BIO 211

Chapter 18 Assignment
Introduction
A. The cardiovascular system consists of which three components?
a. Blood, the heart, and blood vessels
B. Define Blood
b. A connective tissue consisting of plasma in which various cells
and cell fragments are suspended.
C. Define Interstitial fluid
c. The extracellular fluid that directly bathes body cells and is
constantly renewed by the blood.
18.1 Blood contains plasma and formed elements and transports
essential substances through the body.
A.

Functions of blood
Describe the three general functions of blood:
1.

Transportation
i. Transports oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout
the body and carbon dioxide from body cells to the
lungs for exhalation.
ii.
Carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to body
cells, hormones from endocrine glands to other body
cells, and heat and waste productts away from cells to
various organs for elimination from the body.

2.

Regulation
i. Blood helps regulate pH through the use of
buffers( chemicals that convert strong acids or bases
into weak ones)
ii.
Helps adjust body temp. through the heat-absorbing
and coolant properties of the water in blood and
bloods variable rate of flow through the skin.
Protection
i. Blood can clot in response to an injury, which
protects against its excessive loss from the
cardiovascular system.
ii.
Bloods white blood cells protect against disease by
carrying on phagocytosis.

3.

B.

Physical characteristics of blood

1. How does blood compare to water?
i. Blood is denser and more thicker than water, which is part
of the reason it flows more slower than water.
2. What is the temperature of blood?
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ii.

The temperature of blood is 38 C (100 F)

3. What is the pH of blood?

iii.
Blood has a slightly alkaline pH ranging from 7.35 to 7.45
4. What is the color of blood?
iv.
When saturated with oxygen blood is bright red, when blood
has a low oxygen content it is dark red.

C.

Components of blood

1.

Whole blood is composed of:

a.

Plasma (55%) liquid extracellular fluid that contains

dissolved substances

b.

Formed elements (45%) cells and cell fragments

1.

Red blood cells (RBCs)

2.

White blood cells (WBCs)

3.

Platelets

2.
Describe the appearance of centrifuged blood, and include
a definition
for buffy coat.
I. Formed elements ( which are more dense) sink to the
bottom and plasma ( which is less dense) forms a
layer on top. And because they are less dense than
RBCs and WBCs and platelets form a very thin layer
called the buffu coat.
3.

Plasma
a.

Define Plasma Proteins synthesized mainly by liver

cells and they are confined to blood.

b.

What is the percentage of water in plasma and

waters function?
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c.

Plasma is about 91.5% water and water absorbs,

transports, and releases heat.
What is the percentage of plasma proteins in
plasma?
8.5% is solutes
1.
What is the function of albumins?
Help maintain proper blood osmotic pressure.
2.
What is the function of globulins?

produced during certain

responses.
3.
proteins and is a key
of blood clots.
d.

Compose defensive proteins

immune
What is the function of fibrinogen?
Makes up about 7% of plasma
protein in the formation

What is the percentage of other solutes in plasma?

There are 1.5 percent of other solutes in

plasma.
4.

Formed elements
a.

volume occupied

Define Hematocrit - the percent of total blood

by RBCs
What is the normal range of hematocrit for adult

females?
38-46 percent
What is the normal range of hematocrit for adult
males?
40-54 percent
b.
What is the difference between anemia and
polycythemia?
while polycythemia has
count.

Anemia has lower then normal RBC count

higher then normal RBC

18.2 Hemopoiesis is the production of formed elements

A.

Most formed elements are replaced continually. What regulates

the total number of RBCs and platelets?
Negative feedback systems
What regulates the different types of WBCs?
hemopoiesis

B.

Define Hemopoiesis (hematopoiesis)

What is red bone marrow, where is it located and why is it

important in hemopoiesis?

C.

Define Pluripotent Stem Cells cells that have the ability to

develop into
many different
types of cells

D.

What happens to red bone marrow as we age?

Red bone marrow becomes inactive and is replaced by
yellow bone marrow.
E.

Understand the following diagram, which outlines the

development of formed elements.

F.

True/False. All formed elements can divide once they leave red
bone marrow. false

G.

Describe what the following hormones (hemopoietic growth

factors) do.

1.

