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Project Report
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Presented by:
Arun Gupta
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter No.
Topic Name
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
CORRECTION METHODS
CONFIGURATION OF CAPACITOR
BLOCK DIAGRAM
10
11
ATmega8
12
13
OPTO COUPLER
14
SMPS
15
SPECIFICATIONS
16
PROGRAMMER
17
ALGORITHM
18
MDI PENALTY
19
20
LIMITATIONS
21
22
REFERENCES
Page No.
Abstract
This project report represents one of the most effective automatic power factor improvements
by using static capacitors which will be controlled by a Microcontroller with very low cost
although many existing systems are present which are expensive and difficult to manufacture.
In this study, many small rating capacitors are connected in parallel and a reference power
factor is set as standard value into the microcontroller IC. Suitable number of static capacitors
is automatically connected according to the instruction of the microcontroller to improve the
power factor close to unity. Some tricks such as using resistors instead of potential
transformer and using one of the most low cost microcontroller IC (ATmega8) which also
reduce programming complexity that make it one of the most economical system than any
other controlling system.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Basic theory
Before venturing into the details in the design of power factor correction systems, we
would first like to present a brief refresher of basic alternating current circuit theory.
1.1.1 Active power
With a purely resistive load with no inductive or capacitive components, such as in an
electric heater, the voltage and current curves intersect the zero coordinate at the same point
(Fig. 1.1).
The voltage and current are said to be in phase. The power (P) curve is calculated from
the product of the momentary values of voltage (V) and current (I). It has a frequency which
is double that of the voltage supply, and is entirely in the positive area of the graph, since the
product of two negative numbers is positive, as, of course, is the product of two positive
numbers.
Fig 1.1: Current, voltage and power waveform of purely resistive load.
In this case:
(-V) (-I) = (+P)
Active or real power is defined as that component of the power that is converted into another
form (e.g. heat, light, mechanical power) and is registered by the meter.
With a purely resistive or ohmic load it is calculated by multiplying the effective value of
voltage [V] by the current [I]: P = V. I
1.1.2 Active and reactive power
In practice, however, it is unusual to find purely resistive loads, since an inductive component
is also present. This applies to all consumers that make use of a magnetic field in order to
function, e.g. induction motors, chokes and transformers. Power converters also require
reactive current for commutation purposes. The current used to create and reverse the
magnetic field is not dissipated but flows back and forth as reactive current between the
generator and the consumer. As Fig.: 1. 2 shows, the voltage and current curves no longer
intersect the zero coordinate at the same points. A phase displacement has occurred. With
inductive loads the current lags behind the voltage, while with capacitive loads the current
leads the voltage. If the momentary values of power are now calculated with the formula
(P) = (V) (I), a negative product is obtained whenever one of the two factors is negative.
..
CHAPTER 2
2.1 WHAT IS POWER FACTOR?
Most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are inductive. Examples include motors,
transformers, gaseous tube lighting ballasts, and induction furnaces. Inductive loads need a
magnetic field to operate.
Inductive loads require two kinds of current:
Working power (kW) to perform the actual work of creating heat, light, motion, machine
output, and so on.
Reactive power (kVAR) to sustain the magnetic field
Working power consumes watts and can be read on a wattmeter. It is measured in kilowatts
(kW). Reactive power doesnt perform useful work, but circulates between the generator
and the load. It places a heavier drain on the power source, as well as on the power sources
distribution system. Reactive power is measured in kilovolt-amperes-reactive (kVAR).
Working power and reactive power together make up apparent power. Apparent power is
measured in kilovolt-amperes (kVA).
All current will cause losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a power factor
of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power factor of 0.5
will result in much higher losses in the supply system.
A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of power factor
correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform requires a change in
equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an appreciable improvement. Many
inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95 when in reality, the true
power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is based on the Cosine of the angle
between the voltage and current but does not take into account that the current waveform is
discontinuous and therefore contributes to increased losses on the supply.
We can improve power factor by adding power factor correction capacitors to your plant
distribution system. Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include
induction motors as a means of reducing the inductive component of the current and thereby
reduce the losses in the supply. There should be no effect on the operation of the motor itself.
An induction motor draws current from the supply that is made up of resistive components
and inductive components
The resistive components are:
I.
Load current
II.
