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Training - introduction
Training and personal development is an important method for a business to improve the
performance of employees.
It is important that a business provides training that is consistent with the business
strategy. The main steps in developing a training strategy are to:
- Draw up an action plan to show how investment in training and development will help
meet business goals and objectives;
- Higher quality
- Less supervision - lower supervision and management costs if employees can get on
with their jobs. This might also improve motivation - through greater empowerment
- More successful recruitment and employee retention - businesses with a good reputation
for training are likely to find it easier to attract good quality staff - and then keep them
- Help in achieving change - businesses with strong training systems and culture find it
easier to implement change programmes
What training cannot solve
It is tempting to think that training is the solution to many if not all business
problems. However, there are some things that training can rarely solve: these include:
- Recruitment
- They fear employees will be poached by competitors (who will then benefit from the
training)
Meaning of training
Training is the most important and established function of the personnel programme is to
impart training to the new comers. In the modern world of technological changes, the
need for training employees is being increasingly recognized so as to keep employees in
touch with the new developments, and technology. Every organization must have a
systematic training programme otherwise employees will try to learn the job by trial and
error method which can prove to be dangerous. Trained workers will operate machines
carefully, reduce scrap and wastes.
NEED FOR TRAINING
Training is necessary for existing and new employees. Training increases the skill
of the employees. New machines, new tools, new methods and need for increasing the
productivity make training still more important.
Tr a i n i n g - o n t h e j o b
As the name implies, on the job training involves employees training at their place or
work.
- Job rotation - where the trainee is given several jobs in succession, to gain experience of
a wide range of activities (e.g. a graduate management trainee might spend periods in
several different departments)
- Projects - employees join a project team - which gives them exposure to other parts of
the business and allow them to take part in new activities. Most successful project teams
are "multi-disciplinary"
- Less disruptive to the business - i.e. employees are not away from work
- Training an employee in their own working environment, with equipment they are
familiar with and people they know can help they gain direct experience to a standard
approved by the employer
- Employees may find that they have more confidence if they are supervised and guided
as they feel they are doing the job right
- Employees may feel more at ease being taught or supervised by people they know
rather than complete strangers at an external training course
- Managers or supervisors can assess improvement and progress over a period of time and
this makes it easier to identify a problem intervene and resolve problems quickly
- On the job training is also productive, as the employee is still working as they are
learning
- As training progresses and the employee begins to feel more confident, this confidence
would allow them to work at a higher standard and ultimately be more productive
- Training "on-the-job" provides an opportunity to get to know staff they might not
normally talk to
- Teaching or coaching is a specialist skill in itself; unless the trainer has the skills and
knowledge to train, this would mean that the training will not be done to a sufficient
standard
- The trainer may not be given the time to spend with the employee to teach them
properly, which would mean substandard training has been achieved and learning has
only been half done
- The trainer may posses bad habits and pass these on to the trainee
Tr a i n i n g - o f f t h e j o b
Off the job training involves employees taking training courses away from their place of
work. This is often also referred to as "formal training".
Off the job training courses might be run by the business' training department or by
external providers.
- Day release (where the employee takes time out from normal working hours to attend a
local college or training centre)
- Block release courses - which may involve several weeks at a local college
- Sandwich courses - where the employee spends a longer period of time at college (e.g.
six months) before returning to work
There are many different ways to train. Indeed, entire books have been written on
the ways to deliver training. How can a manager charged with training his or her
employees choose an appropriate method? This article defines some of the most common
training methods and reviews pros and cons for each one.
The method by which training is delivered often varies based on the needs of the
company, the trainee, and on the task being performed. The method should suit the
audience, the content, the business¡¦ environment, and the learning objective. Ideally, the
method chosen will motivate employees to learn, help employees prepare themselves for
learning, enable the trainees to apply and practice what they've been taught, help trainees
retain and transfer what they have learned, and integrate performance with other skills
and knowledge.
Other factors affecting the choice of a training method include:
-Number of trainees
-Budget
Lecture
A lecture is the method learners often most commonly associate with college and
secondary education. Yet, it is also considered one of the least effective methods to use
for adult learners. In this method, one person (the trainer) does all of the talking. He or
she may use handouts, visual aids, question/answer, or posters to support the lecture.
Communication is primarily one-way: from the instructor to the learner.
