx; religions such as Buddhism,
Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam; and Freud and neo-Freudians criticized
materialism from different philosophic, religious, and psychoanalytic perspectives.
There are different but similar materialism definitions in the fields of economic
psychology and consumer research. Ward and Wackman (1971, p. 422) define the
concept as an orientation which views material goods and money as being important
for personal happiness and social progress. Belk (1984, p. 291) discusses materialism
as a consumer orientation that consists of the personality treats of possessiveness,
envy, and non-generosity, and reflects the importance a consumer attaches to worldly
possessions. At the highest levels of materialism, such possessions assume a central
place in a persons life and are believed to provide the greatest sources of satisfaction
and dissatisfaction. He has labeled materialism the dominant consumer ideology and
the most significant macro development in modem consumer behavior (Belk, 1987,
p. 26). Richins and Dawson (1992) explain materialism as personal value that gives
importance to owning material possessions and classify it into three categories as
follows: centrality (possessions play central role in life), happiness (possessions linked
to well-being), and success (success judged by possessions).
While Belk (1984) and Richins and Dawson (1992) view materialism as a treat and
value, respectively, Moschis and Churchill (1978) approach materialism as the sum of
attitudes. In their study, Moschis and Churchil outline a general conceptual model of
consumer socialization and analyze it. They specify social structural variables and age/
life cycle position as the antecedents, agentlearner relationship as the socialization
process, and learning properties as the outcomes of the model. Materialistic attitudes
are one of the seven selected learning properties. Their definition about materialistic
attitudes includes orientations emphasizing possessions and money for personal
happiness and social progress (Moschis and Churchill, 1978, p. 607).
In the related literature, the existence of cultural, historical, and individual
differences about materialism which are based on factors such as religion, policy,
geography, language, traditions, and economics are discussed broadly (e.g. Inglehart,
1971; Easterlin, 1980; Belk and Pollay, 1985; Belk and Bryce, 1986). However, there is a
rising global tendency. Increasing consumer expectations and desires are fueled by
global mass media, tourism, immigration, the export of popular culture, and the
marketing activities of transnational firms as well as being one of the products of this
global consumption is materialism (Ger and Belk, 1996). Advertising, which
predominates in capitalist economic systems, creates an illusory felt need for products.
Individuals are deluged on a daily basis with mass media including billboard and
internet ads that an attempt to convince them of a products purported ability to meet
basic needs for security, competence, and attractiveness (Kasser, 2002).
How about the predictors of materialism? Family structure and maternal status
have a significant impact. Claxton et al.s (1995) hypothesis that cool spouses have