Loss current
Leakage reactance
Magnetizing current
The current due to the leakage reactance is dependent on the total current drawn by the
motor, but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The magnetizing
current will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current of the motor.
The magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron and is very
necessary if the motor is going to operate. The magnetizing current does not actually
contribute to the actual work output of the motor. It is the catalyst that allows the motor to
work properly. The magnetizing current and the leakage reactance can be considered
passenger components of current that will not affect the power drawn by the motor, but will
contribute to the power dissipated in the supply and distribution system.
Taking an example, a motor with a current draw of 100 Amps and a power factor of 0.75 the
resistive component of the current is 75 Amps and this is what the KWh meter measures. The
higher current will result in an increase in the distribution losses of (100 x 100) / (75 x 75) =
1.777 or a 78% increase in the supply losses.
In the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power factor correction is
added to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing current of the motor. Typically, the corrected
power factor will be 0.92 - 0.95 some power retailers offer incentives for operating with a
power factor of better than 0.9, while others penalize consumers with a poor power factor.
There are many ways that this is metered, but the net result is that in order to reduce wasted
energy in the distribution system, the consumer will be encouraged to apply power factor
correction.
Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the
connected motor circuits and can be applied at the starter, or applied at the switchboard or
distribution panel. The resulting capacitive current is leading current and is used to cancel the
lagging inductive current flowing from the supply. Capacitors connected at each starter and
controlled by each starter are known as Static Power Factor Correction.
induction motors giving optimum correction on all motors. Tables result in under correction
on most motors but can result in over correction in some cases. Where the open shaft current
cannot be measured, and the magnetizing current is not quoted, an approximate level for the
maximum correction that can be applied can be calculated from the half load characteristics
of the motor.
It is dangerous to base correction on the full load characteristics of the motor as in some
cases, motors can exhibit a high leakage reactance and correction to 0.95 at full load will
result in over correction under no load, or disconnected conditions.
Static correction is commonly applied by using on e contactor to control both the motor and
the capacitors. It is better practice to use two contactors, one for the motor and one for the
capacitors. Where one contactor is employed, it should be up sized for the capacitive load.
The use of a second contactor eliminates the problems of resonance between the motor and
the capacitors.
2) Increased system capacity and reduced system losses in your electrical system
By adding capacitors (KVAR generators) to the system, the power factor is improved and the
KW capacity of the system is increased.
For example, a 1,000 KVA transformer with an 80% power factor provides 800 KW (600
KVAR) of power to the main bus.
(1000)
KVAR
kVA
=
=
800
+ ? 2 }
600
By increasing the power factor to 90%, more KW can be supplied for the same amount of
KVA.
KVAR = 436
The KW capacity of the system increases to 900 KW and the utility supplies only 436
KVAR.
Uncorrected power factor causes power system losses in your distribution system. By
improving your power factor, these losses can be reduced. With the current rise in the cost of
energy, increased facility efficiency is very desirable. And with lower system losses, you are
also able to add additional load to your system.
3) Increased voltage level in your electrical system and cooler, more efficient
Motors
As mentioned above, uncorrected power factor causes power system losses in your
distribution system. As power losses increase, you may experience voltage drops. Excessive
voltage drops can cause overheating and premature failure of motors and other inductive
equipment.
So, by raising your power factor, you will minimize these voltage drops along feeder cables
and avoid related problems. Your motors will run cooler and be more efficient, with a slight
increase in capacity and starting torque.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Correction methods
For drives with long power supply cables or cables whose cross section allows no
margin for error
Advantages:
Reactive power is completely eliminated from the internal power distribution system
Disadvantages:
A larger overall capacitor power rating is required as the coincidence factor cannot be
taken into account.
Applications:
For several inductive consumers provided that these are always operated together.
Advantages:
Similar to those for individual power factor correction, but more cost-effective.
Disadvantages:
Only for groups of consumers that are always operated at the same time.
Can always be used where the users internal power distribution system is not under
dimensioned.
Advantages:
Less total installed capacitance, since the coincidence factor can be taken into account
Disadvantages:
Reactive currents within the users internal power distribution system are not reduced.
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Determination of required capacitor rating
4.1.1 Tariffs
Utility companies as a rule have fixed tariffs for their smaller power consumers, while
individual supply contracts are negotiated with the larger consumers.