Pros: Less time is needed for the trainer to prepare than other methods. It provides a lot of
information quickly when it is less important that the trainees retain a lot of details.
Cons: Does not actively involve trainees in training process. The trainees forget much
information if it is presented only orally.
Demonstration
Demonstration is very effective for basic skills training. The trainer shows trainees how
to do something. The trainer may provide an opportunity for trainees to perform the task
being demonstrated.
Pros: This method emphasizes the trainee involvement. It engages several senses: seeing,
hearing, feeling, touching.
Cons: It requires a great deal of trainer preparation and planning. There also needs to be
an adequate space for the training to take place. If the trainer is not skilled in the task
being taught, poor work habits can be learned by the trainee.
Seminar
Pros: Group members are involved in the training. The trainer can use many group
methods as part of the seminar activity.
Cons: Planning is time-consuming. The trainer must have skill in conducting a seminar.
More time is needed to conduct a seminar than is needed for many other methods.
Conference
Pros: There is a lot of trainee participation. The trainees build consensus and the trainer
can use several methods (lecture, panel, seminar) to keep sessions interesting.
Cons: It can be difficult to control a group. Opinions generated at the conference may
differ from the manager¡¦s ideas, causing conflict.
Panel
Pros: Trainees often find it interesting to hear different points of view. The process
invites employees to share their opinions and they are challenged to consider alternatives.
Cons: It requires a great deal of preparation. The results of the method can be difficult to
evaluate.
Role Playing
During a role play, the trainees assume roles and act out situations connected to the
learning concepts. It is good for customer service and sales training.
Pros: Trainees can learn possible results of certain behaviors in a classroom situation.
They get an opportunity to practice people skills. It is possible to experiment with many
different approaches to a situation without alienating any actual customers.
Cons: A lot of time is spent making a single point. Trainers must be skilled and creative
in helping the class learn from the situation. In some role play situations, only a few
people get to practice while others watch.
Case Studies
Pros: A case study can present a real-life situation which lets trainees consider what they
would do. It can present a wide variety of skills in which applying knowledge is
important.
Cons: Cases can be difficult to write and time-consuming to discuss. The trainer must be
creative and very skilled at leading discussions, making points, and keeping trainees on
track.
Simulations
Pros: Training becomes more reality-based, as trainees are actively involved in the
learning process. It directly applies to jobs performed after training. Simulations involve
yet another learning style, increasing the chance that trainees will retain what they have
learned.
Cons: Simulations are time-consuming. The trainer must be very skilled and make sure
that trainees practice the skills correctly. Only perfect practice makes perfect.
Projects
Projects require the trainees to do something on the job which improves the business as
well as helps them learn about the topic of training. It might involve participation on a
team, the creation of a database, or the forming of a new process. The type of project will
vary by business and the skill level of the trainee.
Pros: This is a good training activity for experienced employees. Projects can be chosen
which help solve problems or otherwise improve the operation. Trainees get first-hand
experience in the topic of the training. Little time is needed to prepare the training
experience.
Cons: Without proper introduction to the project and its purpose, trainees may think they
are doing somebody else¡¦s work. Also, if they do not have an interest in the project or
there is no immediate impact on their own jobs, it will be difficult to obtain and maintain
their interest.
Self-discovery
Trainees discover the competencies on their own using such techniques as guided
exercises, books, and research.
Pros: Trainees are able to choose the learning style that works the best for them. They are
able to move at their own pace and have a great deal of ownership over their learning.
Cons: Trainees can easily get side-tracked and may move slower than the trainer desires.
It is also more difficult to measure the employee¡¦s progress.
Movies/videos/computer-based training
Content for the training experience comes primarily from a videotape or computer-based
program.
Pros: It is easy to provide this training and the trainer can follow-up with questions and
discussion. It is also easy to assure that the same information is presented to each trainee.
Cons: It is expensive to develop. Most trainers choosing this option must purchase the
training from an outside vendor, making the content less specific to their needs.
On-the-job training
This is the most common method of training. The trainee is placed on the job and the
manager or mentor shows the trainee how to do the job. To be successful, the training
should be done according to a structured program that uses task lists, job breakdowns,
and performance standards as a lesson plan.
Pros: The training can be made extremely specific to the employee's needs. It is highly
practical and reality-based. It also helps the employee establish important relationships
with his or her supervisor or mentor.
