UNIT OVERVIEW

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

1 Ancient Greek influences

ThisunitlooksatfourofthetraditionalargumentsfortheexistenceofGod.The
Cosmological,TeleologicalandMoralArgumentsseektojustifybeliefthroughthingsthat
wecanexperience.TheOntologicalArgumentsuggeststhatGodsexistencecanbe
demonstratedbyreasonalone.
Thespecifictopicscoveredare:
theOntologicalArgumentofAnselmandDescartes
thecriticismsoftheOntologicalArgumentbyGauniloandKant
theCosmologicalArgumentofAquinasandCopleston
thecriticismsoftheCosmologicalArgumentgivenbyHumeandRussell
theTeleologicalArgumentofAquinasandPaley
criticismsoftheTeleologicalArgumentgivenbyHume,MillandDarwin
theMoralArgumentofKantandcriticismofFreud.
ThefollowingteachernoteslinkdirectlytotheOCRspecification,theOCRSOWandthe
ASPhilosophyandEthicsstudentbooktoprovidecompletesupportthroughoutthedelivery
ofthespecification.
LinkstotheCDROMresourcesareprovidedthroughoutandworksheetstosupportthe
activitiesfollowtheseteachernotesaswellasfurtherexamsupportintheextendedExam
Caf.

Introduction

The Teleological Argument

(lesson plan page 53, student book pages 5253)

Ageneraldiscussionregardingwhetherstudentsdoor
donotbelieveinGodandthereasonstheymayhave
fortheirbeliefsmightbeagoodwayintothetopic.
Whatargumentsaretheyawareof?Thisdiscussion
mayormaynotbeappropriatedependingonwhathas
beendoneatGCSE.Somestudentsmaybereluctantto
givetheirviewstothewholeclass.Moreimpersonal
questionssuchaswhydoyouthinksomepeople
do/dontbelieveinGod?maybeagoodwaytodraw
themintodiscussionwithoutdivulgingtheirpersonal
views.Thisisausefulstrategyforanumberoftopics
wheretheissuemaybesensitive.Thefoursubtopics
inthisunitcanbetaughtinanyorder.Oneapproach
maybetoteachthetopicsalongsidethechallengesto
religiousbeliefgiveninunit4.Theproblemofevil
wouldfollowtheTeleologicalArgument.Theissues
surroundingreligionandsciencecouldfolloweither
theTeleologicalorCosmologicalArgument.

Starter
Akinaestheticwayintothistopicisthejigsawactivity
givenintheschemeofworkandlessonplan1.This
givesacrudeillustrationofthedifferencebetween
intelligentactionandchance.Thiscouldthenleadon
todiscussionofthekeyquestion:isacomplexthing
liketheuniversemorelikelytobetheproductof
designorchance?Alternatively,askstudentstobring
inexamplesofthingsthatnatureorhumanshave
designed,somethingthathasbeautyandsoon(see
lessonplan1).
Thecorrespondinglessonplanactivityhaspotentialto
leadtointerestingdiscussions.Itisworthtryingtodraw
outwhatthekeydifferencesarebetweentheobjectsand
whysomethingscanbearguedtobetheworkofGod.
Keypointsmayincludetheideathatthingsdesignedby

46

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Godshowevidenceofintelligence,theyarebeautiful
and/ortheyarenotcausedbyhumanbeings.
Development and resources
OncestudentsareclearontheTeleologicalArgument
insimpleform(theopeningparagraphonpage52of
thestudentbookisveryusefulinthisrespect),the
argumentsofAquinasandPaleycanbeconsidered.
ThetextsareavailableontheCDROM(Aquinas
FiveWaysandWilliamPaleyextracts),whilepages
5253ofthestudentbookprovideanaccessible
introductiontothesethinkersandtheactivities
encouragestudentstosummarisetheideasofthese
philosophersinplainEnglishtheseactivitiescanbe
usedtocheckunderstanding.
Aquinas
Aquinasargumentisbasedontheorderandregularity
thatisobservedwithintheuniverse.Inadditiontothe
analogyofthearrowonpage52ofthestudentbook,
anotherillustrationthatworksquitewellistheideaof
agarden.Ifyoulookatagardenandseethatitisneat,
plantsgrowinrowsandthegrassistidy,theorderand
regularityofthegardensuggestsagardener.Aquinasis
sayingasimilarthingabouttheuniverse.
Paley
Paleysargumentisslightlydifferentandisbasedon
thenotionthatthewayobjectsareputtogetherenables
themtofulfilapurpose.Hegivestwoexamplesofthis,
thewatchandthehumaneye,bothofwhichare
detailedinthestudentbookwithaccompanying
activities.
Differentiation
Thestudentbookmaterialonpages5253isaccessible
toallstudents.Thereareoriginal(andfuller)extracts
fromAquinasandPaleyavailableontheCDROM
whichwillbeofinteresttohigherabilitystudentsor
thosewhowanttodofurtherreading.Itiswellworth
studentslookingattheoriginaltextasPaleygives
severalscenarios,suchasthewatchbeingbroken,and
arguesthattherewouldstillbeevidenceofdesign.

47

1 Ancient Greek influences

Thismaybeusefulasstudentsinexaminationsoften
givetheimpressionthattheyhaveonlyavague
knowledgeofPaley.
Plenary/extension
Thestudentbookactivitiesencouragestudentstowrite
outAquinasandPaleysargumentsinplainEnglish,
andthisisagoodopportunitytochecktheir
understandingiscorrect.

Humes criticisms of the

Teleological Argument
(student book pages 5455)

Starter
Explaintostudentsthattheeasiestwayforthemto
understandHumeisthroughhisempiricism:heonly
believeswhathissensestellhim,henceheissceptical
aboutallsupernaturalstatements.Studentscouldread
theintroductorytextonpage54ofthestudentbook
andrespondtothequotationfromDialogues
ConcerningNaturalReligion.
Development and resources
Thestudentbook(pages5455)goesintosomedetail
regardingHumescriticismoftheTeleological
Argumentandtheweaknessesheseesinit.The
accompanyingactivitiesaredesignedtodrawout
studentsunderstanding.TheFordebateand
cabbageactivitiesshouldproveengagingtoall
abilities.Thisisfurthercomplementedbyworksheet
3.1,whichsummarisesHumescriticismsandasks
studentstoevaluatethem.Thefinalactivityonpage55
ofthestudentbookconsolidatesthisbyaskingstudents
torankHumescriticisms.Thesecondcriticismon
worksheet3.1tendstobeenjoyedbystudentsasHume
sarcasticallydrawsouttheconclusionsofthedesign
analogies.OriginalextractsfromtheDialoguesare
alsoavailableontheCDROMfordistributionasyou
seefit.TheCDROMalsoincludesanadditional
PowerPointfileoutliningHumeskeyideas,andthe
taskattheendofthisfilecanbecompletedin

conjunctionwiththeextractsfromtheDialogues.
Differentiation
Studentscouldeithercompleteworksheet3.1asitisor
theycouldrankthecriticismsifthisisfoundtobe
easier.Question4willprovidesomestretchand
challengeandcouldbeleftuntilafterMillandDarwin
havebeenstudied.Thetextualextractsfromthe
Dialogues(availableontheCDROM)arealsowell
worthlookingatandmaybedistributedtotheclassor
tomoreablestudentsasyouseefit.
Plenary
Humebelievedthatcomparingtheworldtoaman
mademachinewasaninvalidanalogy.Theworldis
morelikesomethingorganic(avegetableeven!).A
funplenarycouldinvolvegoingroundthegroupand
eachstudentcontributingasentencetothestatement:
Theworldislikeamachine/aplantbecause....A
prizecouldbeawardedforthemostoriginal
justificationofaview.