With most power supply contracts the costs for electrical power comprise:
Power [kW] measured with a maximum demand meter, e.g. monthly maximum
demand over a 15 minute period.
Active energy [kWh] measured with an active current meter usually split into
regular and off-peak tariffs.
Reactive energy [kvarh] measured with a reactive current meter, sometimes split
into regular and off-peak tariffs.
It is normal practice to invoice the costs of reactive energy only when this exceeds 50% of
the active power load. This corresponds to a power factor cos = 0.9. It is not stipulated that
the power factor must never dip below this value of 0.9. Invoicing is based on the power
factor monthly average. Utility companies in some areas stipulate other power factors, e.g.
0.85 or 0.95.
With other tariffs the power is not invoiced as kW but as kVA. In this case the costs for
reactive energy are therefore included in the power price. To minimize operating costs in this
case, a power factor cos =1 must be aimed for. In general, it can be assumed that if a PFC
system is correctly dimensioned, the entire costs for reactive energy can be saved.
= tan
AM1
CHAPTER 5
3) LT CAPACITORS
Application: a) suitable for fluctuating loads.
b) Non linear up to 20%
c) Suitable for APFC and harmonic filtering.
CHAPTER 6
6.1 CONFIGURATION OF CAPACITORS
Power factor correction capacitor banks can be configured in following ways:-
Initial cost may be low since neutral does not have to be insulated from
ground.
The ground star configuration provides a low impedance fault path which
may require revision to the existing system ground protection scheme.
2) STAR UNGROUNDED
CHAPTER 7
Fig 7.3: Methods of connecting capacitors for p.f improvement to supply line.
CHAPTER 8
BLOCK DIAGRAM
The power factor meter is used to calculate the present power factor of the system. The power
factor is corrected using the true power technique. The power factor value so obtained is
communicated to the microcontroller Atmega8 via the pins TX and Rx. The program fed to
the microcontroller then analysis the power factor. The power factor gets displayed on the 7segment display connected to the Atmega8 project. If the power factor is above the pre-set
value, then the microcontroller wont take any action and the relays will remain in their
normal positions of NO and NC. Once the power factor lowers to a value below the pre-set
mark, the signal is sent to the relay card.
The relay card consists of relays along with LEDs for detecting the operation of relays. The
input to relays is sent via an opto-coupler and then through a current amplifier before it
reaches the relay. The particular relay operates and connects the respective capacitor bank to
it. The operation of relay is detected by the LED, thereby leading to emission of light from
the LED.
The microcontroller has been programmed in such a way that out of the three relays, it will
make the relay or combination of relays in such a way that the capacitor banks are included
which correct the power factor in the best possible way to the best possible value. The
capacitor banks are present as C, C/2 and C/4, which have been created using series
combinations of capacitors of value C.
Along with these, a current transformer and a voltage transformer have been provided so as
to analyse the particular waveforms at different instants of time with the help of an
oscilloscope.
We are using Digital True Power Factor Meter (DTPF-1) and its make is UMA Electronics.
The power factor meter has a Tx which is connected to Rx of the microcontroller. This allows
communication between the DTPF and Atmega8, so as to provide the current power factor
value to the controller.
8.2 Atmega8
We are using ATMEL Atmega8 microcontroller for the programming in our project. It is a
high performance, low power, AVR microcontroller. It has 28 pins in all and uses 5 volts for
its operation.
Features:
8-bit Microcontroller
Advanced RISC Architecture
130 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
32 8 General Purpose Working Registers
High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments
8Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory
512Bytes EEPROM
1Kbyte Internal SRAM
Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C.
Peripheral Features
Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler
One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler
Mode
Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
Three PWM Channels
8-channel ADC
Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy
Programmable Serial USART
Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
On-chip Analog Comparator
Special Microcontroller Features
Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
External and Internal Interrupt Sources
Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and
Standby
I/O and Packages
23 Programmable I/O Lines
28-lead PDIP
Operating Voltages
4.5V - 5.5V (ATmega8)
Power Consumption at 4 MHz, 3V, 25C
Active: 3.6mA
Idle Mode: 1.0mA
Power-down Mode: 0.5A
Chapter 8.3
PIN DIAGRAM OF ATmega8
Pin Descriptions
VCC
Digital supply voltage.
GND
Ground.
