SUMMATION A!

D TABLE OF FI1ITE SUMS

by
ROBERT DELMER STALLE!

A THESIS

subnitted to
OREGON STATE COLlEGE

in partial fulfillment of
the requirementh for the
degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
June l94

APPROVED:

Professor of Mathematics In Charge of Major

Head of

Deparent

of Mathematics

Chairman of School Graduate Committee

Dean of the Graduate School

ACKOEDGE!'T
The writer

dshes to eicpres his thanks

to Dr. W. E. Mime, Head of the Department of

Mathenatics, who has been

constant guide and

inspiration in the writing of this thesis.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I.

i
Finite calculus analogous to infinitesimal
calculus. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. ..

e s

Theconstantofsuirrnation.........................

2
3

Suniming

as

the

inverse of

. . . . . . . . .

perfornungA............

31nite calculus as a brancn of niathematics........

Application of finite 5lflITh1tiOfl...................
II.

III

LVELOPMENT OF SULTION FORiRLAS....................

ttethods...........................a..........,....
Three genera]. sum formulas........................

6
6

S1ThATION FORMULAS DERIVED B

OF A

INVERSION
FELkTION....,..................,...........
TIlE

s urnmation by parts..................15......
Ratlona]. functions................................

Gamma and related functions........,...........

...

Ecponential and logarithrnic functions...... .

Thigonoretric ar hyperbolic functons..........,.
Combinations of elementary functions......,.....

IV.

SUMUATION BY IfTHODS OF APPDXIMATION..............,.

Tewton s formula . . . . a a a a S a C .
a e a
a
.
a
Extensionofpartialsunmation................a...
Formulas relating a sum to an ifltegral..a.aaaaaaa.
Sumfromeverym'thterm........aa..a..aaa........
a

a a

a a

J-3

14
15
15

15
16

17

V.

TABLE OFST.Th,..,,..,,...,.,,.....,....,,,...........

18

VI.

SLThMTION OF A SPECIAL TYPE OF

26

VI I

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

. a

a a a

a a a a a a

POER SERIES..........

a . .

a a a a s . . . . . .

e . * . a a a .

44

TABlE OF FINITE

STThSIAATION AND

I
To

T}OR!

STJ

OF FINITE SU1ATION

the knowledge of' the writer,

no

table

of'

finite

sum formulas

of value as a reference is in existence. For this reason a table

of such formulas, analogous to a table of' integral formulas, is
presented here. The formulas for this table were selected with
their utility in mind.
A

series.

finite

sum

formula

is

Finite suntion is the

relation giving the

eluation

of

sum

of a finite

finite series.

This valuation cari be accomplished by the development and application

of general

sum

formulas.

These formulas are of closed form and give

the exact or approximate sum, depending on the type of

series.

The theory of finite sunvation is presented first and is

followed by the development of

and

finite sun formulas, both general

special. Finally the table is presented.
As we will see, the subject of summation arises as a branch

of the calculus of finite differences.

finite summation will be

Throughout

throwgh

this paper

Uence

this treatment of

this calculus.

numbers enclosed

to relationships in the discussion, whereas

parentheses refer to formulas in the table.

in parentheses refer
nwbers not enclosed in

Finite calculus analoous to infinitesiiial calculus.

There is a striking analogy bet'reen the finite calculus, or

calculus of finite differences, and the infinitesimal calculus.

Consider the function Ut subjected to these calculi.

The two

fundanntal operations of the infinitesimal calculus are

differentiation,

L
dt
and its

inrse,

lim
h40

%th'1t
h

The two fundanental operations of

integration.

- operation,

the finite calculus aro the

LUt

UUt

h
and its inverse.

The analogy is

nt

perfect because of the

additional Uniting operation in differentiation.

Results in finite

calculus may be reduced to the analogous results in infinitesimal

calculus at any time if we perform this additional limiting operation.

In fact by stxiying finite calculus

gain a greater perspective

onto and insight into infinitesimal calculus.

In the finite calculus we may assume, without loss of generality,

that the linear subatitution, t = hx, haa been made

Lt * bx,

X is unity.

Hence performed on u

Now, since

nw

gives:

(1)

SuDud.n2 as the inverse of performing

Let us inveitigate the inverse of the

operatIon, which

3
It is represented by

George i3oole cafled difference integration.

the srnbo1

to n,

in

we

u,

if

A 1

then

=
from

Given

exists such that

a function

If we SUYa

'-a

for values of x

obtain:
n

'n-i.].

'-uX =VI
Xl

(2)

mus

i i

term

is

The

the series whose general

inay be found we niay sun

u.

constant of suiiniiation.
is interrogative and hence that

Note that the operation

we have no assurance of the existence or uniqueness of the result

u.

from perforning it on a function

Consider a case in

is not guaranteed.

of
-1

and

V+

an expression for
results from

exists.

which

reesent
and

Hence we let V

the uniqueness

Now

be an expression
Now

all such expressions.

for

to Lind

thereby the relation between possible

we consider the

Removing the parentheses we see

relation, v

1&)

Thus the

O.

expression for

(1, p.79-3l).

is a general periodic function of period one

In

finite calculua x assimies successive values differing by unity so

we may consider
the rrre

as a constant.

suggestive notation

for

Thus

v+

c.

We use

and have;

:=v+c.