Mill and Darwin

(student book pages 5657)

Starter
Itislikelythatsomeorallstudentswillalreadyhave
someawarenessofDarwinandhistheories.Ask
studentswhattheyknow,orthinktheyknow,about
Darwinianthoughtanditsimplicationsforreligious
belief.
Development and resources
Thetextonpages5657ofthestudentbookgivesa
goodsummaryofDarwiniantheory.Itisimportantthat
studentsareabletoexplainhowDarwinsideasaffect
theargumentfromdesignandnotjuststatehistheory
ofevolution.Onewayofenablingstudentsto
consolidateworkonDarwinisbyproducinga
PowerPointexplaininghisideasonevolutionand,
mostimportantlyinthissubject,howitaffectsthis
argument.

Thesecondactivityonpage56ofthestudentbook
servesasimilarfunctioninthatitasksstudentsto
bulletpointDarwinscaseagainsttheTeleological
Argument.TheFordebateactivityonpage57isalso
effectiveingettingstudentstoconsiderhowDarwinian
theorymightactuallystrengthentheTeleological
Argument.Aswellasonpage57ofthestudentbook,
thereareextractsfromMillsoriginalwritings,
togetherwithamoredetailedsetofnotesexplaining
hisideas,ontheCDROM.MillagreeswithHume
abouttheimperfectionswithintheworld.Thisleads
himtoconcludethatthereisadesignerbutnotinthe
traditionalChristiansense.Thedesignercouldnotbe
bothallpowerfulandallgood.Thereispotentialhere
tomakelinkswiththeproblemofevilortoremind
studentsofMillwhentheycometodothistopiclater.
Differentiation
TheAnthropicPrincipleworksheet,availableonthe
CDROM,isinadditiontothelimitsofthe
specificationandisastretchandchallengesheetthat
engageswiththeargumentsofthe20thcentury
followingonfromDarwin.Itisworthstressingto
studentsthatevenifDarwiniscompletelyaccurateon
evolution,thisneednotruleouttheinvolvementof
God.Dependingontime,therearesomepossible
researchavenuesandthepotentialforexcellent
debates.Thegeneralruleofgivingalittlemoretimeif
studentsareenthusedmayapplyhere.
Plenary
Apossible510minuteplenarycouldinvolvethe
teachermakingaseriesofstatementssuchashuman
beingsaresocomplex,theyhavetobedesignedby
God;IfDarwinisright,therecanbenoGod.
Studentsmoveononesideoftheroomiftheyagree
withthestatement,theotheriftheydont.Students
whoareunsurecouldbeallowedtoremaininthe
middle.Ifyouhavealittlemoretime,youmaywishto
invitestudentstopresentargumentstopersuadeothers
tomove.

48

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Aquinas Cosmological
Argument; criticisms of it
(student book pages 4849)

1 Ancient Greek influences

anditscontinuedexistence,cannotbeacontingent
thing:soeithernothingdiditoranecessarybeingwas
responsiblethatnecessarybeingisGod.
Humescriticisms

Starter
Akinaestheticopeningtothisargumentisthedomino
rallytaskoutlinedintheschemeofwork.Askstudents
whatcauseseachitemtofall.Itisworthlabouringthe
pointuntilthestartofthechainisreached.Students
willusuallysaythatthepersonpushingthefirst
dominoorbookcausedtheevent.Askwhatcausedthe
persontobethere.Thenwhatcausedtheirparentsto
bethereandsoon.Itisquiteeasytotracethisbackto
thestartoftheuniverse.Isthereafirstcausewherethe
chainofeventsstarts?Forreligiousbelieversthe
answerisyes,thestartofthischainisGod.
Development and resources
Itisworthmakingsurethatstudentsareclearonhow
CosmologicalArgumentsdifferfromTeleological
Argumentsbeforegettingtoofarintothistopic.The
CosmologicalArgumentisanargumentaboutorigins
andaskswhatcausedtheuniversetoexistandwhat
doesitsexistencedependupon.TheTeleological
Argumentexaminesthequalityoftheuniverseand
askshowitappearstobesowelldesigned.
Aquinas
Waysone,twoandthreeofAquinasFiveWaysareall
CosmologicalArgumentsandareillustratedonpage
49ofthestudentbook(studentscanresearchthefourth
andfifthWaysasastretchandchallengeactivity).
AquinasfirstandsecondWaysarestraightforwardto
graspandcanbereadeasily.Theoriginaltextsare
availableontheCDROMformoreindepthstudy.
AquinasthirdWayfromcontingencyisatrickier
conceptandrequiresmorecarefulhandling.Worksheet
3.2isalightheartedwayintothis.Ifstudentscan
understandthattherearetwotypesofexistence,the
contingentandthenecessary,theyshouldgraspthe
argument.Essentially,Aquinasarguesthatthe
explanationoftheuniverse,bothintermsofitsorigins

49

HumescriticismsofAquinasarepresentedonpage
4849ofthestudentbook.Thelearningisfurther
consolidatedbyworksheet3.3,whichpresentsa
jumbledlistofHumescriticismsforstudentstosort
andmatchagainstasimpleCosmologicalArgument.
Humechallengesallthreepointsoftheargument,
includingourseeminglycommonsensebeliefinthe
principleofcauseandeffect.

Differentiation
Thetasksonworksheet3.3mayprovetoochallenging
forsomestudents.Kinaestheticlearnersmaybeableto
accessthisbyroleplayingtheconversationinsmall
groupspriortowriting.
Plenary/extension
Asaplenaryorextensionactivitystudentscould
discussHumesviewsoncausation:thatwecannotbe
certainofcauseandeffect;itmayjustbethatwe
associatetwothingsbyhabit.Onewaytoillustratethis
istodroparulertothefloorandaskwhatcauseditto
fall.Theteacherdidisthecommonsenseview.
Hume,asanempiricist,wouldaskwhatdoyousee?.
Theansweristwoevents:releasingtherulerthenthe
rulerfalling.Humearguesthatitisourmindthat
assumescauseandeffect.Asimilarexample,butnot
onesuitableforcarryingoutintheclassroom,is
providedinthestudentbooktoconsolidatethispoint.