Cons: Training is not standardized for employees. There is often a tendency to have a
person learn by doing the job, providing no real training.
Mentoring
A mentor can tutor others in their learning. Mentors help employees solve problems both
through training them in skills and through modeling effective attitudes and behaviors.
This system is sometimes known as a buddy system.
Pros: It can take place before, during, or after a shift. It gives the trainee individual
attention and immediate feedback. It also helps the trainee get information regarding the
business culture and organizational structure.
Cons: Training can be interrupted if the mentor moves on. If a properly trained mentor is
not chosen, the trainee can pick up bad habits.
When choosing from among these methods, the trainer must decide which one best suits
the trainees, the environment, and the investments available. Many trainers will choose to
combine methods or vary them. Others will select a single method that works best for
them and never vary. With so many options, a trainer is limited only by his or her
creativity.
Methods of training - The right method
This module lends itself to a lively presentation by the trainer. The trainer must be
capable of demonstrating personally the methods of training selected for special attention.
These methods are believed to be the most appropriate for use in training in food control
practices including GMPs and HACCP. It is acknowledged that case studies also have
their use, but considerable time is required in their preparation.
The trainer should spare no effort to make this module effective. The methods are the
tools the trainees will use when they became trainers. It is essential that the presentation
of the module provide them with a base for effective training, on which the trainees can
build by practising to improve performance.
Exercise
You have a choice of the following methods to prepare for effective training:
Lecture
Lecture/discussion
Skill lesson
There are other methods of training, but their effective use is specific to special training
situations and will not be discussed in this lecture. Some of those methods include:
Role play
Assignment
Case study
Training games
Group exercises
Programmed learning
All the resources at your command must be used to make your instruction real and vital
for your trainees. The number and types of training methods you use during any
presentation depend on many factors, and you must therefore have answers to the
following questions before you decide how you will present your material.
How many trainees are in the group and why are they there?
THE LECTURE
Use
Notes may be too brief. The lecturer may then improvise, and he or she may be vague or
may forget important elements. On the other hand, notes may be too extensive. The
lecturer will then read them, and this is undesirable.
Given an outline of the material, prepare the notes by asking these questions:
What will the illustrations (in detail) be? Can they be misunderstood or
misinterpreted?
What precisely should everyone know at the end of the lecture? (This is really a re-
examination of the outline and a restatement of the important points.)
Structure
Introduction:
Statement of aims
Relation of this lecture to those that came before and are to follow
Establishment of goal (which gives purpose and direction) by linking aims with
participant needs
Body of lecture:
Logical development
A few well-developed steps, strongly made (more effective than many steps)
Appropriate use of aids and questions to stimulate student interest and activity
Conclusion:
Disadvantages
THE LECTURE/DISCUSSION
Use
When the members know one another well enough to risk making errors
When the material is of a kind that can be assimilated readily, at least in part, or when
there is some prior knowledge of it
Discussion
The most useful starting point for the discussion is the question. Some uses of questions:
At beginning of lecture: to find out what trainees already know and to discover
opinions
During lecture: to find out whether the participants understand and are following the
lecture
End of lecture: to recapitulate and test the participants' knowledge and understanding
They should lead to some constructive statement rather than to a nod or a grunt
Holding a dialogue with a single answerer (Bring in the group, e.g. "Would anyone
like to add to that?")
Letting the discussion take too long (Guide it carefully. Remember the objective of
your discussion.)
Structure
Introduction
Body of lecture
Discussion
Conclusion
Aims
Introduction
Step 1
State the job and find out what the worker already knows about it
Step 2
Instruct clearly, completely and patiently, but teach no more than the worker can
master
Step 3
Have the worker explain each key point to you as he or she does the job again
Make sure the worker understands, and continue until you are certain of this
Step 4
Follow up
Check frequently
Encourage questions
Workers in fish processing units must maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness. In
order to educate the workers in better hygienic practices, the correct hand washing
method is one of the topics demonstrated in fish processing units.
The main objective of washing hands is to avoid contaminating the material with
organisms from the hands. Unwashed hands transmit microorganisms. It is therefore
essential that hands be washed thoroughly. The following procedure for washing hands is
recommended:
Wet palms and arms, from the elbow down, with fresh water
Apply soap
Work lather on and around fingers, nails and arms from the elbow down
It is not good enough for a trainer to feel self-satisfied with his or her training
performance without evaluating it. All effective trainers not only evaluate or measure the
degree of success of their course, they also evaluate their personal performance at the
conclusion of each session or at least at the end of each training day.