(3)

If

we

consider this

sum from

to n

have by (2):

we

n+l

n+l

U=Vx+C

(4)

Finite calculus as a branch of mathematics.

A look at finite calculus as a subject is In order.

is

some

There

literature about the technical terms used

to the close analor with infinitesimal calculus

confusion in
Due

(1, p.&L-E2).

many terna are borrowed here.

Below is a list of terms from finite

calculus paired with the analogous terms of infinitesimal calculus.

From this and previous discussion their meaning is held to be
self evident.

Finite

calculus

Performing

Infinitesimal calculus

Differentiating

Difference integral

Indefinite integral

Sum

Definite integral

Difference calculus

Differential calculus

Sum calculus

Integral calculus

Suinand

Inte grand

Infinitesima]. calculus includes evaluation of

by other methods

than through the

indefinite

definite integrals

integral.

it is convenient to include in finite calculus

Likewise

summation performed

by other methods than through the difference integral.

Sonatines

it is necessary to define and tabulate a new function in order to

perform

exact

evaluation as for

the integral,
dx =

:
and the sum,

=f(n) -fm-1).
Sometimes approximate

evaluation

is the beet we can do as in the

case of the integral,

_____

(lT

dx,

)Vsinx
o

and the sum,

n
arc tan x.
i

Summation

of infinite series is analogous to evaluation of a

integral with an infinite limit.

is also

definite

Hence sunmation of infinite series

included in the calculus of

finite differences.

Applications of finite summation.

Some of the

methods to be discussed in the paper permit the

summation of convergent infinite series

By definition, the sum of the convergent

in closed form (3, p.18-23).

infinite series

n
is

fl-4

a
j:;].

Thus to sum the infinite serles is to evaluate

the sum of the first n terms and then the limit of this sum.

Another application of the sums and swmmation theory here

developed is in the solution of difference equations.

We proceed to develop these methods whereby we nay sum anr

finite series.

SU!ATIO'

T OF

DE VEI

II

ORULA3

Methods.

The two nx,st connon methods for derivation of finite sum

formulas are

(1) the

invorson of

iie of the close relation

methods

inc1e

been

a difference relation, and (2)

a sum and an integral.

Other

mathematical induction, operational attacks,

resolution of difference equations, use of generating functions,

use of geometric considerations, and use of the calculus of

probability

(4, p.109-141).

Part III includes formulas, with one exception exact, developed

by invarsion of a
formulas,

relation.

rart iv inclixles approximating sum

hich are derivad by the principle of inversion or by

using the sum-integral relation.

In the table, sums appear

5ii

form (4) with the limits

substituted, or in the easier written by equivalent form (3).

Three

enera1 sum formulas.

The derivations of formulas 2, 3, and 5 of the table come

under a separate heading.

In each case tho sums are expanded and

the identity of the expansions noted (6,

called Dirichlets ' sum-formula.

functions u

and V

p.9l3).

Formula 5 is

It is useful when one of the

can be suimmed exactly, but the other not.

III.

by inversion le to find

To sum u

and apply

31ThATION TORW1JIAS DERIVED BY THE

INVERSION OF A A RELATION

(3). For example from

that

cx = c e have fornula 1,

L- relation uay be

In fact any

e = cx + C.

such

inverted to

ve

a sum.
SummatIon by
The

by

parts.

general formula for summation by parts, 4 is developed

this inversion.

?(e

have:

V
whence by summing each

ffrst

side from

in

to n:

lin

in

in

vixl

first

sum and

(5)

Lux Vx+i,

_tn+l
x

Solving for the

substituting EV= V1

tue

we hove

form of 5,
tni-1

=ux :vxi
L-xx
Im
in
I

Mjuctment of the limits and

second form.

The

reapplications of
from the second

auxmnand

_2ILu:v+l.
in

in the

is developed

third

form

it

its right.hand

to

in the

same manner.

analogous to integration by

parts.

first

form yLelds the

from the

sum.

The

first

by

fom'th is derived

Summation by

parts plays

role

tional fwictiona,
is defined for positive

The factorial (ax + b)

(ax

for negative

a)...(ax + b

+ b)(ax + b

ni:

am + a),

ni:

(6)

(ax + b)(ax + b + a)...(ax + b + ma - a)'

and for ni = O as unity.

If we invert:

+ b)(m+1) =
and divide through by

(ni

+ l)a(ax + b)(m),

+ 1), we obtain

a(rn

foririula 6:

(ax

Z(ax +b)

(7)

a(m+l)

+C.

Evidently ni cannot equal -1.

Formula 7

is

Aux+

seen to hold

if

u,cui+ ...

and reduce the resulting,

equating

like

we expand

in

as:

u u

ni-1 X

fractions.

oowers of x

4)(x)

The

4(x) and

's

may be determined by

this expansion.

The sums

resulting from application of 7 may be summed by 6.

Formula C is proved by use of the relation:

x\

(a)

al

for the binomial coefficient.

z 'a

(a)

ai

()

'

Hence,
(a+i)
(a

+ l)

+C=ai

Evidently a and x must be positive integers such that O<ax.

Formula 9 used with 6 enables us to sun the power function

x11

(4, p.16E3-173).