Copleston and Russell

presentingahighlightsprogramme(orasthestudent
bookputsit:PhilosophyMatchoftheDay).Key
questionstoreflectupon:whowonthedebate?What
doyouthinkandwhy?IsRussellansweringor
avoidingthequestioninsayingthattheuniverseisjust
abrutefact?
Differentiation
Somestudentswillfindtheextractsofthedebate
difficulttoaccess.Itmaybeworthstickingtothe
studentbookpages5051forthesestudents.Thekey
pointtoconveyisthatCoplestonbelievesthatallthings,
includingtheuniverse,requireanexplanation.Russell
rejectsthislineofreasoninganddoesnotconsiderthe
originoftheuniversetobeaworthwhilequestion.
Plenary
Studentscouldsummarisethistopicbyproducinga
spiderdiagramshowingthekeyideasofeachthinker
onthisargument.Alternativelytheideaforastrip
cartoonactivity(page51ofthestudentbook)would
workwellasaplenaryand/orhomeworkactivity.

(student book pages 5051)

Starter
Quicklyrecap,throughclassQ&A,thekeyprinciples
oftheCosmologicalArgumenttocheckstudentsare
familiarbeforetacklingCoplestonandRussells
encounter.
Development and resources
Studentsshouldreadthroughpages5051ofthe
studentbook,whichincludeimportantextractsandkey
pointsfromthedebate.Theaccompanyingactivities
consolidatethelearningandenableyoutocheck
understanding.
ThetranscriptofthedebateisavailableontheCD
ROM,togetherwithanaudiofilereconstructionof
someofthekeysections.
Moreablestudentsshouldbeabletoaccesssome
extractsofthedebate.Studentscouldsummarisethe
viewsofthethinkersbyimaginingthattheyare

The Moral Argument from Kant

and challenges from Freud
(student book pages 6063)

Starter
Thetopiccouldbeintroducedviaarightorwrong
quizwheretheteachergivesseveralactionsandasks
whethertheyarerightorwrong.Focusontheareas
whereallstudentsagreethatanactioniswrong(e.g.
cannibalism,rapeorsettingfiretocats).Whatisitthat
makestheseactionswrong?Isitwrong?Arethere
absolutevalues?Wheredothesevaluescomefrom?
Alternativelytheconversationbetweenteacherand
studentoverthebadlymarkedessay(worksheet3.5)
couldbethebasisofdiscussion.TheFordebate
activityonpage60ofthestudentbookcouldalsobe
usedasastarteractivity.ExplainthatMoral
Argumentssuggestthereareabsolutevaluesandthese
cannotbeexplainedwithoutGod.

50

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Development and resources

KantsMoralArgument
Usethestudentbook(pages6061)tooutlineKants
argumentanddrawoutthedifferencebetween
hypotheticalandcategoricalimperatives.(Itmayalso
beappropriatetoreviewKantsethicsifthistopichas
alreadybeentaught.)Studentsshouldbeabletowork
throughworksheet3.4usingdifferentiatedresources,
includingthestudentbook.Itisworthpointingouttwo
thingsthatKantdoesnotdothatoftenendup
appearingonexaminationpapers.
Firstly,notethatKantdoesnotclaimtoproveGods
existence.Ratherheclaimsthatifthereistobesucha
thingasabsolutemorality,thenfreedom,immortality
andGodsexistencehavetobepostulated.Hencethe
MoralArgumentisnotaproof.Kanthimselfsaidthat
Godsexistencecouldneverbeproved:Idemolish
knowledgetomakeroomforfaith.
Secondly,KantsMoralArgumentisnotaDivine
Commandethic.Althoughmoralitymaysuggestthe
existenceofGod,itisnotthecasethatGodcommands
thingstoberightorwrong.Weareabletoarriveatthis
knowledgeusingourreason.
Freud
Itmaybepossibletodrawontheknowledgeof
psychologystudentstogiveageneralintroductionto
Freud.Hisideasappearinaveryaccessibleformon
pages6263ofthetextbook.Thereisanaudiofilethat
givesanimaginaryinterviewwithFreud,aswellasa
detailedPowerPoint,ontheCDROMwithan
additionaltaskattheend.TheCDROMalsoincludes
someoriginalextractsfromFreud.Together,thesewill
enablestudentstocompleteworksheet3.5.
Differentiation
Thereisagreatdealofmaterialonworksheet3.5and
teacherswillneedtodecidewhatisappropriatefor
theirgroupsandhowtheworkshouldbeorganised.
Pairedworkorsplittingthetasksbetweenthegroups
maybeameansofdifferentiation.

51

1 Ancient Greek influences

Thestretchandchallengeactivitiesonworksheet3.5
maybeomitted,dependingontime.However,
Dawkinshighprofileinthemediamayalsogive
studentsaninterestinhisviewthatmoralityis
somethingthatevolves:thosewhobehavewell
towardsothersaremorelikelytopassontheirgenes.

Plenary
DiscusspossiblestrengthsandweaknessesofKants
argument(weaknessesdonotneedtobelimitedto
Freudiancriticisms).TheFordebateactivityonpage
63ofthestudentbookinvitesstudentstodebate
whetherjustbecauseweknowhowweoughtto
behavedoesntmeanthereisaGod.Thiscouldbea
goodbasisfordiscussion.

The Ontological Argument and

criticisms of it
(student book pages 4247)

Thisisoftenfeltbystudentstobethehardesttopicon
theAS.Accordinglythereareanumberofworksheetsin
thispackthataimatclarifyingthekeythinkersideas.
Starter
Reviewthedifferencebetweenapriorianda
posterioribyissuingasetofstatements.Whichare
provedbylogic?Whichbyexperience?The
OntologicalArgumentisunusual.Itclaimsthatone
canknowthatGodhastoexistpurelybylogicinthe
samewaythat2addedto2hastobe4.Priorto
introducingthemtotheargument,Idramaticallyand
seriouslyinformmystudentsthatwhentheyseethis
argument,theywillrealisethatGodhastoexistand
theywillbecomeregularvisitorstotheirlocalchurch
ormosque.
Development and resources
AnselmandGaunilo
ItmaybeworthsplittingAnselmsargumentsand
returningtothesecondargumentafterconsiderationof
Gaunilosobjection.Althoughstudentsmustbemade
awarethatAnselmssecondargumentisnotwrittenin
responsetoGaunilo.Onewayofmakingstudentsthink
istointroduceAnselmsargumentinthelast510
minutesofalesson.Invitestudentstothinkaboutthe
argumentandcommentinthenextlesson.Good
studentsoftenanticipatetheobjectionofGaunilo,
whichisoutlinedonpage43ofthestudentbook.