Erythropoietin (EPO) increases the number of RBC

precursors

2.

Thrombopoietin stimulates the formation of platelets from

megakaryocytes

3.

Cytokines stimulate white blood cell formation

18.3 Mature red blood cells are biconcave cells containing

hemoglobin.
A.

Define Hemoglobin oxygen-carrying protein which gives whole

blood its
red color.

B.
How many RBCs/L of blood in a healthy adult male? A healthy
adult female?
A healthy male has about 5.4 million RBCs per microliter
and women have
4.8 million.
C.

RBC anatomy
1.

D.

Describe the anatomy (appearance, organelles, contents,

membrane, etc.) of erythrocytes (mature RBCs).
Bioconcave discs that lack a nucleus and other organelles
and cant reproduce or carry on extensive metabolic
activities. The RBC plasma membrane is both strong and
flexible, which allows the cell to deform without rupturing
as they squeeze through narrow capillaries.

RBC physiology
1.

What is a main function of RBCs and how do their

structures maximize this function? RBCs are highly
specilized for oxygen transportation. Because of them
having no nucleus, all of their internal space is avalible to
transport oxygen molecules.

2.

Describe the structure of hemoglobin including globin,

heme, iron, etc.
A hemoglobin molecule consists of a protein called
called globin, composed of four po;ypeptidechains; a
ringlike nonprotein called a heme is bound to each of
the four chains. At the center of the ring is an iron
ion that can combine reversably with one oxygen
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molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to

bind four oxygwn molecules.
3.

How is oxygen transported with hemoglobin?

An iron ion that can combine reversably with one
oxygen molecule,
allowing each hemoglobin molecule
to bind four oxygwn molecules
4.

How is carbon dioxide transported with hemoglobin?

Blood flowing through the tissue capillaries picks
up carbon dioxide,
some of which combines with
amino acids in the globin part of
hemoglobin.

18.4 Red blood cells have a life cycle of 120 days.

A.

Why do RBCs only live about 120 days?

B.

Use the figure below to describe the steps involved in the

formation and destruction of RBCs.

(1)macrophages in the spleen, liver,and red marrow phagocytize

ruptured and
worn-out RBCs split apart the globin and heme
portions of hemoglobin.
(2)globin is broken down into amino acids, which can be reused by
body cells to
synthesize other proteins.
(3)iron removed from the heme portion associates w/ the plasma
protein
transferrin, a transporter for iron in the bloodstream.
(4)the transferrin complex is then carried to red bone marrow, where
RBC precursors use it in hemeglobin synthesis.
(5)within red bone marrow, RBC production releases RBCs into the
circulation.
(6)when iron is removed from heme, the non-iron portion of heme is
converted to
biliverden , and then into bilirubin. Bilirubin enters blood
and its transported to the
liver within the liver, bilirubin is secreted by
liver cells into bile which passes
through the intestines.
(7)in the large intestine, bacteria convert bilirubin into urobilinogen.
Some is turned into urobilin and excreted in the urine most is eliminated in
the feces in the form of brown pigment called stercobolin.
18.5 Erythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell formation.
A.

Define Erythropoiesis the process of red blood cell formation

B.

Describe the process of erythropoiesis beginning with the

proerythroblast and including reticulocyte.
The proerythroblast divides several times, producing cells
that begin to
synthesise hemoglobin. Ultimately, a cell near
the end of the development
sequence ejects its nucleus and
becomes a reticulocyte.
C.
provide?

What is a reticulocyte count and what information does it

It is how the rate of erythropoeisis is measured and this

information can tell if
a person is anemic or recovering and if
an athelete is taking epoetin alfa
which is illegal.
D.

Define Hypoxia and give examples of why this might occur.

Cellular oxygen deficiency
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For example the lower oxygen content of air at high

altitudes reduces the level of oxygen in the blood

E.
Understand and be able to explain the negative feedback system
that
regulates erythropoiesis as shown below.

18.6 Blood is categorized into groups based on surface antigens.

A.
Define Antigens (agglutinogens) based on the presence or
absence of
various characteristic combinations, blood is catagorized
into different blood
groups.
B.

Where are antigens located?