We

have as the expansion of x'' by Ne'wton'a

formula, (23):
(m)

()

x0
Stirling's numbers of the second kind are defined as:

G:
ard

hence we have formula 9.

relation

and

['J,

(10)

From (10) we have the recursion

initial condition:
m-1

Gn +mGn

Gn+l

1,

A brief table of

(11)

= O for n

O.

included later.

s is

Gamma and related functions.

The gamma function r(x) is the accepted generalization of

the factorial (x - 1)1

For

x>0,

r(x) =
Integration by parts yields

QJ ?1

the recursion

xr(x) = r(x +
which defines

r()

may be found in

for x

almost any

0.

dy.

(12)

relation:
1),

(13)

The foflowing fundamental relations

treatrient of

r():

lo
r__'-

i+th+

log f(x +

The

3-

2c2 -

5l?

571

{log ni + (x +

1) =

successive

24832

derivatis

of

l)log

...]
-

lor(x)

(34)

log(x

+v)J

(15)

are defined as the

triauxna, tetragamrna, et cetera functions and denoted

diganirna,

et cetera, respectively. These functions

are fundamental in the theory of sunirnation of rational fractions.
If a rational fraction s improper, division 4e1ds a rational

inteal function and

a proper

fraction.

Hence we need

consider

only rational integral functions and proper rational fractions.

A

by

rational integral function

formula 9 or

direct expression in factorials and use of 6 (5, p.27-23).

A proper rational fraction may be expressed as the sun of

fractions in

in

may be summed by

X and

the denominator is a povrer of a linear function

which

the numerator is a constant.

This

is affected by the

theory of rational fractions where the constant term in the linear

function .s a complex number.

'r
a) r

3.

(x

2 3-,

2, 3,

.., and a comnlex.

affected by use of the above

Essentially

wo

Hence our problem

gamma

and

are inverting a

sum

This sumnation

is

related functions.

relation but

attack

wi].]. be made on this si.vnrnation problem.

of the

digainma

function:

is to

From

a more

direct

the definition

11

f(x)

=1ogr(x

+1),

we have by (15):

n+2

(x)

n -

x+rJ

(16)

I!enee,

+1)

F(

'-

J.

+1'

ni

or as

is a

dtnnny

variable we have formula 10,

=F(n +

1)

ni

As the trigainina, tetraga!runa, penthgamrna, et cetera functions

r(x) we have

are defined as successive derivatives of log

from

(16):

00

F(x)=

's

.T

1-= 1 (x

+Y)

00

f(x)=-2
-r= i (x

f(x)=6
r:;1 (x

- - e

Proceeding as with

+T)

+Y)4

------

f(x) we obtain formulas U,

'om the assnnptotic expansion

the aSsynptotic expansion for

foi'

r(x +

12, and 13.

1), (34), we obtain

12

f(x)

=nx(x

+1) +

1(1

(x

+ 210

(x

5)- s..,

(17)

+ 1)

and for f(x),Rx), et cetera, by the derivative relation between

these finctions.

A table has been prepared which

f(x) for real

ives

Rx),r(x), f(x),

<x

x in increments of 0.01 for O

of 0.1 for 10 <X

=

<60
=

(2,

and

< i and increments

This table used with the

p.43-59).

following reduction forrnuias, (2, p. XIX-XXII), yields considerable

accuracy:
n-1

lC(nX)

=iog n +

f(.c) =((x -

f(x -/).

1) +

ir

ctn

inc.

n-1
/(rD:) = -.

: rc

-i).
(18)

f(x -

f(.x)
ein

1).

1cc

n-1
--

(rix)

9(flX)

=7

n-i.

f(x -/).

if

Tables are now being computed for

ana

and

digaa

functions

for inaginary arguments (Ref. 7).

Formula 14 is proved by reduction of the

suimriand to

type form:

13

i1

;i.

x2+a22ai

L(x

-i

(x+ai -l)+lJ'

-ai -l)+].

and application of formula 10.

Note that formulas 10 to 13 are the one exception to exact

formulas in this chapter.

However, they are exact in the sense that

the sums are in exact terms of a defined tabulated function.

Lote that f(x) plays a role in finite calculus analogous to

that of 9n(x + 1) in infinitesimal calculus.

Exponential and logarithmic functions.

Formula 15 is proved by inversion of

(a

- 1)aX and

This division is by zero or inipossible if a = 1.

division by a - 1.

n r(x) = Rn x.

Formula 16 is proved by inversion of

1'rjgonontrjc and hyperbolic Lunc tions.

Formulas 17 to 20 are proved by inversion of the following

A-

relations, adjustment of the argument,

constant coefficient

arid

division by the

LXcos ax = - 2 sin(ax +
gin ax = 2 cos(nx +

sin

sin

a
(19)

Acosh

ax = 2 sinh(ax +

sinh ax =
.

2 cosh(ax +

sini

sinh

..
a

Combinations

of elementary functions.

Fornulas

2].

previous results.

to 32 are derived by summation by parts and

Evidently recursion formulas 30

arid

32

must be

used as a pair.
Formulas 33, 34,

arid

35 are proved by the substitutions:

[sin(a + b)x + sin(a - b)xJ

sin ax coe bx

[cos(a + b)x - cos(a - b) X]

sin ax sin bx =

(20)

and,
cos ax cos bx =

cos(a + b)x + cos(a - b)x

and application of formulas 17 and

Frmulas 36, 37, and 3

and 35 respectively.

are

l.

special cases of formulas

33, 34,

They are of common application in practical

Fourier analysis (4, p.123-129).