Page42ofthestudentbookincludesanillustrationof
Anselmsfirstargument,whileworksheet3.6provides
Anselmsfirstargumentinhisownwords.Students
couldresearchandfindthesecondversioninhisown
words,butthelanguageisquitedifficultinplaces.
Drawing(worksheet3.7)ordescribing(studentbook
page43)theperfectislandcanopenupotherelements
ofdiscussion.Allourislandsaredifferent.Dowehave
differentconceptsofGod?Whichwouldbeprovedif
theargumentworked?Worksheet3.7enables
clarificationofGaunilosviews.Hewritesonbehalfof
thefoolinresponsetoAnselm,whohadquotedPsalm
14:thefoolsaysinhisheart,thereisnoGod.
Anselmssecondargument(seepages4445ofthe
studentbook)couldbeusedtocounterthisashe
suggeststhathisargumentcanonlyworkfora
necessarybeing.Studentsmayconsiderthistobea
copout.ItisworthpointingoutthatGaunilodoes
actuallybelieveinGodandisessentiallyadoptinga
devilsadvocaterole.Somestudentsinexaminations
thinkthatGauniloprovesthatperfectislandsmust
exist.Obviouslyhedoesnot;heisusingthisargument
asananalogytoshowtheflawsinAnselmsthinking.
Descartes
Theinformationonpage45ofthestudentbookgivesa
goodintroductiontoDescartestheorythatexistenceis
anecessarypartofthemeaningofGod.Theactivityon
composinganalyticandsyntheticsentenceswillprove
usefulbothinunderstandingDescartesandin
understandingKantsobjections(worksheet3.9).
Worksheet3.8enablesstudentstofurtherexploreand
evaluateDescartesclaimthatGodhastoexist.It
followsthestructureofDescartesargumentinchapter5
ofhisMeditations.Descartesstartsbyexplainingcertain
thingsthatarenecessarytotrianglesandmountains.
Thisenableshimtodefinewhatthewordnecessary
means(itcannotnotbetrue).Hethengoesontoapply
thistoGod.Descartesanticipatespossibleobjectionsto
hisargumentandsuggeststhatitcanonlyapplytoGod.
Kant

52

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

1 Ancient Greek influences

(Seeworksheet3.9.)Studentsneedtounderstandthat
thestatementGodhasnecessaryexistenceisanalytic
andcansaynothingaboutwhetherGodmightexist.It
merelydefinestheconcept.Itwillbeusefultorefer
studentstopage46ofthestudentbooktohelpthem
understandthispoint:inparticularKantsquotation
aboutthetriangle.

Plenary/consolidation
Studentscouldproducearevisionbookletgivingthe
keypointsofeachthinkerandstrengthsand
weaknesses.TheExamCafinthisPDRcontains
someblanktemplatesthatcouldbeusedtostructure
studentsthoughts.

Theactivitieswithinworksheet3.9shouldenableyou
tocheckwhetherthestudentshavegraspedtheideasof
thistrickythinker.

Exam Caf

Differentiation
Afterworkingthroughthethreepossiblearguments
againstDescartes,moststudentsshouldbereadyto
tackleanexaminationstylequestion.TheExamCaf
inthetextbookshowssomeanswersofvaryingquality
toquestionsontheOntologicalArgument.These
answersmaygiveguidancetoweakerstudentstodraft
areasonableanswertoaquestion.Moreablestudents
shouldseetheseanswersasachallenge:theycanbe
bettered!
Moreablestudentsmaywishtoconsiderwhetherthere
isanyplacefortheOntologicalArgumenttodayby
researchingmodernversionssuchasthoseofMalcolm
andPlantinga.

53

TheExamCafinthestudentbookandinthisPDR
reinforcestheskillsneededtosucceedatthiscourse.
Thestudentbook(page64)givesthesevendeadly
sinscommittedinexamsonthesetopics.Itiswell
worthgettingstudentstolookattheseorsomewill
mostlikelyrepeatsomeoftheerrors.Therevision
checklistscanbeusedbystudentstogetafeelforhow
theyaredoingoneachtopic.Therearesampleanswers
onanOntologicalArgumentparta)inthestudent
book.Materialonthepartb)isfoundinthisPDR.As
alwaysstudentsmaylearnalotfromlookingatthese
answersanddiscussingwhatmakesthemgoodornot
sogoodasthecasemaybe.

3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Lesson Plan:The Teleological Argument

Chapter 3: Lesson plan
Heinemann recognises that the teaching of this qualification will vary greatly from school to school and from
teacher to teacher. With that in mind, this lesson plan is offered as a possible approach but will be subject to
modifications by the individual teacher. Lesson length is assumed to be one hour.

Learning objectives for the lesson

Objective 1

Students to understand the basic premise behind Teleological Arguments.

Objective 2

Students to be able to explain Paleys analogy in a clear and straightforward way.

Recap of previous experience and prior knowledge

Review of arguments for God. Do they believe in God or not? What reasons might people have for believing
in God? What reasons might other people have for not believing in God? The nature of this discussion will
depend on students experience at GCSE. Some may have a good knowledge of this already. If good
discussion develops it may be worth giving this extra time.

Content
Time

Content

15 minutes

Warm-up activity reviewing the arguments for and against God (described above)
Students to summarise the discussion by writing up arguments presented as a table.

10 minutes

Student activity: jigsaws. Students are issued with simple jigsaws (up to 2030 pieces).
Explain that this is a rare chance to do an experiment in RS. Some groups attempt to
solve the jigsaws blindfolded (or by throwing pieces up in the air!) whereas others use their
intelligence and sight. It can be treated as a race.

10 minutes

Review and discussion of activity. Is it possible for the jigsaw to be solved blind or
randomly? Are complex puzzles more likely to be solved by intelligence or chance? Is a
complex thing such as the universe more likely to be designed or the product of chance?
Is the jigsaw a fair analogy?
This discussion may be worth giving more time to if students particularly warm to it.
Teacher to write a simple Teleological Argument on the board: All complex things require
intelligence to bring them about, the universe is a complex thing, therefore the universe
required intelligence to bring it about.

15 minutes

Student activity: issue a summary or extract of Paleys watch analogy. Students read and
summarise his argument. Do they accept his claims that the analogy still works if we dont
know what the object is, or if the watch is broken? Is it fair to compare the universe to a
watch? Students write down initial responses.

Consolidation
Time

Content

5 minutes

Teacher to check what has been learned. Question and answer session.

5 minutes

Homework: Next lesson will begin with show and tell! Students to bring to lesson items:
that nature has designed
that a human being has designed
that is/are beautiful
that a theist would believe God to have designed.
Pictures of items are acceptable.