The surface of erythrocytes
C.
What is the difference between blood groups and blood types?
There are at least 24 blood groups, and more than 100
antigens that can be
detected on the surface of RBCs.
D.

ABO blood group

1.
2.

The ABO blood group is based on which two antigens?

A and B
Define Antibodies (agglutinins)
React with the A or B antigens if the two are

mixed
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3.

Where are antibodies located?

Inside your plasma
4.
Why dont the antibodies in your blood attack your RBCs?
If you are a certain type then your body has that
type of antigens on
your RBCs.
E.

Transfusions
1.

Define Transfusion the transfer of whole blood or blood

componets into the bloodstream

2.

What is agglutination and what causes this to occur?

Clumping of donated RBCs

3.

Why can agglutination lead to death?

May cause rupture of RBCs ahich may cause
kidney damage caused
by clogging of the filtration
membranes, this can cause the kidneys to
stop
working entirely which can cause death.
4.

What two things can happen when a person with Type A

blood receives a transfusion of type B blood?
a. Antibodies in the recipients plasma can bind to B
antigen causing agglutination.
b. Antibodies in the recipients plasma can bind with A
antigen, but reaction usually isnt that serious because the
donors A antibodies become so diluted in the recipients
plasma that agglutination is not significant.
Which of these is unlikely to occur and why?

5.

Which blood type is considered the universal recipients and

why?
Type AB because they have neither anti-A or anti-

B
Which blood type is considered the universal donors and
why?
Type O because has neither A nor B antigens
Why are these terms misleading and potentially
dangerous?
Blood contains antigens and antibodies other
than those associated
with the ABO system that can cause
transfusion problems, thus, boold
should be always
crossed matched or screened before transfusions.
6.

Use the figure below to complete the table on ABO blood

group interactions.
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Characteristic
Antigen on RBC

Blood Type Blood

A
Type B
A
B

Blood Type
AB
Both A and
B
Neither A
nor B

Blood Type
O
Neither a
nor B
Both Anti-A
and Anti-B

Antibody in
plasma

Anti-B

Anti-A

Compatible
donor blood
types
Incompatible
donor blood
types

A, O

B, O

A, B, AB, O

B, AB

A, AB

---

A, B, AB

F.

Rh blood group
1.

Individuals whose RBCs have Rh antigens are

named_________Rh+___________
Individuals whose RBCs lack Rh antigens are named____Rh_________

2.

Normally plasma does not contain anti-Rh antibodies,

therefore, why might a person make anti-Rh antibodies?
If the immune system starts to make anti-Rh antibodies
that will remain
in the blood.
3.
mothers
G.

What is hemolytic disease of the newborn?

When a Rh- woman is carrying an Rh+ fetus and the
antibodies try to attack and kill the fetus.

Typing and cross-matching blood for transfusion

Consider the following results from a blood typing procedure.

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1.

What is the blood type shown?

Type B

2.

What antigen(s), if any, are present on the RBC

membrane?
B

3.

What antibody(ies), if any, are present in this type of

blood?
Anti-A

4.

What is the preferred blood donor for this blood type?

A

AB

18.7 White blood cells combat inflammation and infection

A.

Define Leukocytes a white blood cell

B.

How do RBCs and WBCs differ?

They have nuclei and a full complament of other
orgenelles and do not contain hemoglobin

C.

What is the difference between granular and agranular

classifications of WBCs?
Depending on whether they contain cytoplamic granules
(vesicles) made visible by staining when viewed through a
light micrscope.

D.

WBC types
Describe each of the following types of leukocytes using the
pictures below. Know which categories they belong to (agranular
v. granular).
1.

Granular leukocytes
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a.

Neutrophil -

Granular
The granules are smaller, evenly distributed and a pale
lilac in coloring.
The nucleus has 2 to 5 lobes connected by very thin
strands og nuclear material.
As a cell ages the number of lobes increases
b.

Eosinophil Granular

c.

Basophil - Granular

2.

The granules usually do not cover or obscure the

nucleus
Most often has 2 or 3 lobes connected by a thin or
thick stran of nuclear material.

The granules commonly obscure the nucleus, which

has 2 lobes

Agranular leukocytes
a.

Lymphocyte Agranular
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b.

Monocyte Agranular

E.

