Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Quick revise
A glucose molecule has a high energy content. If all the energy was released at once then
there would be severe temperature problems in a cell. It is important that energy liberation
is in small bursts. This is achieved by using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
Substrates such as glucose are broken down in enzyme-catalysed stages to produce a
number of ATP molecules.
ATP synthase
ADP (adenosine diphosphate) + P (phosphate) = ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Remember that in photosynthesis ATP molecules are both synthesised then used to supply
energy in the light-independent stage!
ATP is a molecule which is needed in all energy-requiring processes.
The ATP needs to be broken down to liberate its energy. This is done by an
enzyme, ATPase.
ATPase
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) = ADP (adenosine diphosphate) + P (phosphate) + energy
ATPase is a hydrolysing enzyme so that a water molecule is needed, but this is not normally
shown in the equation.
ATP is a phosphorylated nucleotide. Recall DNA structure which consists of nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of an organic base, ribose sugar and phosphate group. ATP is a
nucleotide with two extra phosphate groups! This is the reason for the term phosphorylated
nucleotide.
adenine ribose phosphate phosphate phosphate
The hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate group liberates the energy. ATP is the energy
currency of an organism.
Uses of ATP
muscle contraction
active transport
synthesis of macromolecules

stimulates the breakdown of substrates to make even more ATP for other uses.
The biochemistry of respiration
Respiration is vital to the activities of every living cell. The flow diagram opposite shows
stages in the breakdown of glucose and other substrates to produce a supply of ATP.

The flow diagram shows only the main stages of each process.
The two molecules of ATP are needed to begin the process. Each stage is catalysed by an
enzyme, e.g. a decarboxylase removes CO2 from a molecule.
ALERT! After the production of glycerate-3- phosphate the number of ATP molecules can
be doubled. Each molecule of glycerate-3-phosphate gives rise to 20 molecules of ATP. Do
not forget to take away the two ATPs at the start. So the total number of ATPs from one
molecule of glucose is 38 (40 2). Count the ATPs in the diagram. Account for each ATP in
the 38 total. This is a typical examination task!

The phosphate groups can be removed one at a time, releasing energy with each change in

structure
Actually, the ATP is hydrolysed to ADP:
ATP + H2O ADP + H3PO4
ATP is a small, water-soluble molecule (a nucleotide). This enables ATP to travel freely
within the cell.
These reactions are easily reversible but some energy is lost as thermal energy because:
Energy conversions are not 100% efficient
Energy available from the steps of respiration may not exactly match the energy
needed to build up ATP
Energy needs may not match exactly the energy released by the hydrolysis of ATP
ATP is energy currency not energy storage (glucose, glycogen, starch, fats)
ATP is constantly and rapidly recycled
There is only about 5g of ATP in the entire human body
Up to 40kg equivalent of ATP is used in 24 hours
In hard exercise 500g of ATP is broken down per minute to fulfill energy
requirements

This means that each molecule of ATP is built up and broken down up to 100 times
per minute
Creatine Phosphate and Muscle Contraction
The production of hydrogen atoms during the process can be monitored using DCPIP
(dichlorophenol indophenol). It is a hydrogen acceptor and becomes colourless when fully
reduced.
The energy for muscle contraction comes from the hydrolysis of ATP:
ATP ADP+Pi
But the high energy demand of muscle requires a backup system with creatine phosphate
(PCr):
PCr Cr + Pi
There is three times as much PCr as ATP in resting muscle. Creatine Phosphate
replenishes ATP by giving up a phosphate group to ADP to rebuild ATP.
This allows more energy to be released more quickly, adequate for a short burst of activity.
The PCr must be replenished using energy supplied via ATP from respiration

Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle

Quick revise
Both processes produce ATP from substrates but the Krebs cycle produces many more ATP
molecules than glycolysis! Every stage in each process is catalysed by a specific enzyme.
In aerobic respiration both glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are involved whereas in anaerobic
respiration only glycolysis takes place.
The flow diagram shows that every time a stage produces two hydrogen atoms, in the
presence of oxygen, three ATP molecules are produced. The role of these hydrogen atoms
is shown in the electron carrier system.
Electron carrier system
The main feature of the electron carrier or electron transport system is that three ATPs are
produced every time 2H atoms are transported. It takes place in the mitochondria.

Glycolysis summary
ALL THE REACTIONS IN GLYCOLYSIS TAKE PLACE IN THE CELL CYTOPLASM
(OUTSIDE THE MITOCHONDRION)
Glucose is a stable molecule containing 6 Carbon atoms
Glucose contains many C-H bonds and contains significant energy
During GLYCOLYSIS one glucose molecule is split into two PYRUVATE molecules.
Each PYRUVATE molecule contains three carbon atoms

As glucose is a stable molecule it must first be made into a less stable FRUCTOSE
BISPHOSPHATE molecule before it can be broken down. This requires the input
of energy
(2 x ATP)
FRUCTOSE BISPHOSPHATE is split into two TRIOSE PHOSPHATE molecules
The two TRIOSE PHOSPHATE molecules are converted into two GP molecules,
releasing energy (2 x ATP), and Hydrogen. Hydrogen is picked up by NAD to form
reduced NAD (redNAD). The Hydrogen is taken to the mitochochondria where is is
used to generate
ATP by OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
2GPs are converted into two PYRUVATE molecules releasing energy (2 x ATP).