Pearson Education Ltd 2008

53

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

3.1

3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

Criticisms of the Teleological

Argument by David Hume

Hume(171176)criticisedthedesignargumentinhisDialoguesconcerningNaturalReligion
(1779).Hisargumentsarebasedonhisempiricism.Thisempiricismlogicallyleads,forHume,to
naturalismandscepticism.Hearguedthatdesignissomethingthatweperceiveandassume.Evenif
theworldappearstobedesigned,thismayjustbeduetoourinterpretationofthedatathatour
sensesprovide.
SummaryofHumescriticisms
1. Humansdonothavesufficientknowledgeoftheoriginsoftheworldtoassumethatthereisonly
onedesigner.Ashumansweonlyhaveexperienceofthethingsthatwedesignandcreate.These
maynotbeanadequateanalogy.Weknowthathousesrequireadesignerbecausewehave
experienceofmanyhousesbeingbuilt.Weonlyhaveexperienceofthisuniverse.Hearguedthat
itwasimpossibletodrawconclusionsaboutthewholefromasmallpart.Alsotheuniverseisnot
likeavastmachine.Itismorelikealivingthingsuchasavegetableorinertanimal,something
thatgrowsofitsownaccordratherthansomethingmadebyhand.
2. Evenifdesignanalogieswerevaliditwouldnotnecessarilyfollowthatthedesignerwasthe
Godoftheism.Humesuggeststhatwemighthavetheworkofseverallessergodsoran
apprenticegodwhowentontocreatebiggerandbetterworldsortheproductionofoldage
anddotageinsomesuperannuateddeity.Hespeculatesthattheremaybeotherworldsthatare
notasgoodasthisone,madewhilstthisGodwaspractising.
3. HumefeltthatpeoplewhobelieveinGodprojecthumanbeliefsontoanonhumanworld.He
arguedthattodiscussdesigninhumantermsisnotanacceptableanalogyonthegroundsthat
Godbydefinitiontranscendsunderstanding.Ifweuseahumananalogyitismoreusualfora
machinetobetheproductofmanyhandsratherthanonedesigner.
4. HumealsousedtheideasoftheGreekphilosopherEpicurus(theEpicureanThesis).Epicurus
putsforwardthepossibilityofinfinitetime.Ininfinitetimethereisahugebutfinitenumberof
particlesfreelymovingabout.Ininfinitetime,theygothrougheverypossiblecombination.If
anyonecombinationhappenstorepresentastableorder,itmustoccur.Theverynatureofa
stableorderisthatitmustfittogetherwellitwouldhavetheappearanceofdesign.Itcouldbe
insuchaplacethatwefindourselves.Thus,apparentdesigncouldhappenatrandomthereis
nonecessitytoinferadesigner.
1. Findoutwhatempiricismmeans.Whydoesitlogicallyleadtoscepticismandnaturalism?
2. ExplainwhyHumethinksthattheuniquenessoftheuniversepreventsusfromreaching
conclusionsaboutitsorigin.Ishisconclusioncorrect?
3. WhatareHumesconclusionsaboutthedesigner,ifthereisone?
4. Whydoeshereachtheseconclusions?Assesswhetherhisconclusioniscorrect.
5. ImaginethatHumewasabletodiscusstheTeleologicalArgumentwiththeotherthinkersthat
youhavestudiedduringthistopic.Writeadialoguesummarisingtheirdiscussions.Youare
allowedtousehumourbutnotattheexpenseofcontent.

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3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

3.2

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Aquinas argument from contingency

(third Way)

Stu:Thingsdonthavetobethewaytheyare,itcouldbedifferent.
Lou:Youappeartobeconsideringtheideaofcontingency,colleague.Forinstance,Icurrentlyexist
butIdonthaveto.HadmyparentsnotmetIwouldnotexistatall.Thispromptsphilosophersto
suggestthatallthingsinthisworldarecontingent.
Stu:SoalthoughIhaveneverhadagirlfriend,itdoesnthavetobethisway?
Lou:Technicallyyes,butbadexample,myfriend.
Stu:Great!Imgoingtofindmymathsteacher.Shehasmarkedmyhomeworkincorrectly.
Lou:Howcome?
Stu:Iworkedoutthattriangleshave4sides.Shesaiditwaswrong!NowIhavephilosophical
evidencethatitdoesnthavetobewrong.
Lou:Yourmathsandyourlovelifeareequallyembarrassing,colleague.Itisanecessarytruththat
triangleshave3sides.Itisastatementthatcannotbefalse.Still,atleastyoureonlycontingently
stupid!

1. Whatismeantbycontingent?Giveanexampleofacontingenttruth.
2. Whatismeantbynecessary?Giveanexampleofanecessarytruth.
Aquinasarguesthat:

There are things which are contingent; they may or may not exist. They do not have to exist.

Contingent things are finite. They come into existence and then pass out of existence.

It is impossible for contingent things to have always existed; there must have been a time when
no contingent things existed.

But things that begin to exist only do so when caused by something that already exists.

The previous two points lead to the conclusion that nothing exists now, but this is absurd.
So there must be in existence something that is necessary.

This being derives its necessity from itself, it does not depend on anything else and is
responsible for all things. This is the concept that people refer to as God.

3. WriteadialoguesimilartothatbetweenStuandLouwiththeaimofexplainingtherestofthis
argument.

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3.3

3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

Humes criticisms of the Cosmological

Argument

AsimpleCosmologicalArgumentwouldsay:alleventshaveacause
cause
thatfirstcauseisGod.

theremustbeafirst

Humescriticismsofthisargument

We cannot establish for certain the principle of cause and effect. Hume argues that we see event
A followed by event B. This does not prove that A causes B.

From an effect, we cannot infer a cause greater than that required to produce the effect. We
observe a world that is imperfect and limited (finite). Therefore it might be more logical to say
that the cause is also finite: finite causes are likely to produce finite effects. In fact, why not say
that the world is caused by male and female Gods who are born and who die?

Did I show you the particular causes of each individual in a collection of twenty particles of
matter, I should think it very unreasonable, should you afterwards ask me, what was the cause of
the whole twenty. This is sufficiently explained in explaining the cause of the parts. This is the
Fallacy of Composition. Humes point is that if we know about causes within the universe, we
do not also need to explain the universe as a whole. Russell also makes this point: it is one thing
to say that every human being has a mother, but we cannot move from this to say that there is a
mother for the whole human race.

No statement about existence can be logically necessary. Any being claimed to exist may or may
not exist. This is based on Humes fork. To say that a statement is necessary means that its
opposite would be a logical contradiction. Yet it is possible to say that God does not exist, it is
not like saying that triangles have four sides.