Purpose
If we study trainees' job behaviour after a course we have generally changed their job
behaviour
Course evaluation
Evaluating reaction
Find out how well the trainees liked a particular training session or sessions or the
course as a whole
Evaluating learning
Evaluating behaviour
Remember: good trainers have on-the-job experience; they know the best way of
doing things
Evaluating results
What were the tangible results of the training in terms of improved job performance?
Others are not easily measured (where management and attitudes are involved)
METHOD EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRES
Model 1 is intended for evaluation of a complete training course. Model 2 can be used to
evaluate either a specific training session or module or the overall training course.
Preparation
Do the notes show clearly the limited, definite scope of this training session?
Introduction
Will this step excite the interest of the trainees from the start - is it original or linked
strongly with an emotion-stirring activity, or some matter of topical or personal interest?
Will it pave the way for what is to follow so that the presentation will not discourage
or bore by excessive difficulty?
Will it provoke curiosity and interest for what is to come, generating a need which
will be satisfied?
Does it provide adequate revision of what has gone before?
Body
Will each step offer some way of evaluating the trainees' comprehension before the
next step is undertaken?
If there is a written exercise to be done, have I something useful ready to occupy the
quicker trainees so that slower ones may finish comfortably?
Is there adequate provision for holding the interest of the strongest trainees and giving
them worthwhile activity?
Have I allowed for a period of relief for trainees and myself after a period of intense
concentrated work?
Conclusion
Will this step adequately recall and test the vital points of the session?
Have I timed my session so that there is time for this important step?
Chalkboard summary
Have I thought out ways of obtaining the maximum help from the chalkboard with a
minimum loss of contact with my group during the session?
Are there any parts of the chalkboard that I should not use because they are not clearly
visible because of poor lighting, shining sun, etc.?
How will arrangement of any other visual aids fit in with my use of the chalkboard?
General
Have I taken into consideration the intellectual level of the group, the time of day the
session will take place and interruptions?
Have I thought out how this session will fit into the general syllabus for the group?
Am I sure of the correct pronunciation of unusual words that I will be using during the
lesson?
Voice
Was it restrained enough not to irritate trainees or disturb other session leaders?
Did I vary the speed, pitch, volume and tone so as to give maximum interest to
whatever I said?
Manner
> Did I sincerely convey a sense of earnestness and enthusiasm for what I was
instructing?
> Was my manner reasonably pleasant and general without being affectedly so?
Group management
Did I get off to a clean brisk start, stimulating the group from the beginning?
Did I stand in such a position that I could be seen and heard by all trainees?
Did I keep all trainees under my eye and control whenever necessary?
Did I take steps to see that no trainee disturbed the work of the group or failed to take
adequate part in the session?
Did I see that at the beginning of the lesson the floor and chalkboards were clean, the
desks in order, the windows open and the class settled and ready?
Questioning
Were most questions easy enough for all trainees to be able to attempt an answer?
Where the response to a question was unsatisfactory, did I take measures to improve
the response (e.g. reframing the question) rather than waste a good question by
immediately giving an answer?
To assist in the planning of future courses it would be of great value if you would
complete the sections that follow. Please be frank with your responses. Remember, only
your honest reactions will enable adjustments and improvements to be made. The
questions asked may not cover all of the aspects about which you wish to comment. For
that reason a space headed "General comments" has been provided, and it is hoped that
you will use it if appropriate.
Conditions
What improvements, if any, do you suggest for the accommodation of future courses?
Presentation
Were there any sessions that left you confused or uncertain? Please specify.
Do you think trainers could have done more to improve their presentations? If so,
what?
Did the aids used help sustain your interest and understanding? Name any particular
aid that impressed you.
TRAINING MODULE
Instructions
You have just completed the training. Now we would like you to tell us about
your feelings on what has just been presented. This information is valuable in helping us
make following training sessions more interesting and useful to you. Below you will find
a number of questions dealing with the just completed training session. Most questions
can be answered by circling a number on the scale to the right of the question. Where a
written response is required, please write your reply clearly in the space provided. Please
consider your responses carefully and answer truthfully. Everything you say will be held
in strictest confidence. The information will be used only to help us make this training
activity more responsive to your needs.