Materialistic
attitude

585

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less success at emotional integration due to lesser emphasis on family goals and
greater cultivation of individual goals and without children have the highest
materialism scores. Young adults reared in disrupted families are more materialistic
than young adults reared in intact families (Rindfleisch et al., 1997). Adolescents from
divorced homes are more likely than those from intact homes to express values that
view material possessions as a means of achieving happiness (Roberts et al., 2003).
Materialism in adolescents is positively related to peer influence and is negatively
related to satisfaction with ones mother, religious service attendance, and economic
socialization (Flouri, 1999).
Kilbourne et al. (2005) show that the relationship between self-transcendence and
materialism is negative and the relationship between self-enhancement and materialism
is positive. Materialists tend to avoid supplication and ingratiation (Christopher et al.,
2005). They discuss that insecurity may be a precursor to materialism.
Undoubtley, there are also some important consequences of materialism. One of the
most popular debates about materialism is whether its good or bad. Csikszentmihalyi
and Rochberg-Halton (1978, 1981) point out that materialism is not necessarily either
good or bad. Materialisms dark side has been described as one of the harmful forms of
consumption that may be dysfunctional to both the individual and society (Hirschman,
1991; Rindfleisch and Burroughs, 1999). On the other hand, Belk (1985) argues that if the
opposite of materialism is asceticism, some psychopathologies of masochism, self-hatred,
anorexia nervosa, and other self-destructive urges that may underlie the willful selfdenial of material sources of satisfaction.
Most of the studies examine links between materialism and both happiness (the
affective dimension of well-being) and life satisfaction (the cognitive dimension of wellbeing) have similar results. Belk (1984), Richins (1987), Richins and Dowson (1992),
Richins et al. (1992), find negative relationships between materialism and consumer
well-being. Social desirability bias (Mick, 1996), individual religious orientation
(LaBarbera and Gurhan, 1997) and family structure (Rindfleisch and Burroughs, 1999)
are the most cited moderators of the relationship between materialism and well-being
in the literature. People who focus on the pursuit of money and goods may suffer from
an underlying feeling of insecurity, have poor interpersonal relationships, and have a
low or contingent sense of self-esteem.
Recent proposals emphasize the increasing endorsement of materialistic values as a
cause of compulsive buying a dysfunctional consumer behavior with harmful
psychological and financial consequences (e.g. Dittmar, 2004; Kasser and Kanner,
2004). Dittmar (2005) found that materialistic value endorsement emerged as the
strongest predictor of individuals compulsive buying, and that it significantly
mediates the observed age differences.
Lastly, consumer and managerial ethics are also influenced as a consequence of
materialism. Muncy and Eastman (1998) show that materialism is negatively
correlated with peoples high ethical standards as consumers. Cullen et al. (2004) use
institutional anomie theory to develop hypotheses relating four national culture
variables (achievement, individualism, universalism, and pecuniary materialism) and
social institutions (economy, polity, family, and education) to examine managers
willingness to justify behaviors generally considered ethically suspect. Results support
their hypotheses for universalism, economy, family, education, and materialism.

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Materialism as an antecedent of OCB

Do individual dispositions significantly influence behavior, or are situational forces
alone sufficient to predict and explain behavior? House et al.s (1996) often cited study
about the dispositional research starts with this question which is raised by Tolstoy
(1904). Both in marketing and organizational behavior literature, we may meet some
studies about the dispositional factors since 1960s (e.g. McClelland, 1961; Brody and
Cunningham, 1968).
One of the most popular approaches about dispositional variables is the Big Five
framework which includes agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism,
extraversion, and openness to experience (McCrea and Costa, 1987). Organ and Ryan
(1995) reports that there is a predictive relationship between conscientiousness and
generalized compliance, which is a dimension of OCB according to Smith et al. (1983),
in their meta-analysis. According to Podsakoff et al.s (2000) study, dispositional
variables such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, positive affectivity, and negative
affectivity have strong effects on only one dimension of OCB, namely altruism. Tang
and Ibrahim (1998) suggest that organization-based self-esteem is the most vigorous
correlate of OCB while need for achievement is related to altruism and is not related to
compliance in both samples.
Dispositional variables may be either strong or weak antecedents of OCB.
Materialism has important implications for consumption meanings, self-identity, life
quality, life satisfaction, and well-being (Zinkhan, 1994). As mentioned before, OCB has
some dimensions like altruism, conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship.
Although, all these dimensions are required high degree of ethical values, self-esteem
and self-transcendence materialism affects all of them negatively (Muncy and
Eastman, 1998; Kasser and Kasser, 2001, Kilbourne et al., 2005). Based on the above
literature, we make our first hypothesis:
H1.

Materialism, as an antecedent, impacts OCB negatively.

Salespeople control approach should have an impact on both OCB and materialism.
Salespeople operating under behavior-based control systems are compensated by a
relatively high portion of fixed salary compared to incentive pay. In contrast, under
outcome-based control, the salespersons incentive pay (commission or bonus) accounts
for the primary form of total compensation, and there is a very limited extent of
managers monitoring, directing, evaluating, and rewarding activities (Baldauf et al.,
2005). Salespeople working for the retailing sector seem to be under a behavior-based
control strategy while the salespeople who work out of an office or store and travel are
likely to be under an outcome-based control. Thus, we arrive at our second hypothesis.
H2.