The nucleus is round or slightly endented

The cytoplasm forms a rim around the nucleus
Can be as small as 6-9 um or as large as 10-14 um

The nucleus is usually kidney shaped or horse shoed

shaped
Cytoplasm has a foamy appearance

WBC functions
The overall function of WBCs is to attack invading pathogens.
1.

Describe the process of emigration using the picture below

and including the terms adhesion molecules, selectins, and
integrins.

Molecules known as adhesion molecules help WBCs stick to the

endothelium. For example in response to nearby injury and
imflamation, endothelial cells display adhersion molecules called
selectins. Selectins stick to the surface of neutrophils causing
them to slow down and roll along the endothelial surface. On the
neutrophil surface are other adhesion molecules called integrins,
which secure neutrophils to the endothelium and assist their
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movement through the capillary wall and into the interstitial fluid
of the injured tissue.
2.

Neutrophils and macrophages carry out phagocytosis.

Define Chemotaxis a chemical released by microbes and
inflamed tissues that attract phagocytosis.

3.

Neutrophils
What do neutrophils release after engulfing a pathogen
during phagocytosis and what do these chemicals do?
These chemicals include lysozyme, which destroys certain
bacteria and strong oxidants, such as hydrogen peroxide.

4.

Eosinophils
What specific problems do eosinophils combat and how?
They are believed to release enzymes, such as
histaminase, that combat the effects of histamine and
other substances involved in inflammation during allergic
reactions.

5.

Basophils
What do basophils release and why? Release heparin,
histamine,and serotonin. These substances intensify the
inflammatory reaction and are also involved in
hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions.

6.

Lymphocytes
What are the functions of the following:
a.

and

B cells - particularly effective in destroying bacteria

inactivating their toxins.

b.

T cells attack viruses, fungi, transplanted cells,

cancer cells
and some bacteria, and are
responsible for transfusion
reactions,
allergies, and the rejection of transplanted
organs.
c.
infectious
certain tumor cells.
7.

Naural killer cells attack a wide variety of

microbes and

Monocytes
What are the functions of monocytes?
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Take longer to reach site of infection than neutrophils, but

they arrive in large numbers and destroy more microbes.
Upon their arrival monocytes enlarge and differentiate into
wandering macrophages, which clean up cellular debrisand
microbes by phagocytosis after an infection.
F.

WBC life span

WBCs can live a few hours to years depending on conditions.
RBCs outnumber WBCs by 700:1. WBCs/L of blood is normally
5,000-10,000.
1.

Define Leukopenia an abnormally low level of white blood

cells

2.

Define Leukocytosis an increase in number of WBCs

above 10,000 uL

3.

Define Differential White Blood Cell Count a count of each

of the five different WBCs.

4.

Complete the following table to understand the

significance of high and low WBC counts.

WBC Type
Neutrophils

Lymphocytes

Monocytes

High count may

indicate
Bacterial infection,
burns, stress,
inflammation
Viral infections, some
leukemias

Low count may

indicate
Radiation exposure,
drug toxicity, vitamin
B12 deficiency,
systematic lupus
erythematosus(SLE)
Prolonged illness,
immunosuppression,
treatment with
cortisol
Bone marrow
suppression,
treatment with
cortisol

Viral or fungal
infections,
tuberculosis, some
leukemias, other
chronic diseases
Eosinophils
Allergic reactions,
Drug toxicity, stress
parasitic infections,
autoimmune diseases
Basophils
Allergic reactions,
Pregnancy,
leukemias, cancers,
ovulation,stress,
hyperthyroidism
hyperthyroidism
18.8 Platelets reduce blood loss from damaged vessels
A.

Describe how Thrombocytes (platelets) are formed?

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B.

What are two functions of platelets?

1. When blood vessels are damaged, platelets help stop blood

loss by forming
a platelet plug that fills the gap in the blood vessel
wall.
2.Contain a chemical that promotes blood clotting
18.9 Hemostasis is the sequence of events that stops bleeding from
a damaged blood vessel
A.

Define Hemostasis a sequence of responses that stops bleeding

when blood
vessels are injured.

B.

What are the three mechanisms that reduce loss of blood from
blood vessels?
1.vascular spasm
2.platelet plug formation
3.blood clotting(coagulation)

C.

