Detection and identification

Flash notes: Identifying positive ions

A Key area of chemistry is the identification of unknown materials. It is possible

to split this into the analysis of elements and compounds. If we are identifying
ionic compounds we can identify the positive ions and then the negative ions to
identify the compound overall.

To identify the positive ions we have three main tests:

1. Flame tests

2. Precipitate tests with sodium hydroxide.

3. The ammonium ion can also be identified with sodium hydroxide. To do

this some sodium hydroxide is added to the unknown. We then gently
warm the mixture. If the ammonium ion is present ammonia gas should be
produced. This can be tested for with damp red litmus paper. The
ammonia gas will turn this blue.

For a flame test, a piece of nichrome wire is cleaned using concentrated acid and
heating in the Bunsen flame, this should remove all trace impurities. The wire
loop is then dipped into the compound and returned to a roaring Bunsen flame,
the colour it burns if any is visible is recorded. The results you must know are

• Lithium = bright red

• Sodium = golden yellow

• Potassium = lilac

• Calcium = brick red

• Barium = green

Sodium hydroxide will form a precipitate with metal ions, these can also be used
to identify unknown positive ions

• Aluminium = white precipitate that will dissolve in excess sodium

hydroxide

• Calcium and magnesium = both form a white precipitate but a flame test
can be used to separate them.

• Copper (ii) = Blue precipitate

• Iron (iii) = rusty orange precipitate

• Iron (ii) = Dirty green precipitate that will oxidise to the orange of iron (iii)
if left
Flash notes: Identifying negative ions

Next we can identify the negative ion

• Carbonate ions can be identified by reacting the compound with dilute

acid. If a carbonate ion is present, the reaction will give off carbon dioxide
gas. This can be identified by using lime water (it will turn cloudy/milky).
We can specifically identify two carbonates using thermal decomposition
reactions.

o Green copper carbonate thermally decomposes to black copper

oxide and gives of carbon dioxide gas

o White zinc carbonate thermally decomposes to zinc oxide and

carbon dioxide, when the zinc oxide is hot it will appear a lemon
yellow colour that will fade as it cools.

• Halide ions can be identified by adding dilute nitric acid to remove other
reactants. Then by adding silver nitrate solution to form a precipitate of
solid silver halide. These all have different colours.

o Chloride ions form silver chloride a white precipitate

o Bromine ions form silver bromide a cream precipitate

o Iodide ions form silver iodide a yellow precipitate

• Sulphate ions can be identified by adding hydrochloric acid followed by

barium chloride solution; if sulphate ions are present a white precipitate of
barium sulphate will form.

• Nitrate ions can be identified by adding a small amount of sodium

hydroxide and aluminium powder, this mixture is then warmed. If nitrate
ions are present ammonia gas will be given off which can be tested for
using damp red litmus paper that will turn blue if ammonia is present.

Flash notes: Testing for organic compounds

To identify if a compound is organic it should be heated strongly. Any organic

compound will char and blacken, think about what happens when sugar (an
organic compound) is heated.

We can also identify organic compounds that contain carbon carbon double
bonds by using bromine water. If there is a double bond present the bromine
water will react with it losing its colour. So carbon carbon double bonds will
decolourise bromine water.

We can also use combustion analysis on organic compounds, this is where we

use the number of moles of carbon dioxide and water to work out the empirical
formula of the organic compound.
 1. Calculate the moles of CO2 by dividing the mass of CO2 by the Mr of CO2

2. Calculate the moles of water by dividing the mass of H2O by the Mr of H2O.
Multiply this number by two as each H2O molecule contains two hydrogen
atoms.

3. This will give you the ratio of carbon to hydrogen, now divide each by the
smallest number to get the whole number ratio for the empirical formula.

Flash notes: Instrumental analysis

We can now use modern methods of analysis to inform our lab tests or to
supersede them. Modern methods have several advantages

• They are highly accurate

• They are much quicker

• They can be carried out on very smaller amounts (trace evidence.)

And disadvantages.

• They are very expensive to purchase

• They require special training to use

• They must have their results matched to known samples (like matching a
fingerprint.)

Elements can be identified by two main methods

• Atomic absorption spectroscopy: Here the sample is dissolved, and then

introduced to a flame; the wavelength of light which is produced is then
matched to known data. It can also be used to calculate the concentration
in the sample as well

• Mass spectrometry: Here a machine is used to find the masses of different

elements, this is used to calculate relative atomic masses of samples and
also particular elements in a sample.

Remember: you need to be aware of these techniques, not how they work.

We can also identify unknown compounds using instrumental techniques, they

have the same advantages and disadvantages as above.

Firstly the samples are separated by using a type of chromatography (there are
several different varieties but their main role is to separate out the different
compounds in a mixture.)
We can then use one of several instrumental methods to identify the unknown
compounds.

• Infra red spectroscopy

• UV visible spectroscopy

• NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy.

These methods can be used heavily in forensic science for applications such as

• Drugs in sport
• Ink in forgeries
• Blood from crime scenes
• Poison samples