Salespeople from the retailing sector will demonstrate more OCB and through
less materialistic tendencies than sales representatives working out of an office.

Methodology
The research has been completed on 199 salespeople who work for pharmaceutical and
H.W.G.F sectors in Eskisehir, Turkey. While 114 of the respondents are from the
former, the rest are employed in the latter sector.
We used scales developed by Moschis and Churchill (1978) and MacKenzie et al.
(1993) to measure materialistic attitudes and OCB, respectively. The selection of items
for materialistic attitudes is completed by summing appropriate items, using item-tototal correlations to purify the measure and coefficient alphas to assess the resultant

Materialistic
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reliability of the measure (Moschis and Churchill, 1978). Although, the scale has been
developed and tested using a sample of adolescents (ages 12-18), we use it on adult
salespeople because of the items appropriateness to Turkish context and their high
understandability.
Multiline insurance agents, chemical product salespersons, and district sales
managers working for an international pharmaceutical company are used as samples
of OCB scale. MacKenzie et al. (1993) have developed the items to reflect the various
OCB constructs. Then, items are judged by knowledgeable colleagues and company
representatives. The remaining items are subsequently subjected to measurement
evaluation based largely on the results of extensive confirmatory factor analysis
(Bearden and Netemeyer, 1999). Since the scale is used widely in the related literature
and has given significant results (e.g. Piercy et al., 2002; Yoon and Suh, 2003; Donavan
et al., 2004), we have decided to use it for our research. Both scales are composed of
items scored on a five-point disagreeagree basis.
Results
Some demographic characteristics of the participants as stated in Table I are as
follows: Pharmaceutical sector employees 57.3 per cent of the respondents. Males
between 26 and 35 years old represent 61.8 per cent of people in the sample. Most of the
respondents are either high school (42.2 per cent) or university graduates (39.2 per

Table I.
Sample characteristics

Demographics

Number of participants (N)

Percentage (%)

Sector
H.W.G.F
Pharmaceutical

85
114

42.7
57.3

Gender
Male
Female

117
82

58.8
41.2

Age
25 and below
26-35 years
36 and over

56
123
20

28.1
61.8
10.1

Education
Primary school
High school
Vocational School
University

4
84
33
78

2.0
42.2
16.6
39.2

Monthly salary
400 YTL and below
401-700 YTL
701-1,000 YTL
1,001 YTL and over

36
56
73
34

18.1
28.1
36.7
17.1

Work experience
Less than one year
1-3 years
4-6 years
More than six years

49
63
46
41

24.6
31.7
23.1
20.6

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cent). 36.7 per cent of the participants have monthly salaries between 701 and 1,000
YTL. 31.7 per cent have work experience between one and three years while 24.6 per
cent of people surveyed have work experience of less than one year.
Item scores are summed to form an overall materialistic attitudes scale index. High
standard deviations of the items may be a sign indicating that sample is not
homogenous for materialistic attitudes. The general mean of the items is 2.74 (see
Table II). While the highest ranking response, is money is the most important thing to
consider in choosing a job, the lowest ranking response, is it is really true that money
can buy happiness. Scale reliability showed a 0.74 (coefficient alpha), which is above
the 0.70 deemed reliable by the literature.
Respondents perceptions of materialistic attitudes are tested if there is a difference
on gender or not. A t-test is applied on the general mean of the scale and no significant
difference is observed. The same procedure is followed for the sectors of the
respondents and significant differences have been found. The results in Table III show
that pharmaceutical salespeople have more materialistic attitudes than salespeople in
the H.W.G.F sector.
Salespeoples perceptions about materialistic attitudes are examined with variance
analyses. This research has not found any significant differences for age, education,
gender, or work experience variables. However, a positive and significant relationship
appears between income and materialistic attitudes.
Salespeoples OCB is measured with a 12 item scale (see Table IV). The scale
includes four types of citizenship behavior (conscientiousness, sportsmanship,
altruism, and civic virtue). The level of agreement to the scale that is developed for
determining salespeoples OCB is quite high. Thus, it is proper to indicate that the
respondents general perception about OCB is positive. The coefficient alpha reliability
of the scale is 0.75.
In Table V, the perception rankings of respondents for the four OCB type scales are
presented. According to the scores, respondents have a higher perception score for
altruism and conscientiousness than the other types. For OCB, it is clear that
respondents perception for sportsmanship is the lowest one.
Variables
It is really true that money can buy happiness
My dream in life is to able to own expensive things
People judge others by the things they own
I buy some things that I secretly hope will impress other people
Money is the most important thing to consider in choosing a job
I think others judge me as a person by the kinds of products and
brands I use