Thus at the end of GLYCOLYSIS, one glucose mocule has generated

2 pyruvate molecules (to the LINK REACTION)
2 ATP molecules (2 input, 4 output)
2 red NAD molecules (to OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION)
NO CO2 is produced by glycolysis
The LINK REACTION
Overview
Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)which
enters the Krebs Cycle
No ATP is generated
H is released producing reduced NAD for Oxidative Phosphorylation
CO2 is released
The LINK REACTION step by step
Pyruvate(X2) is produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis
It is moved by active transport into the mitochondrial matrix
A series of chemical changes occur:
o decarboxylation (CO2 removed) by pyruvate decarboxylase
o Dehydrogenation (H removed) by pyruvate dehydrogenase
o An Acetyl group (2C) is produced which reacts with Coenzyme A to
form Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA is the end product of the Link Reaction and is needed for the next stage
of cell respiration: Krebs cycle(also called the Citric Acid cycle)
note that the Coenzyme A is not used up in the Krebs Cycle but is recycled back to
the link reaction to make another Acetyl CoA molecule - thus Coenzyme A acts as
a carrier for the acetyl molecule
The Yield of the Link Reaction

o One CO2 molecule per pyruvate (waste product)

o One (2 carbon) Acetyl group per pyruvate for Krebs Cycle

o One reduced NAD molecule per pyruvate for Oxidative Phosphorylation

Acetyl Coenzyme A
Coenzyme A is made up of vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), Adenine and Ribose.
CoA carries the acetyl group (as Acetyl CoA) from glycolysis to Krebs cycle and is
repeatedly recycled
Most molecules used by living organisms for energy are converted into Acetyl CoA
Respiration of Fats
Fats Fatty acids and glycerol

Glycerol triose phosphate for glycolysis

Fatty acids 2C chunks acetyl CoA to Krebs Cycle
In reverse - excess Carbohydrate can be converted into fats via acetyl CoA
Krebs Cycle Overview

Also known as the Citric Acid cycle, it was discovered in 1937 by Hans Krebs
Krebs Cycel is a series of 9 enzyme controlled reactions that breakdown Acetyl CoA
into CO2
Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
The 2C Acetyl molecule is broken down into:
o

2 x CO2 molecules (waste product)

o releasing energy to build up 2ATP molecules,

o releasing H carried by NAD (red NAD) and FAD (red FAD) to generate
more ATP via oxidative phosphorylation
Krebs Cycle Step by Step
The (2C) acetyl group from AcetylCoA combines with (4C) oxaloacetate to make
(6C) citrate
Citrate is decarboxylated (removal of CO2) and dehydrogenated (removal of
Hydrogen) to give a 5C compound, CO2 and reduced NAD.
Further decarboxylation and dehydrogenation gives the 4Carbon compound
oxaloacetate, CO2, reduced NAD, reduced FAD and ATP.
The 4C oxaloacetate combines with a new molecule of acetyl CoA and the cycle
starts again hydrogen carriers take H to the electron transport chain.

Respiratory quotient
Quick revise
It is sometimes useful to be able to deduce which substrate is being used in a persons
metabolism at a specific time. This can be done if the volume of oxygen taken in, and the
volume of carbon dioxide given out are measured. From this data the respiratory quotient
(RQ) can be calculated.
RQ = volume of carbon dioxide given off
volume of oxygen taken in

The RQ values of the following substrates are well documented from previous
investigations:
carbohydrate 1.0; protein 0.9; fat 0.7
It is interesting to know which substrate is being metabolised. It is necessary to view such
data with caution. If a mixture of substrates is being used then the figure will be different
from the above, e.g. an RQ of 0.8 could point to both protein and fat being used.
The graph below shows the different RQ values of a seed during different stages of
germination.

Take great care in interpreting RQ data. This graph suggests that the seed begins with
carbohydrate as a metabolite, changes to fat/oil then returns to mainly using carbohydrate.
Any RQ
which is not of the numbers given suggests a substrate combination is being used.
How is the RQ data collected?
The instrument called a respirometer, does this.

Sodium hydroxide absorbs all CO2 from the air in the apparatus from the beginning.
Potassium hydroxide could be used instead of sodium hydroxide. They both
absorb CO2.
As the germinating seeds use oxygen and the pressure reduces in tube A so the
manometer level nearest to the seeds rises.
Any CO2 excreted is absorbed by the sodium hydroxide solution.

The syringe is used to return the manometer fluid levels to normal.

The volume of oxygen used is calculated by measuring the volume of gas needed
from the syringe to return the levels to the original values.
If water replaces the sodium hydroxide then the carbon dioxide evolved can be measured.
Factors that affect germination
Science presenter Jon Chase and a scientist specialising in seeds investigate the effect of
temperature, water and oxygen on germination, and also look at the effect of fertilisers.
Faster germination and seedling growth are seen in seeds kept in the warm compared with
cold conditions, in moist compared with dry conditions, and also oxygenated conditions.
Finally it is shown that fertilisers can speed up the rate of germination as well as plant
growth. This is all presented in the context of feeding an ever-increasing world population.