Why may not the material universe be the necessarily existent Being... We dare not affirm that
we know all the qualities of matter. Hume argues that one of the properties of matter might be
that it has to exist and cannot pass out of existence for all we know. So the universe itself may
be necessary.

An infinite series of causes is possible. Does the chain of causes have to end somewhere? If the
universe were eternal, it would be absurd to talk of it having a cause.

1. RewriteHumescriticismsinyourownwords,placingtheminthreeseparategroupsaccording
towhichpremiseofoursimpleargumenttheyareattacking.
2. Whichofhisargumentsaresuccessfulandwhy?TrytodraftaresponsetoHumesarguments
thatwouldbemadebyatheist.
4. Write12paragraphsonyourviewsonwhetherAquinasorHumesargumentsarestronger.

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3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

3.4

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

The Moral Argument

Usethestudentbooktogetherwithyourclassnotestoworkthroughthesetasks.
1. Sentencesa)toj)areeithertrueorfalse.Copyorcorrectthemaccordingly.
a) KantbelievedthattheMoralArgumentprovestheexistenceofGod.
b) Hebelievedthatmoralityisarationalthingwhichgiveseveryoneanobligationastowhatis
rightandwrong.
c) Hisprincipleofuniversallawwasacategoricalimperative.
d) Acategoricalimperativeisaprinciplethatyoufollowinordertoachievesomething.
e) Acategoricalimperativelogicallyhastobeobeyed.
f) Formoralitytoexistwehavetoassumefreedom,Godandimmortality.
g) KantbelievedthattheaimofmoralityistoobeyGodscommands.
h) Tosaythatweoughttodosomethingimpliesthatwecan.
i) TheSummumBonumispossible,butnotinthislife.
j) ThishighestgoodrequirestheexistenceofGodandatenyearperiodafterourdeaths.
2. Explaincarefullywhyfreedomisnecessaryfortheretobeanymorality.Kantarguesthatought
impliescan.Whatdoeshemean?
3. WhatistheSummumBonumandwhydoesKantsuggestthatthisrequiresanunlimitedtime?
4. WhydoesKantbelievethatthenotionofSummumBonumimpliestheexistenceofGod?
5. Kanthascomeupwithanexplanationofwhywehavemorality.Whatotherexplanationsmight
therebe?Howwouldtheseaffecthisargument?
6. MakeatableofthestrengthsandweaknessesofKantsargument.Aimtocover34ofeach.
Exampractice
LookattheOCRspecificationfortheMoralArgument,togetherwithpastexaminationquestions.
Workinginpairs,trytodevisetwopossibleexamquestions.Draftbulletpointedanswerstoyour
questions.

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3.5

3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

Criticisms of the Moral Argument

Criticism1:Freud
OnepossiblelineofattackagainstMoralArgumentsgenerallyistofindanalternativeexplanation
ofmorality.ThisispreciselywhatSigmundFreudattemptedtoachieve.Freudsviewofreligionis
influencedbyFeuerbachstheorythatGodiswishfulfilment.Religionisauniversalobsessional
neurosis,anillusionthatweconstructpsychologically.OurmindismadeupofId,EgoandSuper
ego.TheSuperegoisthesourceofourmorality.
1. UsingthestudentbookandtheresourcesontheCDROM,producesomedetailednoteson
FreudscriticismoftheMoralArgumentbyelaboratingonthethemesthatareinbold.
Criticism2:MoralRelativism
Perhapsmorecommonistheapproachthatsaysthereisnoabsolutemoralitybyarguingfromthe
factofmoralandculturalrelativism.Thefollowingconversation,betweenateacherwhohasjust
givenaUtoastudentwhohaswrittenanexcellentessayarguingthatthereisnosuchthingas
morality,maybringthisapproachintoquestion.
Student:Excuseme,Sir,butthismarkseemsalittleharsh.Infact,InoticethatyougaveanA
toCharlottesessay,whichwasquitesimilar,somineshouldhavegotasimilarmark.
Teacher:ThatwouldrequiretheassumptionthatIwasmarkingfairly.
Student:Youseemtobepickingonme,thisisthethirdUthisyear.Itsunfair!
Teacher:Youreright,Iambeingmostunfair.
Student:So,youadmityouarebehavingwronglytowardsme.Thisisappalling!
Teacher:Ironic!Iseemtorememberyouarguingthattherewasnosuchthingasrightandwrong.
Yetyouroutrageatmydiscriminationagainstyousuggeststhatyoudo,inpractice,
thinkthatsomethingsarerightorwrong.
Whodoyouthinkisrightintheaboveargument?Mustthestudentacceptthatthereareactual
moralvaluesinordertowintheargument?
Othercriticisms
2. Stretchandchallenge:inpairs,researchoneoftheareasbelowandpresentittotheclass.

Marxs view that our beliefs about morality are caused by society.

Dawkins biological explanation of morality.

Ayers view that moral judgements are demonstrations of an emotion. *

* Ayer uses the word evince to show that we may not necessarily feel the emotion that the statement demonstrates.

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3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

3.6

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Anselms Ontological Argument

ReadtheextractbelowfromProslogionchapter2andanswerthequestionsthatfollow.
Andindeedwebelieveyouaresomethinggreaterthanwhichcannotbethought.Oristhereno
suchkindofthing,forthefoolsaidinhisheart,thereisnoGod(Ps.13:1,52:1)?Butcertainly
thatsamefool,havingheardwhatIjustsaid,somethinggreaterthanwhichcannotbethought,
understandswhatheheard,andwhatheunderstandsisinhisthought,evenifhedoesnotthinkit
exists.Foritisonethingforsomethingtoexistinapersonsthoughtandquiteanotherforthe
persontothinkthatthingexists.Forwhenapainterthinksaheadtowhathewillpaint,hehasthat
pictureinhisthought,buthedoesnotyetthinkitexists,becausehehasnotdoneityet.Oncehehas
paintedithehasitinhisthoughtandthinksitexistsbecausehehasdoneit.Thuseventhefoolis
compelledtograntthatsomethinggreaterthanwhichcannotbethoughtexistsinthought,because
heunderstandswhathehears,andwhateverisunderstoodexistsinthought.Andcertainlythat
greaterthanwhichcannotbeunderstoodcannotexistonlyinthought,forifitexistsonlyinthought
itcouldalsobethoughtofasexistinginrealityaswell,whichisgreater.If,therefore,thatthan
whichgreatercannotbethoughtexistsinthoughtalone,thenthatthanwhichgreatercannotbe
thoughtturnsouttobethatthanwhichsomethinggreateractuallycanbethought,butthatis
obviouslyimpossible.Thereforesomethingthanwhichgreatercannotbethoughtundoubtedly
existsbothinthoughtandinreality.
1. WriteAnselmsdefinitionofGodinyourownwords.
2. WhatdoesAnselmthinkthateventhefoolhastoadmit?
3. Whydoeshethinkthatgreaterthanwhichcannotbeunderstoodcantjustexistinthemind?
4. WhydoesGodhavetoexist,accordingtoAnselm?
5. Whatdoesitmeantocallthisanaprioriargument?
NowreadthismodernparaphraseofAnselmssecondargumentfromProslogion3:
Cometothinkofit,GodsoexiststhatHecannotbethoughtnottoexist.GiventhatGodcant
logicallybethoughtnottoexist,Heisgreaterthanallthingsthatdoexistbutcanbethoughtofas
notexisting.InfactifGodcouldbethoughtofasnotexistingthenheisnotthatthanwhichno
greatercanbethought.Andthedefinitionwouldbecontradictory.Godhastoexistandcannotbe
thoughtofasnotexisting.BydefinitionitisnotpossibleforHimnottobe.
6. Doesthishelptoimprovetheargument?Giveareasonforyouranswer.