Topic discussed:_____________________
I. Content
9. Additional comments you may have on these or other aspects of the content of
this training module/session
__________________________________
__________________________________
II. Training aids and handouts
Instructor effectiveness
_________________________
_________________________
IV. General
1. Please state the three most important ideas or concepts that you have learned
from this session
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
V. Training logistics/administration
6. Please use the space below to indicate any suggestions you might have that
will help us to improve the facilities and administration
DISCUSSION
Survey Brief - 1
Training for work-related computing comes in a variety of forms, ranging from formal,
scheduled classroom instruction to spur-of-the-moment sessions with a co-worker to self-
based trial and error efforts. Both organizations and individual workers make choices
regarding the selection of training methods.
In this report we explicate the modes of training being utilized by employees. We also
analyze the linkages between these various training modes and the organizational,
technical and individual characteristics associated with each employee. The main issues
addressed are the factors which influence the types of training methods used within
organizations and the factors which influence choice of training by individual workers.
This report utilizes the results of a survey of 1200 individuals in twelve metropolitan
statistical areas (MSAs) in the United States.1 The survey was conducted by telephone
during the period April to July, 2004. It is a part of the larger Project POINT (People,
Organizations, and Information Technology) conducted by researchers at the Center for
Research on the twelve MSAs selected were chosen to represent the more sophisticated
areas of the U.S. as regards technology use (number of households with computers) and
internet infrastructure (access to broadband).
They are: Portland, ME, Boston, MA, Middlesex-Somerset-Hunterdon, NJ, Washington,
DC-MD-VA, Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, NC, Austin-San Marcos, TX, Des Moines,
IA, Fort Collins-Loveland, CO, Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN, Olympia, WA, San Francisco,
CA, and Orange County, CA. Within each MSA, a total of 100 respondents were
interviewed (using random digit dialing techniques). The overall response rate for the
survey was 42%, with MSAs varying from a low of 32% (Middlesex-Somerset-
Hunterdon, NJ), to a high of 51% (Portland, ME).
Survey Brief - 2
Project POINT focuses on how ICTs, especially the Internet, are transforming
people’s lives in the home and workplace. The goal of Project POINT is to empirically
explore and understand the linkages between information and communication
technologies and behavioral changes in individuals and groups. The sample is more
representative of white-collar workers, that is, workers engaged in non-manual labor and
includes only those who use (desktop or laptop) computers for workrelated purposes at
least 5 hours per week and work for at least thirty hours per week. Nearly two-thirds
(64%) of the sample are engaged in occupations generally classified as managerial or
professional (See Table 1). Only 5% are engaged in occupations classified as production
workers. Fifty-eight percent of the respondents are between 35-55 years of age. A full
38% of the respondents have a college degree and 30% have a graduate degree, while
only 8% have no more than a high school education.
Survey Brief – 3
Types of Training
Training can be characterized on a number of dimensions. Two important dimensions are
the degree to which there is interaction with others during training (which we term
personal versus interpersonal), and the degree of formality of the training. If we create a
taxonomy of training modes based on these two dimensions, we can identify the four
modes of training.
We expect that both the degree of interaction and the degree of formality of workplace
training will be affected differently by characteristics of the organization, the worker’s
sociotechnical environment, and the individual characteristics of the worker. We expect
that both individuals and organizations have preferences for particular types of training
modalities. However, we also expect that many organizations and individuals use several
training methods rather than relying on a single method. In the survey, the respondents
were asked to indicate whether, during the past three years, they had:
1) attended instructor-led classes or workshops for work-related computing;
2) engaged in any training sessions for computing with a supervisor or co-worker; 3)
done any computing training using online computer or software training programs; and/or
4) learned to use computers and software for work through self-training with user
manuals, instruction sheets, or “trial and error.” Table 3 displays the percent of
respondents engaging in each of the four types of training modes:
More than four-fifths of the respondents have engaged in self-training in the use of
workrelated computing by using manuals, or ‘trial and error,’ while only one-third of the
respondents have used any type of e-learning during the past three years. Relatively equal
percentages of respondents – more than half of all workers -- have been trained in an
instructor-led class or workshop or have been trained by a supervisor or co-worker. It is
perhaps surprising that the less formal methods of training (self-training via trial and
error or peer training) have been utilized by more employees than the formal methods
(instructor-led classes or e-learning), since these latter modes receive the bulk of attention
in discussions of training. In Table 4, the respondents are classified in terms of all the
possible combinations of the four types of training that they might have experienced
during the past three years. Since 83% of the respondents reported using manuals and
trial and error as training methods, we have attempted to create some useful distinctions
among categories. Thus we report the percent of
respondents who used only this method but ignore self-training for establishing the
percentage of workers with the combinations of instructor-led, co-worker/supervisor-
based, and online training reported. The most frequent training method continues to be
self-training with 21% of the respondents reporting this as the only mode of training
received during the past 3 years.