Port B (PB7-PB0)
Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
Port C (PC5-PC0)
Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
PC6/RESET
If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is
unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum
pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed
to generate a Reset.
Port D (PD7-PD0)
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
RESET
Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a reset,
even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.
AVCC
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3-0), and ADC (7-6). It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected
to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that Port C (5-4) use digital supply voltage, VCC.
AREF
AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.
ADC7-6
In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7-6 serves as analog inputs to the A/D converter.
These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
Chapter 8.5
MICROCONTROLLER CONNECTIONS
INPUT PINS
Selection lines S1, S2, S3, and S4 are connected to the pins 2, 3, 4 and 5 of Port D.
This input is given to the microcontroller through program.
OUTPUT PINS
Output pins can be divided into two sections:
RELAYS
The data lines of the seven segment display are connected to pins 0-5 of Port B, pin 7
of Port D, and pin 6 of Port C.
Seven segment displays are driven by the Selection lines S1, S2, S3 and S4.
Chapter 8.5
SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY
CHAPTER 8.5.1
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
1. Common Cathode
2. Common Anode
In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or all of
the anodes (positive terminals) of the segment LEDs are connected and brought out to a
common pin; this is referred to as a "common cathode" or "common anode" device. Hence a
7-segment plus decimal point package will only require nine pins (though commercial
products typically contain more pins, and/or spaces where pins would go, in order to match
standard IC sockets. Integrated displays also exist, with single or multiple digits. Some of
these integrated displays incorporate their own internal decoder, though most do not: each
individual LED is brought out to a connecting pin as described.
COMMON CATHODE
COMMON ANODE
In our project, we are using common anode 7-segment display, so in order to display various
digits on it, respective LEDs have to be switched ON or OFF.
The following table shows the values that have to be sent on the data lines of the 7- segment
display, in order to display the characters being used in the project.
TABLE
Value
Code
0x00
0x18
0x01
0xde
0x02
0x34
0x03
0x94
0x04
0xd2
0x05
0x91
0x06
0x11
0x07
0xdc
0x08
0x10
0x09
0x90
Table 2 the values that have to be sent on the data lines of the 7- segment display, in order to display the
characters being used in the project.
Chapter 8.5.2
Operation of 7-segment display
Fig 10.5 Operation of 7 segment display. The four selection lines S1, S2, S3, S4, respectively
drive the four displays. At any instant, that display will be ON whose respective selection line
has a high signal. All the four displays are turned on and off one by one, but the time delay
involved is so small that they appear to turn on simultaneously.
For e.g. When S1=1; output from the microcontroller is fed to the lines a1, b1 g1 of display
one and so on for other displays.
CHAPTER 8.6
8.6.1 OPTOCOUPLER
Fig 8.9: Schematic diagram of an opto-isolator showing source of light (LED) on the left, dielectric barrier in
the centre, and sensor (phototransistor) on the right
In electronics, an opt coupler, also called an opto-isolator, photo coupler, or optical isolator,
is a component that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using
light. Opto-isolators prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving the signal.
Commercially available opto-isolators withstand input-to-output voltages up to 10 kV and
voltage transients with speeds up to 10 kV/us.
An opto-isolator contains a source (emitter) of light, almost always a near infrared lightemitting diode (LED), that converts electrical input signal into light, a closed optical channel
(also called dialectical channel, and a photo sensor, which detects incoming light and either
generates electric energy directly, or modulates electric current flowing from an external
power supply. Opto-isolator can transfer the light signal not transfer the electrical signal. The
sensor can be a photo resistor, a photodiode, a phototransistor, a silicon-controlled
rectifier (SCR) or a triac. Because LEDs can sense light in addition to emitting it,
construction of symmetrical, bidirectional opto-isolators is possible. An opto-coupled solid
state relay contains a photodiode opto-isolator which drives a power switch, usually a
complementary pair of MOSFETs. A slotted optical switch contains a source of light and a
sensor, but its optical channel is open, allowing modulation of light by external objects
obstructing the path of light or reflecting light into the sensor.
Electronic equipment and signal and power transmission lines can be subjected to voltage
surges induced by lightning, electrostatic discharge, radio frequency transmissions, switching
pulses (spikes) and perturbations in power supply. Remote lightning strikes can induce surges
up to 10 kV, one thousand times more than the voltage limits of many electronic components.