Formulas 39 and 40

aro proved by the substitutions,

cos 2 ax,
(21)

and,

cos2ax =

cos 2 ax,

and application of formulas 17 and 16.

Note

that

analogous formulas for hiperbolic functions may be

easily derived by substitution through the relations,

sin(iz) = i

sirth z

(22)

and,

cos(iz) = cosh z.

IV.

STJMM.TION 13! METHOPS OF APPROXIMkTION

- relation or

Inversion of a

is possible

relatively

in

any

few cases as

exact evaluation of a

for

iO

analogous

of a derivative relation or any exact evaluation of an

calculus.

infinitesimal

Hence as with

infinitesLaal

evaluation must often be through series exansions.

those

assymptotic series so their

series are

sum

is

sum

inrsion

integral in

calculus

In summation
apnroximated

their convergent part, as in the case of the expansion of gimia

and related functions. Of course convergence and the remainder tern

by

must

alvys

he

investigated.

Newton's formula.
By

Newton's formula

and cnn terni

by

we may

tern. It states

expand u

in a series of factorials

that:

(k)

L2U k.t
kD
For the proof

we

assn

u may be expanded into a series of

ol

uX = a + a x + a2x(2)+
and

(23)

evaluate the coefficients by setting x

factorials,

a3x ...
=

in successive

differences of this relation.

Extension of partial summation.

If wo let r41.

in the fourth form of formula

5 w

have formula

16
Formulas relating a

to an integral,

sum

over

The sum and integral of u

related as may he seen by geometry.

the curves
Hence

%,

the

sum

correction terms.

Thc integral is th

area under

is an approximation to this

may be expressed as the

a siin

interval are closely

the same

area.

corresponding integral and

If these terms are in the form of differences,

the formula is Laplace's type, and if in the form of derivatives,

Euler's type

(6,

p.104).

Formula 42 is of Euler's type and is called the

formula.

It

in

derived by expanding the operational equivalent of

(Q,d/dX...l)_]\,

''

B+i which
The

in powers of d/dx.

appear in the coefficients

rnnubers and are

Euler-MacLaurin

nwnbers of

The

the form

are called Bernoulli' s

of froquent occurrence in approximate sum formulas.

recursion relation:
n-1

(-1)(')B

relation is consistent with the definition,

list

of Bernoulli's

(24)

Bernoullian numbers

may be used to evaluate the

brief

= O

B2

numbers is included

(4,

p.233).

for n

later.

This

This

1.

list is

sufficient for most practical purposes because the magnitude of the

numbers increases so rapidly that any assymptotic series whose

coeffIcients contain them has a small convergent part.

Formula 43 is of Laplace's type and is called Gregory'a formula.

It is derived

by substitution for the derivatives in formula 42 of

their difference equivalents

(,

p.62).

17

Sum from every m'th term.

We

have a Woolhouse or Lubback type formula according as

the correction terma in such a formula are in terms of derivatives

or differences respectively.

Formula 44, a boThouse formula, is

derived from formula 42 by eliminating the integral between formula

42 and a formula derived from

m parts.

42 by subdividing each interval

into

Formula 45, a Lubback formula, is derived by replacing

the differences in 44 by their differential equivalents.

Formulas
to

x,

46, 47, ax1 48

1/x, and l/x2

are derived by applying

respectively.

Formula 49 is discussed in Chapter VI.

formula 42

TALE

V.

i.
2.

OF

S1Th

c=cx+c.
2111

f(x).

x) =

f[r(x)

t:(x)

1n+1

u11

4.

f(x)

ini
'ni-1

XIIm

g(x)

ni-1

nl

mi-1

ni

mi-2

ni-1
y
xl

+2ux-2

u
x-1

In+3
Z. -' ir

ni-r

.,
= u
X

-u

E
rn-fr

2\

(1)rL

In

-T

n
u

nl

ni-1

3J.
xi-2

n
u

In

x+r.

ni

5.

x-r

V.

(ni-1)

6.

E(x

b)(nl)

a(: +1)

3
i-

nl

?ero or any integer

1.

19

4(x)

2:

..

Ai Z

"x1c+r

ax + b,

integra], function of degree

of

(x), 4'(x)

2:

Gm

a,

Rn

Au+i

- i, A's from expaneion

...

z integers such that O <a

L=iJ
1 =

10.

+ C;

A0ux+

ni

a rational

cj)(x)

<.

z.

on page 25.

Values of

+ i)- f(m); f(x) =

DQn ["(z

+ i).

n
f'(n + 1)+f(m); j'(x) = D f(x).

i].
ni

(x+i)2

n
12.

4:
ni

n
1:3.

x:
ni

=
(z

r(n +

i) +

f(m); f(x) =

+i)
tn4a

14.

Im

15.

ZaX

a-i

C; a

i.

ln+1
__
-2f(x-1+ai)I
Im

20
16.

17.

1L

=nr(x)

2n(x)

sin(ax

+ b)

Zcos(ax + b)

+ C.

Cos(ax +

-2

a/2)

sin a/2

sin(ax + b

a/2)

c.

2 sin a/2

19.

sinh(ax + b)

cosh(ax + b

sinh

20.

Zcosh(ax + b)

21.

xaX

22.