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OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

3.7

3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

Gaunilos criticism of Anselm

Itsnotveryoftenthatyouaregivenpermissiontodaydreaminclass.Spendafewminutesdrawing
yourperfectholidayisland.Whenyoureturnfromyourdreaming,theargumentonthispagemay
giveyousomepleasantnews!
GaunilosreplytoAnselm
Forexample,theysaythereisintheoceansomewhereanislandwhich,duetothedifficulty(or
rathertheimpossibility)offindingwhatdoesnotactuallyexist,iscalledthelostisland.Andthey
saythatthisislandhasallmannerofrichesanddelights,evenmoreofthemthantheIslesofthe
Blest,andhavingnoownerorinhabitantitissuperiorintheabundanceofitsrichestoallother
landswhichareinhabitedbymen.
Ifsomeoneshouldtellmethatsuchisthecase,Iwillfinditeasytounderstandwhathesays,since
thereisnothingdifficultaboutit.Butsupposehethenadds,asifhewerestatingalogical
consequence,Wellthen,youcannolongerdoubtthatthisislandmoreexcellentthanallother
landsreallyexistssomewhere,sinceyoudonotdoubtthatitisinyourmind;andsinceitismore
excellenttoexistnotonlyinthemindbutinrealityaswell,thisislandmustnecessarilyexist,
becauseifitdidnt,anyotherislandreallyexistingwouldbemoreexcellentthanit,andthusthat
islandnowthoughtofbyyouasmoreexcellentwillnotbesuch.
If,Isay,someonetriestoconvincemethroughthisargumentthattheislandreallyexistsandthere
shouldbenomoredoubtaboutit,IwilleitherthinkheisjokingorIwillhaveahardtimedeciding
whoisthebiggerfool,meifIbelievehimorhimifhethinkshehasproveditsexistence.

1. ExplainGaunilosobjectioninyourownwords(23sentences).
2. Gaunilodoesntreallybelieveintheislandsexistence.Heisusingadeviceknownasreductio
adabsurdum.
FindoutwhatreductioadabsurdummeansandexplainhowGaunilosargumentisagoodexample
ofit.
3. WhydoesGauniloentitlehisresponseOnbehalfoftheFool?
4. AnselmthoughtthathecouldcounterGaunilosobjectionandhadpossiblyalreadydonesoin
hissecondargument.HowcouldAnselmrespond?
5. Whohasthestrongerargument,AnselmorGaunilo?Giveareasonforyouranswer.

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3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

3.8

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Descartes Ontological Argument

RenDescartesversionoftheOntologicalArgumentisinsomewaysclearerthanthatofAnselm.
Stage1:Explainwhatnecessarymeans
Descartesarguesthatwecannot(logically)conceiveofatrianglewithoutithavingthreeangles;nor
canwethinkofamountainwithoutavalley.Theseideasarenecessarytothedefinitionofthe
words.InthesamewaytherearecertainideasthatarenecessarytothedefinitionofGod.
Stage2:Giveyourargument
Descartesargumentcanbesimplifiedasfollows:

God by definition is a supremely perfect being.

A supremely perfect being has all perfections.

Existence is one of these perfections.

Therefore God has existence, he exists.

Therefore,accordingtoDescartes,wecannotthinkofGodwithoutconceivingofhimasexisting.
WemaynoteverthinkofGodbutifwedo,wewillworkoutbylogicandreasonthathehasto
exist.Itisnecessary.Descartesadmitsthatwemaybeslightlystunnedbythisandthinkthathehas
trickedusbutheisadamantthathehasnt.
Stage3:Whythisargumentabsolutelyworks!
DescartesattemptedtoguardagainstthesortofattackthatGaunilodevelopedagainstAnselm.He
saysthat:

The argument can only work for a perfect and necessary being (it cannot, therefore, be applied
to something like a lost island).

Not everyone has to think of God, but if they do think of God then God cannot be thought not to
exist.

God alone is the being whose essence* entails Gods existence. There cannot be two or more
such beings.

*Essencemeansthecharacteristicsorpropertiesofathing.

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3.8

3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

Descartes ontological argument

(continued)

Lookatthefollowingarguments.Summarisetheminyourownwordsandconsiderhow
effectivetheyareascriticismsbyrespondingtothequestionsbelow.
a) AquinashadpreviouslyrejectedpreciselythepointthatDescarteswantstomake.Descartes
sayswecanknowGodsessenceandthereforewecansaythatGodmustexist.Aquinas
doesnotthinkthatGod'sessenceisknowabletous.
1. Doyouthinkthisistrueand,ifso,howwouldthisaffectDescartes?
b) AphilosophernamedGassendicriticisedDescartesinasimilarwaytoGauniloscriticismof
Anselm.GassendisuggeststhatifPegasusisbydefinitionaperfecthorsethenPegasusmust
exist.Descartesdisagreedbyarguingthattriangles,mountainsandGodarerealideas
whereasPegasusandthePerfectIslandaremadeup.
2. HasDescartessuccessfullyavoidedtheGauniloGassenditypeargumentorishisargument
circularinpresumingwhatcanandcannotexist?Whatdoyouthink?
c) MaybeDescartesisright:itisimpossibletohaveatrianglewithoutithavingthreeangles,
justasitisimpossibletohaveaspinsterwhoisnotfemale:thepredicates*followfromthe
subjects.However,allthistellsusissomethingabouttheideaofatriangleandnotabout
whetherthereareanytriangles.IcouldsaythatItisnecessaryforaunicorntohaveahorn
andthismayindeedbetrue,butthisdoesnotprovethereareanyunicorns.
d) Russellarguedthatonlypropositionscanbenecessary.Statementsregardingexistencemust
alwaysbecontingent.Abeingmayormaynotexist.Abachelorhastobeanunmarriedman
(butthismerelydefinestheconcept,itdoesnottellyouwhetherbachelorsactuallyexist).
3. Whatdoyouthink?
4. IsRussellcorrectorwouldGodbeaspecialcase?
*Lookupthemeaningofthewordpredicate.ItwillbeusefulwhenwegoontostudyKantsobjection.