A circuit can also incorporate high voltages by design, in which case it needs safe, reliable
means of interfacing its high-voltage components with low-voltage ones. The main function
of an opto-isolator is to block such high voltages and voltage transients, so that a surge in one
part of the system will not disrupt or destroy the other parts.
We are employing PC817 as the photo coupler in our project. It is connected to the two pins
of microcontroller (Vcc and PV3, PC4 or PC5) at its pin number 1 and 2. The output of
PC817 is sent to the relay PCB. The voltage input at pin 4 is coming from the SMPS.
When the Vcc has +5 V and Rel 1 (for first relay) has +5 V as well, no current flows in the
LED connected between these two points of the opto coupler. Thus, there will be no
connection between pin 3 and 4 of the opto coupler. Thus the 5 V voltages would be received
at pin 4 i.e. R1. On the other hand, if the Rel 1 receives 0 V, there will be a potential
difference created between pin 1 and 2. Thus current will flow and the LED will glow,
thereby leading to the making of connection at the secondary. This will give pin 4, ground
potential and thus R1 wont receive the 5 V voltages from the SMPS.
In other words, the relay card will get current when the voltage at the Rel1 is 5V only, and
there will be no current in the relay PCB if the Rel1 pin is at ground voltage.
Chapter 8.7
8.7.1 SMPS (Switching-Mode Power Supply)
power,
to
load,
such
as
a personal
computer,
while
converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass
transistor of a switching-mode supply continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on
and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions, which
minimizes wasted energy. Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no
power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In contrast, a
linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the
pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a
switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially
smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight.
The SMPS is supplying the output of the optocoupler with 5V.
Chapter 8.8
8.8.1 Current Amplifier
A current of sufficiently high value is required to energise the coils of a relay, but the output
current received via the optocoupler cannot serve the purpose. Thus, we require a current
amplifier for in series with the optocoupler for each relay. The amplifier we are using is
ULN2803APG.
Chapter 8.9
8.9.1 Relays
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates
the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity
is also used commonly in industrial motor starters.
Fig 8.14: Relay connections with the capacitor bank and the line.
We are using Leone SC5-S type relay. It operates on 6V dc, and can handle an ac voltage of
300V and current of 7A. When the current is amplified by an amplifier, it is sent to the coils
of the relay, which get energised, thereby leading to the closing of NO contacts. Thus the
relay operates and brings the respective capacitor bank in parallel with it. When a particular
relay operates, an LED connected to it also glows for the user to know which relay is
functional at that load to improve the current power factor.
CHAPTER 9
9.1 SPECIFICATIONS
Name of equipment
Specifications
V AC
Current Range : 5A/10A/20A
AC
Current Transformer is used
as a Current Transducer for
durability.
Aux. Supply : 230V + 20%
/ 110V + 20% AC
Dimension (mm): 96 by 96
(Front). 65 (Depth) & 48 by
96 (Front). 110 ( Depth)
Microcontroller pcb
Microcontroller
Atmel Atmega8
Optocoupler
PC817
SMPS
Input - 230 v ac
Output - 5V DC ,1 A
Relay pcb
Current amplifier
ULN2803AP
Relays
Leone SC5-S-DC 6V
7 A, 300 VAC
50 Hz
Coil- 6 V DC
Capacitor banks
C1 C= 2.5F
C2C/2
C3C/4
Leds
5mm LEDs
Load
variable
Connecting wires
CHAPTER 10
10.1 PROGRAMMER
Programmer used in our project is USBasp. It is a USB in circuit programmer for Atmel
AVR controllers. It simply consists of an ATMega8 and a couple of passive components. The
programmer uses a firmware only USB driver, no special USB controller is needed.
FEATURES
Works under multiple platforms. Linux, Mac OS and windows are tested.
10.2 COMPILER
Compiler used in the project is WinAVR. It is a suite of executable, open source software
development tool for Atmel AVR series of RISC microprocessors hosted on WINDOWS
platform. It includes the GNU GCC compiler for AVR target for C and C++.
10.3 BURNER
Extreme Burner AVR is used in the project. It is a full graphical user interface (GUI) AVR
series of MCU that supports several types of clock sources for various applications. It enables
us to read and write a RC oscillator or a perfect high speed crystal oscillator.