Define Hemorrhage the loss of a large amount of blood from

the vessels

D.

Vascular spasm

1.
Define Vascular Spasm when arteries or arterioles are
damaged, the
smooth muscle in
their walls contracts
immediatly
2.
E.

How long does vascular spasm reduce blood loss?

Reduces blood loss from several minutes to several hours

Platelet plug formation

Use the figures below to describe the following three
mechanisms of platelet plug formation:

(1)

Platelet adhesion

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Initially, platelets contact and stick to parts oa a damaged blood

vessel, such as collagen fibers of the connective tissue
underlying the damaged endothelial cells.
(2)
Platelet release reaction

Due to adhesion, platelets extend many projections that enable

them to
contact and interact with one another, and they
begin to liberate the
contents of their vesicles.
(3)
Platelet aggregation -

The release of platelet chemicals makes other plateles in the

area sticky and
the stickiness of the newly recruited and
activated platelets causes them to
stick to the originally
activated platelets,
Define Platelet Plug the accumulation and attachment of large
numbers of
platets to form a mass.
F.
Blood clottingblood that is withdrawn from the body that
thickens and
forms a gel. That gel separates
from the liquid and a strawcolored liquid called
serum is made.
1.

What happens to blood if it is withdrawn from the body?

2.

Define Serum plasma minus the clotting protein

3.

Define Clot consists of a network of insoluble protein

fibers
17

4.

Define Coagulation (clotting) the process of gel formation

5.

Define Thrombosis blood clotting too easily

6.

Use the figure below to describe the three stages of

clotting:

(1)Prothrombinase
(2)Thrombin
(3)Stabilized fibrin threads
7.

The extrinsic pathway

Describe the extrinsic pathway, including how quickly it is

activated.
Once prothrombinase is formed, the steps involved in the
next 2
stages of clotting are the same for both the
extrinsic and intrinsic
pathways and together these 2
stages are reffered to as the common
pathway.

8.

The intrinsic pathway

18

Describe the intrinsic pathway, including how quickly it is

activated.
It is named because a tissue protein called tissue factor
leaks into the
blood from damaged tissue cells
outside(intrinsic to) the blood
vessels. Tissue factor
begins a sequence of reactions requiring calcium
ions and
several clotting factors that eventually form prothrombinase.

9.

The common pathway

What marks the beginning of the common pathway?
The formation of prothrobinase
Describe the two positive feedback loops that thrombin

affects?
a.thrombin accelarates the formation of prothrombinase
b.thrombin activates platelets
10.

Clot retraction and blood vessel repair

a.

tightening of the
G.

Define Clot Retraction the consolidation or

fibrin clot.

Hemostatic control mechanisms

1.

Small blood clots form throughout the day. How are these
clots dissolved (what is the name of the process)?
fibrinolysis

2.

What are plasminogen and plasmin and why are they

important?
Plasminogen in an inactive plasma enzyme incorporated
into the clot
and once both blood and tissue that
contain substances that can turn
plasminogen to plasmin
which can dissolve the clot.
3.
H.

Define anticoagulants and give an example.

Substances that suppress or preven clotting. Ex. heparin

Clotting in blood vessels

1.

Define Thrombosis clotting in an unbroken blood vessel

2.

Define Thrombus the clot itself

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3.

Define Embolus a blood clot, bubble of air, fat from

broken bones, or
a piece of debris

4.

Define Pulmonary Embolism when an embolus lodges in

the lungs

5.

What is Warfarin and how does it work? Acts as an

antagonist to vitamin K and thus blocks synthesis of four
clotting factors.

6.

What is EDTA used for and how does it work? Ethylene

diamine tetraacetic acid is a substance that removes
Ca2+.

CONCEPT QUESTIONS (page 641 in textbook)

1.

What would happen if a person with type B blood were given a

transfusion of type O blood?
It woud be fine since type O is the universal donor

2.

In regions where malaria is endemic, some people build up immune

resistance to the malaria pathogen. Which WBCs are responsible for
the immune response against pathogens? How do they function?
Eosinophils phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes and are effective
against certain parasitic worms.

3.

Why are platelets not called blood cells?

Because they are just splinters of huge cells.

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