(ni)

a/2

sinh(ax + b 2 sinh a/2

a
a

-1 -

(a

aX

=x (ni) a-i

1)2

(ni)

a/2)

C.

ma

X cos(ax

8inax=

sin ax

aJ2)

2 sin a/2

24.

a/2) +

sin

23.

x(m)cos(ax
- a/2)
____________

sin a/2

m(m

+ 4 sin2a/2

1)

nix

(m-1)

4 sin2a/2

X(m_2)sin(ax +

4 sin2a/2

25.

x cos ax =

sin(ax - a12)
2 sin a/2

cos ax

sin2a/2

sinax

a).

21

Xs
(in)

26.

Zx'cos

- a/2)

1r

2 sin a/2

ni(m - 1)

in

4 sin2a/2

Zx(m_2)cos(

+ a).

4 sin a/2
In formulas 27-32:

acosb-1

Ka2+1_2acosb

'

a cos b

a2+1_2a cosb
27.

2.

29.

aXsin bx = l1aXsln bx - K2aXcos bx + C.

ZaCcos

bx = K2aXsjn bx + Iaxcos bx + C.

xasin bx =

(K1- K2)xaX(sin bx

+ cos bx)+(I- 4)a''sin(bx-th)

+ 2 K1yXtbcos(hc + b) +

30.

(m)x.

aslnbx=K1x

-in K1

31.

(m)x.

asinbx-Kx (m)x
acosbx

Zz(m_asin(bx

xa%os bx =

(K1+

x+l

C.

j)X(5j

4b)+ mK

(m-l) x+1
a
cos(bx + b).

bx + C05 bx)+(K+

cos(bx + b) + C.

K)

22

32.

ZxaXco
naK2

bx = Kx(m)axsin bx + j1x(m)axcos bx

Zx(m1)a1sin(bx

cos[(a+ID)x
33.

sin

ax

x1a1cos(bx

b)- mX

cos bx

a+bl

34.

Zain

ax

sin

bx =

[(a..)x
48m

sin [(a-)x
cos ax cos hx =

:35.

36.

k
L

sin ax1cos

37.

:3e.

x:

39.

: sin2ax

40.

os

2
:

bx=

in axsin bxi

io

sin

axcos

= 4c

ax =

-]
]

a) +

a-1
+ C.

4am
a-k1
.'
- -j--J
sin [(a-bix

= O.

sin(2ax-G)

+C.

bx1 = O.

x +

a.b)x

sin

+-

O; a, h integers

- sin(2ax
a
in
4

+ C.

a-b
4sin--

2
_

b).

eo8(a-.b)x

-j--J2

sin

C.

<

k,

x1=

2d. .
-i-

23

2(2

00

v=

41.
3.

.+(.)r+1r-1

+
.'.

d3u
'

ux =

5u&

C +

iu +
2 x

dx

I! dx3

1du
=

ValueB

2n+1

dx

12

1x

d5u

+ 30,240

720

+)rn

udx

n/rn

u= m

m-1
2

3f2+

ml

[un+

UJ

du

d\

n/rn

45.

in

24mL

(in2- l)(

rn-i

n-2

N
+A2

in

r/203

[xu+ 2u]

im

on page 25.

(n+].

44.

1d3u

dx3 lo
2
m-1

n-1

Au

(m2-1)(19m2-i)
720m3

m2_I[A4

+4u}

In-3
o

46.

47.

ZC

4i.

(2n-1)x'1

00

n(n - 1)(n - 2)

+---2x

r=).

[ rn.

(1z)

72Ox2'

(1)1()(ra+1)fl]

1nk_ki

s-logx

2-1-=c
-rl

LJ.

25

Stirling's Nwnbers of the Second Jind,

i
i

:i

15

25

10

31

90

65

15

63

301

350

140

21

127

966

1701

1050

266

Bernoulli's Nuribers

B0=

1
-11

691
2,730

36i7

1
133

=55
x

15

17
1

510

43.867
798
174.611
330

137=55
B

21=

854.513
138

26

STJM&TION OF A SPECIAL TYPE POWER SERIES

VI.

The sirnation o1 a power series in which the coefficient of

the k*th term i

a rational integral function of k is 8tudied on

the following pages.

By sunniation

iiean

here, the replacement

of the power series or infn1te sum by a finite expression, identical

for values of the variable in the intercral of convergence of the

por

series.

In other

rds the problem of approximate evaluation

of the infinite series is reduced to exact evaluation by

substitution in an identical finite form.
We proceed to devalop thin finite expression.

Also we develop

three recursion relationships 'which are of more practical use and

which iield identical resuJts for this type of sination,

Finaily

e present a triangle, the sutnnation triangle, which, with a simple

forirmla,

nt

oily provides the most rapid method for such summation,

but is also easy to remember.

The general form of such a series being written:

(C0k+

s x)

there the

Cs

C1l+

+ c)xk,

(p5)

are constants and n Is a non-negativa integer, we

have immediately the form:

S (x )

Ol
:

kxk+

+
:

'.

1cl

Thus the stated problem of summation may be reduced to the problem

of evaluat4ng sums of the form:

ithere

k1xk,

(26)

In other words rather than

n is a non-negative integer.

studying the original power series (25), we str1y the power serios
(26).