Meana

Standard deviation

2.83
2.32
3.12
2.42
3.17
2.60

1.28
1.11
1.29
1.25
1.24
1.20

H.W.G.F
Pharmaceutical

Mean
2.57
2.87

t
2.650

589

Table II.
Means and standard
deviations of
materialistic
attitudes of sample

Note: a(5) Strongly agree . . . . . . : (1) strongly disagree

Sectors of participants

Materialistic
attitude

Sig.
0.009

Table III.
Differences on
perceptions of
participants materialistic
attitudes by their sectors

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Table IV.
OCB perceptions of
respondents

OCB items
Always ready to help or to lend a helping hand to those around
Conscientiously, following company regulations and procedures
Attending functions that are not required but that help the
company image
b
Tending to make mountains out of molehills (making problems
bigger than they are)
Keeping up with developments in the company
Returning phone calls and responding to other messages and
requests for information promptly
Willingly giving time to help others
Turning in budgets, sales projections, expense reports, etc.
earlier than is required
b
Always focusing on what is wrong with the situation, rather
than the positive side of it
Willing to risk disapproval in order to express the beliefs about
whats best for the company
Helping orient new agents even though it is not required
b
Consuming a lot of time complaining about trivial matters

Standard deviation

4.36
4.14

0.84
0.92

4.14
3.53

0.92
1.38

4.23

0.90

4.20
3.86

0.96
1.02

4.27

0.88

2.79

1.27

3.74
4.37
3.83

1.05
0.74
1.27

Notes: a(5) strongly agree, . . . . . . . (1) strongly disagree; bthese items were reverse code before
analysis

OCB items

Table V.
Perceptions of
respondents as OCB
types

Meana

Conscientiousness
Sportsmanshipb
Altruism
Civic virtue

Meana

Standard deviation

4.20
3.38
4.20
4.04

0.68
1.03
0.59
0.67

Notes: a(5) strongly agree, . . . . . . . (1) strongly disagree; bthis item was reverse code before
analysis

Table VI shows the differences in respondent OCB types by sector. The salespeople
who work in the H.W.G.F sector are more sensitive to conscientiousness,
sportsmanship, and altruism than the salespeople in the pharmaceutical sector.
The correlations between OCB and materialistic attitude are provided in Table VII.
The correlations between materialistic attitude and all factors of OCB are significant.
There is a negative relationship between salespeoples materialistic attitude and their
OCB. As a result, it can be said that, while the materialist tendency of salespeople
increases the probability of demonstrating OCB decreases for them.
Discussion
The results of the research on salespeople from two different sectors show that
salespeoples perception about materialistic attitudes is generally at low levels.
The salespeople in the pharmaceutical sector have more materialistic attitudes than the
salespeople in the H.W.G.F sector. This result is consistent with our prior (second)
hypothesis that salespeople from the retailing sector have less materialistic tendencies
than sales representatives who work out of office. Besides, Snyder and Cantor (1980)