10.4 POGRAMMING
Source code
CHAPTER 11
11.1 ALGORITHM FOR THE PRINCIPLE OF APFC
The following diagram shows the algorithm of the working method of the project. Reference
power factor has been chosen as 0. 95. If the power factor as read by power factor meter is
greater than or equal to the reference value i.e. 0.95 then the system does not require any
compensation and hence the microcontroller wont actuate the relay. Now when the power
factor is less than the reference value two cases arise:
The load is either 1) inductive or 2) capacitive
When the load is inductive, power factor would be less than reference value as read by PF
meter and hence the microprocessor would actuate the relay and firstly minimum available
capacitor would be switched on. If this does not bring power factor to reference value the
microcontroller would send signal to second relay and hence more capacitance is introduced
in circuit and so on till the desired power factor of 0.95 is displayed.
In case of capacitive load, the microcontroller would first switch off the minimum connected
capacitance and go on taking out capacitances till we get the desired power factor of 0.95.
Time line representation of power factor correction using microcontroller describes the way
how capacitances are added and disconnected from circuit with time as the load is connected
or disconnected from the circuit.
Fig 11.2
The above figure is an example of time line representation of APFC. Here at t = 0, say motor
is ON and connected to the circuit. The power factor with motor in circuit without
compensation is 0.482. Now the microcontroller would send the signal to relay and actuate it
to bring into the circuit the minimum possible capacitance. As shown in the figure when C1
is added to the circuit the power factor improves to 0.872. Here reference power factor has
been chosen to be 0.95 hence more compensation is required. This is done by adding more
capacitance C2 in the circuit. As C2 is added it is seen that power factor improves way
beyond 0.95 to 0 .98 and hence we need not to add any more capacitance into the circuit.
Now at t = 45 seconds the user turns OFF the motor with the capacitance C1 and
C2 still connected in the circuit . The power factor worsens as a result the microcontroller
comes into action and sends signal to the relay R1 to take out capacitance C1 of the circuit,
which improves power factor but further action of microcontroller on relay R2 to take out
capacitance C2 brings our power factor to 0.990 which is desired.
CHAPTER 12
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF THR PROJECT
Figure 12.1: Circuitry for automatic power factor compensation using microcontroller
Figure12.2: Automatic power factor compensation showing circuitry with various capacitors.
Figure12.4: Different types of loads that have been used in APFC project.
CHAPTER 13
MDI PENALTY
If you are an office owner or a shop owner and you get electricity on commercial connection
with more than 20 KW, you would have heard of power factor penalty and / or demand
charges. Have you ever wondered what does power factor penalty mean or what are demand
charges? Have you ever paid something called as MDI (Maximum Demand Indicator)
penalty? These are the terms that are used in commercial connections in various parts of India
but very few people understand what they are.
CHAPTER 14
HOW INSTALLING CAPACITORS REDUCE UTILITY BILLS
KVA billing
Uncorrected
Corrected KVA demand with improved p.f = KW / p.f = 400 / 0.97 = 412 KVA
Using table for KW multiplier, to raise the p.f from 0.87 to 0.97 requires 126 kvar
So, using capacitors of rating higher than 126 kvar to ensure proper correction
CHAPTER 15
LIMITATIONS
Power factor is very important part of utility company as well as for consumers. Utility
company gets rid of power losses and consumers are freed from low power factor penalty
charges.
However this comes with a disadvantage that as the compensation value i.e. kvar
compensation rating lowers, the cost of the project is increases i.e. are relatively large as
compared to other methods. The high values of compensation (kvar) pay back relatively
quicker as compared to smaller compensations. The commercial set ups however require
quite a sizable amount of compensation so the payback period is relatively smaller than
household set ups.
CHAPTER 16
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
It can be concluded that power factor correction techniques can be applied to the industries,
power systems and also households to make them stable and due to that the system becomes
stable and efficiency of the system as well as the apparatus increases. The use of
microcontroller reduces the costs. Due to use of microcontroller multiple parameters can be
controlled and the use of extra hard wares such as timer, RAM, ROM and input output ports
reduces. Care should be taken for overcorrection otherwise the voltage and current becomes
more due to which the power system or machine becomes unstable and the life of capacitor
banks reduces.
REFERENCES
www.theorytopractical.com