K(x),

The interval of convergence of

(-1,

+ 1), may be

readily determined by tho ratio test.

Then n = O, we have:

K(x)
which is a geometric series.
10(x)

We see

x)
Now

Hence,

/x/<l.

(27)

geometric series.

is a particular

oceeding from (27) we have:

lk=

I%(x) =

c1

(x)

k=l

(l-c)
(28)

00

JL(x)

2= :K4

(x)

= x(1 + x)

kl

(l-x)3'

and in general z
00

nlc

xP(x)

.1

kx=x_1(x)=
K(x)=.
n
k=l

may be seen to be a polynomial of

deee

I by luduction.

')n

Note that P2(x) is a polpiomial of degree one and that if

is a polrnoinial of degree n

of degree n.

1, then

?1(x)

P(x)

will be a poljnomial

20
Since K(x) satisfies the recursion relation,

Ic1(x) = x K

(29)

(z),

and since,

X P

(x)

K(x)
(1 ..x)

(30)

ii+'

have,

x?,(x)

dfxPn(x)_1
X)saJ

L __

(1

'

vhence we obtain, by perforning the differentiation and removing

the factor,

(1 ..x)

(x)

(nx

n-s-1

+l)Pn (x) +x(1

P,

The successive polynomials,

easily by repeated use of (31), starting

P1(x)

x)p1 (x).
n

P3S ...
froia th3

(31)

can be built up

known fact tbt,

Thus wo haves

L1

P1(x)

= i

P2

=i +X

P3(x)s1+4x+x2
P4(x) s
P5(x)

-s-

(32)

lix + 11x2+
26

26x+ x4

It may be noted that the coefficiente in these polynomials are

smmetrica1, positIve, integral, and that the first

arid

last

coefficiente are unity.

If we assune that:
:Pn(x)

fr(fl)Xr_l,

=:;l

(33)

29
and substitute in (31) we obtain the recm'sion relation for the

coefficients fr(n) as follows:

(n - r

Since (ii)

-O,

ie see that

f(n) = i

1)1'

r-1

(n

1)+ r

r'

we see that f1(n) = i for all n.

for all n.

- 1).

Since

(34)

f1(n) =

O,

Hence we see that the first and

last coefficients are always unity.

The other

the coefficients follow easily fron (34).

iroperties noted for

Their stretry is shown

later, (47).

Using (34) w

build up a triangular array o coefficients

for the polynomials P(x), shown on page 30.

Looking at the geometrical neaning of (34) with respect to the

triangle we find a de'vice whereby the law of formation may be easily

applied and remembered.

triangle.

This law is similar to that of Pascal's

Rather than adding t

elements to obtain the one below

we add multiples of the elements.

by the number of steps we must take

to reach the elements.

The

These multiples are determined

frein the sides

of the triangle

ethod is evident from (34).

uewdoOAej

;o

UO?tLUfl U.ZJ1

eI{'4

.zoJ

eut ewi c

E)q'4

t
-t

-i:

ri:

99

t-t

t
t

t
t

ot

t
t

9t

t6tt

6t9't

O9't

t6tt

ot

6t9'I
O6t'9t

O9't

Cr'

31
The next step is to find a finite expression for

'iVe

have by repeated application of (34):

(n

(n

(n

-r

1)1(n

1)

r +

-r

1)f1(n

1)

r(n - r)fr 1(n - 2)+

1)-s.

r(ri

-r -1)f1(n

+ r2(n

+ r

-r)fri(n
3)

f(n

- i)

= 1 when n

- i

i<n

= r or when

-1.

= n -

Hence,

r(n

-r -i

+ 2r-.i(

i r"',(r),

(r - 1),
or since f (r) = f
r-1
r

n-r+l
f (n)
r

r'

(n

-r -i

2)'r

Now we substitute r = 2 in (35) and note

i

<n

(n - i)

(n - i)

(35)

= i for

to obtain,
n-].

2'(n

f2(n) =

- i).

i=].

Summing by parts, formula 4, form 3, in the table, we obtain

f2(n), f3(n), f4(n), and f5(n) successively, each time depending

on the previous result and noting f1(n)

- 2)

- 2)

+r'(n_r.4+2)_1(n si)+r1fr(n -i);

Now since f(r) = I,

r2(n

1,

to obtain:

r.

32
in

2fl(
3fl_(

f3(n)

4fl(fl

5-r

1'5(n)

+ 1)

+ 1)n

+ 1) 2"+
3n

+ 1)

(36)

2Z

1)n 2n

(n

(n

+ l)n(n - li
3Z

4n

+ 1)

(n

+l)n 3n

(n + l)n(ri - i)

2n

31

(n

+ i)n(n

L)(n

-2)

II

'4.

is evidently,

From this an intelligent conjecture for

r
F (n) =
r

(l)fh(fl+l)(r -ni + i)'.

inductive proof that

The fol1owin

()

ni-1

m.

Fr(fl)

consists in

'r

showing,

F(n) =

(n - r

l)F1(n

- 1)+ r Fr(fl -

r <

(3g)

and,

F1(n) = F(ri) = 1

in this order.
Hence

first prove:

(1)fli+l(fl+l)(

n
(

)(r-m)

n-1

1)fl_

-r

(n

+r

(-1)

rii+i
(

+ 1)

1)(r

-in+

(1)m+i.