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characterize people as high self-monitors vs. low self-monitors. Self-monitoring

involves sensitivity to social information indicating that behavior adaptation is
appropriate or desirable (Browne and Kaldenberg, 1997). Generally, salespeople in
pharmaceutical sector tend to be higher self-monitors than salespeople in H.W.G.F
sector because of the nature of their job characteristic.
Salespeople in the sample have high levels of OCB. The scores for the
sportsmanship dimension are lower than other dimensions of OCB. Moreover,
salespeoples perceptions about OCB differ among the sectors. The salespeople in the
H.W.G.F sector have more altruistic, conscientious, and sportsman behaviors than the
salespeople in the pharmaceutical sector. Our hypothesis which affirms that
salespeople from the retailing sector should demonstrate much OCB is supported. This
is acceptable because of having different salespeople control strategies in different
sectors. Sales manager behavior-based control activities have a positive impact on the
level of salesperson OCB (Piercy et al., 2006).
Finally, there are negative correlations between all dimensions of OCB and
materialistic attitude. The findings of the study indicate that materialistic attitude is one
of the antecedents that have negative impacts on OCB. All the dimensions of OCB except
sportsmanship and overall OCB have correlated with materialism at middle levels. Thus,
we may state that our first hypothesis about the negative impact of materialism as an
antecedent which is a dispositional variable on OCB is partly supported. There are not
robust connections perhaps because of the indirect effects are stronger. Personality
explains substantial variance in job satisfaction which is a predictor of OCB as widely
accepted in the literature (Organ et al., 2006). Anyway, since managers evaluations of
performance, organizational effectiveness, and customer perceptions of service quality
are positively related with OCB, sales managers must pay more attention on decreasing
salespeoples materialistic tendencies and increasing the OCB.
This study certainly has some limitations. Our first limitation is relying on selfreports in designing this study for both materialistic attitudes and OCB which may
OCB dimensions

Sectors

Conscientiousness

H.W.G.F
Pharmaceutical
H.W.G.F
Pharmaceutical
H.W.G.F
Pharmaceutical
H.W.G.F
Pharmaceutical

Sportsmanship
Altruism
Civic virtue

Meana

Sig.

4.43
4.02
3.88
3.01
4.33
4.09
4.06
4.02

4.643

0.000

6.788

0.000

3.026

0.003

0.412

0.681

Materialistic
attitude

591

Table VI.
Differences on
respondents OCB types
by sectors

Note: a(5) strongly agree, . . . . . . . (1) strongly disagree

Conscientiousness Civic virtue Sportsmanship Altruism OCB

overall

Table VII.
Materialistic attitude
Note: *p < 0.01

0.315*

0.311*

0.205*

0.329*

0.405*

Correlations between
types of OCB and
materialistic attitudes

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inflate correlations (Organ and Ryan, 1995). The second limitation is the differences in
cultural context between Turkey and Western countries. Although the rankings of
OCB are generally very high in this study, it is difficult to say whether this is a cultural
tendency or a true representation of the universalization of OCB. Also, despite a
rigorous translation procedure, subtle cultural factors may not sufficiently guarantee
cross-cultural standardization (Ger and Belk, 1990). The final limitation is the difficulty
of generalizing the main results to other contexts. Similar research on different sectors
would contribute the solution of this problem.
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About the authors

Omer Torlak has a PhD in marketing from Istanbul University Social Sciences Institute. He is an
Associate Professor in the Department of Business Administration at Eskisehir Osmangazi
University, Turkey. Research areas are marketing ethics, consumption theory, consumer
behavior, marketing history, and marketing in non-profit organizations. Omer Torlak is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: torlak@ogu.edu.tr
Umut Koc is a PhD candidate of management and organization at Anadolu University Social
Sciences Institute. He is a research assistant in the Department of Business Administration at
Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey. Research areas are organization theory, organizational
behavior, and history of management thought.

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