Table 4. Frequency of Multiple Training Methods In Past Three Years
However, forty-one percent of the employees engage in more than one training method.
Also very noteworthy is the low 6% of the respondents who rely solely on online
computer or software training programs. This is at odds with the reports that many
organizations are currently attempting to transition rapidly to extensive reliance on such
e-training. For nearly all contemporary workers, online computer or software training
programs appear to be augmented with other types of training. Also significant is the fact
that only 5% of the employees report no
Survey Brief - 5
Training on work-related computer use during the past three years. This is more
consistent with the widespread emphasis on the importance of enhancing the computer-
based skills of the workforce. Using the taxonomy about one-third of the respondents
relied solely on formal methods (32%) of training in the past 3 years, another one-third
(31%) utilized only informal methods, and another one-third employed both formal and
informal methods. “Interpersonal” training with an instructor, co-worker, or supervisor is
the training mode for 41% of the respondents, while 27% engage primarily in solitary
(“personal”) modes, and another 27% engage in both interpersonal and personal modes of
training.
Empirically, for purposes of further analysis, we identify four major training methods in
use by our sample:
1. Interpersonal instruction method either within a classroom with instructor or in the
work unit with supervisor-co-worker (41%),
3. Self-training methods, with reliance on trial and error or training manuals (27%)
4. No training (5%).
In the remainder of this report we will look at the associations of these four patterns of
training with selected organizational, sociotechnical, and individual characteristics.
Survey Brief – 6
Size of organization:
Skill development:
Since formal methods of training tend to be a higher investment than informal methods,
we expect that those organizations that are high on fostering skill development among
their employees will likely have more instructor-led courses and e-learning opportunities.
Indeed we do find a significant difference . In those organizations reported to emphasize
skill development, there is a higher proportion of employees participating in organized
training sessions either within a classroom setting or with co-workers or supervisors. In
addition there is a higher proportion (35%) who also have used online computer or
software training modules. Where organizations are reported as low on fostering
employee development of skills, a significantly higher proportion of the respondents
report engaging in only self-training, that is, using manuals and trial and error.
Employees in organizations promoting skill development are only about one-half as
likely to have no training or to rely only on self-training as those in organizations that do
not encourage skill evelopment.
Paperless organizations:
With the advent of cheaper and more powerful computer equipment coupled with
increased emphasis on networking within organizations, many organizations are moving
towards the digitization of all documents and becoming a ‘paperless organization.’
Organizations vary on the extent to which they have achieved this goal. We expect that in
more paperless organizations, the greater use of on-line training materials also would
occur. In Table 7/Figure 3 is the relationship between training method and the degree to
which an organization has been able to achieve a paperless environment. In organizations
which score low on this measure, only 28% of the workers have accessed on-line
computing training, while in high paperless environments a full 40% have used this type
of training in the past three years. It appears that the drive towards a paperless
environment encompasses not only the operational materials of an organization, but also
spills over into a greater incidence of e-learning as well.
Dependency on computing:
How computing services are organized in a organization can have major effects on the
modes of training provided to employees. For the workers studied here the highest
proportions of workers having had instructor-based training over the past three years are
in the more centralized service provider environments, with slightly less workers in the
more decentralized departmental service provision situations and even less so when
computer services have been outsourced (Table 21 and Figure 17). In contrast, a
significantly higher proportion of the workers who are engaged in self-help training
methods or have had no training at all in the past three years are in organizations where
computing services are provided by a third-party.
The more central computing is to the worker’s job, the more likely online training will
be used. There is once again a striking progression in the proportion of the respondents
who utilize online training methods as we move from low use to high use of computing
during working hours . In contrast, self help training actually declines as the level of
computer-related work increases.