1)1

m=1
We proceed to reduce the express4.

un the right to that on the left.

Changing the sunmiand of the first terni on the right sud adjusting

33

through the limits of summation,

(n

have the two

obtain:

(_l)mhl2)(r

i)

We

we

r
rZ
ml

(4)m+1(

1)fl1

)(r -in

relations:

_m-1
-n +i

n+l.,

_i"
(39)

-n + 2
- n +i

'm-l'

,n

which follow imnecliatel from the expression of the binomial

coefficients in their factorial form. Substitution from these

equations in the above expression ylelds:
(n

-r + i)

(_1)rn

If the

r
rL
ml

(_1)r

exponents of -1 and (r
_ (n

-r + 1) r
+

-i n+l

ni

nl

(_1)fl

i to r

,n+l
in-1

are adjusted, this becomes:

,n+l,

i)r

l)(r-'n+l)
n-in+2

in

sum may
in

ni-1

1)fl

just as well

be

(n+l)(r-m+i) ( in-i )(r-m+

as the term corresponding to

make this change, includo

)(r-rn+i) n-i

in-1

(l) iii+i

limits of siination for the first

from

ir w

+ 2

-n + i)

rn-_
The

in

n+l

is zero.

for

Hence

the constant factors inside the

swrxrnation, and add sums, we have:

s/t

r
Upon

I (n-r+l)(m-1

(_m1

r(n.n+2)

(n+l)(r-n+l1

(n+1)(rn+l)j

(:)(r

in

algebraic reduction this becomes:

mL
and the

first

To

-))fl1+l

equation of (38)

continue,

we

is

,n+l

1)fl,

m-1

proved.

evaluate F1(n) by substitutIon in (37) as

follows:
F1(n)
Finally we show

(_l)2(1)

Fa(n) = 1.

To do

(40)

this

it will

be convenient

to consider an array which is our triangle augmented by the elements

F(n - 1),

F(n

1) must be defined

Hence
to

satisfy

2, thich

by (37) as this

defition

=E

1)

(_1)m+l

m +

1)nl

1,

(E

which becomes by the binomial formula,

(-l)'

If

we

apply the

causes it

Thus,

(33).

F(n
Now since

satisfy the recursion relation of our triangle.

operator
n+l

zm=l

we

(_1)in

have,

(1)(x

+ n

-n

1)fll

(41)

35
Hence we have,
n+].

Afl n-1

1)XTI+1

xD
or as the term Lor

ra

'x'I

m1

n
,
n-1
)I%n-m+1j
,
m-1

= n + i equals zero,
(1)m+1

IxJ

-m

(rn1)(n

(42)

m=l
p.l9-20)

(1,

If we compare (41) with (42) we have:

F(n_1)=xhf
n

lx

Iow

an-1

(n - 1)

means
n

n-1

=0.

F(

n - i) = 0.

Ience we have:

Now from the proved recursion relationship of (38),

F (n)

= F

n-i

(n - i)

then r

+ n F (n - 1),
n

or as F (n - 1) = 0,
n
F (n)

=Fn-J. (n

-1).

Since n i3 arbitrary,
F (n) = F

1(n - 1) =

F(n

- 2) = ... = F1(1).

Now since F1(1) = 1,

F(n) =

i.

(43)

36
This completes the proof that,

f(ri)

=F(n),

or that,
()Ii+l

Now with f(n) we have from (30)

arid

(')(r -m
(33):

(-i)()(r

(44)

m + l)vEJxr_1, (45)

or in a slightly different form,

r1,
,

knXk
k=].

m+in+i.

n
n_ii(1)]

(46)

(1 -

The application of ali this information about (26) to (25)

is Lmnediate.

37
A swmary of the results of th1
of their application is now in order.

investigation and a discussion

The methods and relationships

mentioned at the first of this chapter have now been developed.

have the finite expression of the swn (25) by applying (45) or (46).
Wo have the recursion relationships (29), (31), and (34).

The

best method of evaluation of the swn is by use of the stwnation

triangle with (30) and (33).
In the suirnnation of (25) the value of

methods depends on

The magnitude of n, the proxidty of xi to unity,

the following:

deee

and the required

of accuracy of the evaluation.

considerations must be given each series.

siaU but xi

oi.r

Indidual

For example, if n is

is near unity our nethods are of value, but if n is

large and xi is snall the convergence of the series is not

seriously slow and our results are of less value practically speaking.
The evaluation of (25) for sorne particular value of x may he

accomplished in various ways such as direct substitution in a finite

niiher of terms or by expression of the polmornial coefficient of

xk in factorials followed by sunnation by parts.

JJovevr, the

methods presented here are of gieatest value for this evaluation.

For clarification we give typical examples where these

methods are articu1arly suited.

First, let us evaluate the infinite power series,

J.

+ x +

2+ 27x3+ 64x4+

for x = 0.90000 to five decimal accuracy.

...

+ k3xk + a..,

The exact value may be

found by 'orrnulas(30)and(33)and the summation triangle and substitution

38

or x.

Thus we have,

s=i+E

k3xk

(-l)4x

2.2

Again

using

+ x2)

43,69l.

Second, evaluate the convergent irif:Lnite

S

(1 +

(z

3.22

332

2.3

2k + 3k2+

series,

k4

34

...

forrnulas(30)and(33)and the suimiation triangle, we have:

2k

+3k2+

i/

k()k3

=2
k=l

k=1

= 172.