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3 Traditional arguments for the existence of God

3.9

OCR AS Philosophy and Ethics

Kants criticism of the Ontological

Argument

Kantsargumentpart1:Twotypesofstatements
Incertainphrasesmeaningsareimpliedbythechoiceofcertainwords.Forexample,bicycle
impliestwowheels.Wedonotneedtosayatwowheeledbicycle.Ifwedosaythis,weadd
nothingnewtoourunderstanding.Abicyclelogicallyhastwowheels.Kantcallsthisananalytic
statement:oneinwhichwelearnnothingnewabouttheworld.
Kantdistinguishesthesefromsyntheticstatements,whichtellussomethingabouttherealworld.
Examplesofsyntheticstatementswouldbe:Itisrainingoutside,orThecarisblue.These
statementscanbeverifiedorfalsifiedbyexperience.
1. Checkthatyouunderstandthedifferencebetweenanalyticandsyntheticstatements.Givean
exampleofananalyticandasyntheticstatementforeachofthefollowing:
a) Abachelor.

b) Atriangle.

c) Ablackbox.

WhenwesaythatGodisanecessarybeing,wearemakingananalyticstatement.Necessary
existenceispartofourconcept/ideaofGod,buttellsusnothingaboutwhetherGodactually
exists.Weendupsayingnomorethan,IfGodexists,thenhisexistenceisnecessary.SoKant
arguesthattheOntologicalArgumentisbasedonamistake.Sowhatisthemistake?
Kantsargumentpart2:Existenceisnotapredicate
2. Lookatthesubjectandpredicatesbelow.Whatdoyouthinkisunusualaboutthelastone?
(subject)

(predicate)(verbobject)

Theboy

kickstheball/dancesmadlyfor28hourswithoutstopping/exists.

Kantsaidexistenceisnotapredicate.Itisnotapropertythataconcepteitherhasordoesnot
have.Inaddingexistencetoaconceptwedonotdescribetheideaanyfurther.SoKantpresents
theOntologicalArgumentwithapossiblyfatalchallenge.IfGodsnecessaryexistenceisan
analyticstatement,thenitisadefinitionandtellsusnothingaboutwhetherheactuallyexists.If
itisasyntheticclaim,thenthereisnothingnecessaryaboutGodsexistenceasonlyanalytic
statementswouldhavelogicalnecessity.Allstatementsaboutexistencearesynthetic.
3. Whatdoyouthink?WriteaparagraphgivingyourviewsonwhetherKantscriticismdefeats
theOntologicalArgument.

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More arguments
for God

Get the result!

Examquestion
(b)EvaluatetheclaimthatGodsexistenceisnotalogicalnecessity.(10marks).

Mattsanswer:
Anselms Ontological Argument is meant to
prove the existence of God. Anselm thought
that if you had an idea of God in your mind,
then God would have to exist in reality in order
to be the greatest conceivable being. Descartes
would agree with Anselm that Gods existence is
a logical necessity. So God has to exist. Gaunilo
disagreed with Anselm. Gaunilo argued that we
might have an idea of the perfect island, this
doesnt mean it has to exist. So Gaunilo would
argue that Gods existence is not logically

Another argument against the Ontological

Argument is from Kant. Kant argued that
existence is not a predicate. This shows that
Anselms argument is false. Therefore this
shows that the Ontological Argument does not
prove the existence of God.
Some philosophers think that the Ontological
Argument can work because God is very
different from all other things in the universe so
it might be that God has to exist but I dont
think that this is the case.

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Exam Caf

The examiner says:

Matt is answering this question
but is doing so indirectly. He
seems to be explaining the
arguments of the thinkers. This
shows he understands the
Ontological Argument but he
should remember that this is an
A02 question. He should be
considering and discussing the
argument rather than just hinting
at it. For instance, saying that
Descartes would agree isnt
really an argument. If he could
unpack some of these ideas in a
little more detail, this would turn
a reasonable answer into a
good one. He also
misrepresents Anselms
argument that, if you understand
the concept of God, you realise
he must exist. Matt seems to be
imagining God into existence.
The examiner says:
There is not a lot here about
necessity. Matt seems to be
answering this as a general
Assess the Ontological
Argument question. The first
two sentences leave the
examiner to make the
connection. How does Kant
show that Anselm is wrong? A
counterargument is given. I
dont think... is an assertion if it
is not backed up with an
argument.

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More arguments
for God

Zahidsanswer:
Kant would also agree that the existence of God
is not a logical necessity. [point] He argued that
existence is not a predicate. Kant explained that
to say that something has existence does not

The examiner says:

I have annotated parts of
Zahids answer that are
particularly good. My points are
in [square brackets].

add anything to the concept. To say that God is

all powerful would add information to the
concept of God. However existence does not add
anything to the concept or idea of God. It is part
of the subject. [explanation] This responded to

These are the second and third

paragraphs of Zahids answer.
The first paragraph of his
answer looked at Gaunilos
argument. Why not try writing it?

the argument of Descartes who had previously

stated that existence was a property necessary
to the concept of God. [Other point of view]
It seems that Kant is quite correct to argue that
matters concerning existence are synthetic and
could only be verified by sense experience.
Concepts and ideas tell us nothing about what
actually exists. As in Maths, to say that a
pentagon has 5 sides does not mean that there
are any pentagons existing anywhere within the
world. [conclusion and example]

Zahid: I am pleased with my

mark. I used the Exam Caf as
well as guidance from my
teacher to improve my
technique on part b) question.

Matt: I know now that I need

to read the question more
carefully and not just launch
into my pre-prepared list of
strengths
and weaknesses
of
The
examiner
says:
topic.
Ithe
have
annotated parts of

Zahids answer that are

particularly good. My points are
in [square brackets].

Pearson Education Ltd 2008

These are the second and third

paragraphs of Zahids answer.
The first paragraph of his
answer looked at Gaunilos
ExamWhy
Caf
argument.
not try writing65
it?

More arguments
for God

Onceyouhavefilledoutthisdiagram,whynotcreatesimilarchartstohelpyourevisetheothertopicsyou
havestudied?

Anselms first version

Descartes version

Ontological
Arguments

Anselms second version

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Exam Caf

Modern versions (extension)

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More arguments
for God

Onceyouhavefilledoutthisdiagram,whynotcreatesimilarchartstohelpyourevisetheothertopicsyou
havestudied?

Gaunilos challenge

Other challenges

Challenges to the
Ontological Argument

Kants challenge

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My view on the argument

and why...

Exam Caf

67