Finally,

infinite series

finite expression for the sum

k'th teri!l1 is the product of the k'th

let us find a

whose

of an arithmetic progression, b, b + d, b + 2d,

and the k'th term of a geometric

proession,

The series is convergent for r <1.

a,

...,
ar,

b + (k
2,

of an

term

1)d,

ar.

:39

ab

(b

+ kd)ark

1k

rk+ ad

= ab + ab

-a b-br+dr
(1

A study of the

siation

interesting

Sorne

immediately

frani its

First, the

- r)'

triangLe.

'operties of the summation triangle follow

law of formation.

elents

of each ro

are syretrica]. about the

element or elements at the middle of the row.

n-r+i'

The proof is inductive with respect to n.

n = 1.

<n.

(47)

It is evidently true for

If it is true for n1 we have the two relations:

(n

-r

+ 2)2

1(n)

(n

-r

2)f(n),

n.

= r

I_f

That is,

we add equals to equals in the above relationships,

(n

-r

2)21(n) +

r f (n)
r

r f

<
=

n-'r+l

(n)+(n

-r

n-r+2

<

= n.

1), 2

e have:

+ 2)2

Now by (34) we have:

1)

+ 1.

n.

n-'r+2

(n),

40
Now

since f1(n

+ 1) =

f1(n

r <n + 1. Thus the

(47) is complete.

J.

Socond,

this relation holds for

+ 1) = 1,

for n

symmetry holds

and the proof of

for each line the elements increase from the ends to

the middle, that

is,

f(n) <
1'

noven

It is sufficient

first inequality as the second

first by the smetry just proved.

proof is inductive with respect to n. Evidently the

inequality is true for n

holds for n odd and prove

it

will

Now we

3.

fr(fl)<fr+i(fl) for r
inequalities:
Hence

we

multiply the inequalities by

add, and use (34)

we

for

frorii the

srnuetry.

this inequality

and n odd 4ves us the

<fr+i')'

r,

1, and 1 respectively,

obtain:

n even we use the

-i and

er-i

1), r

r+i
Now

r_i<r'

fr<1r+i(

assume

holds for n + 1. Repeating for n even

completos the roof.

If

(48)

to prove the

inequality follows from the

The

j,n_.l nodd

+(r)> f_(n)

relations

for r

Proceeding as above we

<fr+i

for

fr')<fr+i
This

n +

latter

equation is

obtain:
(n +

41
Thus

the induction is comleted and (48) is proved.

An Abel sum.

if

series diverges,

it may he

first

combination than the

(9,

sums have a

These sums are

p.261-265).

definition and not by analogy with

cbviously these

other

some

terms as an approximation to the

"sum" of the divergent series

up by

possible to use

different

of convergent series.

sums

meaning than

in

the case of

convergent sanes, but they aro often of practical value.

true especiafly when this sum is regular,

to obtain the
Now we

fl

sum a

from the

that is, the

definition of

-i in the

Abe1

This is

methods used

convergent series to the ordinary sum.

have an example of Abels sum for the

obtained by setting x =

set

oscillating series

expression for }1(x).

We

have

sum,

A =

and (46),
00

(_l)kkfl

lini

x-p-1
(1

-x)1

r
;;i

()(r
(_l)m+1()(r

=
':;i

by the method of Abel.

=i

(_1)m+1.

;:i
-

mn

ni

+ i)7J

+ l)nJ (_1),

(49)

42

K(x) for negative integral

To

new

some

gain perspective on our previous results

results

n =

1,

n and O.

we

and

to obtain

some

will develop a finite expression for K(x) for

develop a method whereby K(x) may be approximated for

particular

-2.

'value of x where n

relation (29), evidently true for

initial condition,

K0(x)

will use recursion

any complex number n,

in the form:

klxk,

kflxk = (xD)

II

with the

arid

(50)

, for this extension.

Hence we have,

kxk

= (xD)

-1

k=l

kl

= (xP)

(dx
)(i -x)

= -.2n(l -x) + C.

Since

klxk

for

O,

klXk

= O.

This gives,

-.Qn(l .ix),

(51)

The known expression for the sun of this common series.

For n

in the

-2 we obtain in the same way a

form of an

integral,

an expected

non-finite ex'ession

result for the

sum

of such

43

series.

It is convenient to consider the

form with limits

and

x.

The

constant

E,-2k
c
X =-\
/o
k1

in its definite

drops out and we obtain:

Pn(1-x)
X

x2n

(52)

10

Repeating

intea1

this process for successive negative inteers,

obtain a multiple integral of multiplicity (n - 1) for K(x).

ve
:re

have:

E.

kxk=

kl

(x

(X

/0

I0

From a practical

10

11n
x

1x

()fl1

(3)

standpoint approximate values of these

integration of (53).

series may be found by numerical

of (53) decreases as n! increases for

infinite

The utility

two reasons, the integration

bocomes more tedius and evaluation by other means becoies easier

due to the increasing convergency of the series.
series converge

for x

= -1 when n

- 1.

Note that these

4h
BIBLIOGRAPHY

VII.

1.

2.

Bode, George. A treat1e on the calculus of finite differences.

3d ed. New York, G. E. Stechart arid Co., 172. 336p.
British association

tables,
72p.

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