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Communication
Systems
Second Edition
Louis Frenzel
Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems
Second Edition
Chapter 9
Communication Receivers
Communication Receivers
In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal
is very weak when it reaches the receiver, particularly
when it has traveled over a long distance.
Selectivity
Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using tuned
circuits and/or filters.
LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity.
Filters, which are used later in the process, provide
additional selectivity.
By controlling the Q of a resonant circuit, you can set
the desired selectivity.
The optimum bandwidth is one that is wide enough to
pass the signal but narrow enough to eliminate signals
on adjacent frequencies.
Sensitivity
A communication receivers sensitivity, or ability to pick up
weak signals, is mainly a function of overall gain, the factor
by which an input signal is multiplied to produce the output
signal.
A Crystal Receiver
TRF Receiver
Superheterodyne Receiver
Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals
to a lower frequency, known as the intermediate
frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers is
used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity and
selectivity.
Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers.
The key circuit is the mixer, which acts like a simple
amplitude modulator to produce sum and difference
frequencies.
The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator.
Superheterodyne Receiver
RF Amplifier
The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it
to the RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier
(LNA).
RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and
selectivity and they are sometimes referred to as
preselectors.
Tuned circuits help select the frequency range in
which the signal resides.
RF amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation.
Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF amplifiers.
Amplifiers
The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the
same modulation that appeared on the input RF
signal.
The signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier
stages, and most of the gain is obtained in these
stages.
Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity.
Since the intermediate frequency is lower than the
input frequency, IF amplifiers are easier to design and
good selectivity is easier to obtain.
Demodulators
The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the
demodulator, or detector, which recovers the original
modulating information.
Frequency Conversion
Frequency conversion is the process of translating a
modulated signal to a higher or lower frequency
while retaining all the originally transmitted
information.
In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are
converted to a lower, intermediate frequency. This is
called down conversion.
In satellite communications, the original signal is
generated at a lower frequency and then converted to
a higher frequency. This is called up conversion.
Mixing Principles
Diode Mixer
The primary characteristic of mixer circuits is
nonlinearity.
Diode Mixer
IC Mixer
The NE602, IC mixer, also known as a Gilbert
transconductance cell or Gilbert cell, consists of a
double balanced mixer circuit made up of two crossconnected differential amplifiers.
IC Mixer NE602
LC Oscillator
A local oscillator, which is sometimes referred to as a
variable-frequency oscillator, or VFO is used for
frequencies up to 100 MHz.
An amplifier (e.g. FET) is connected as a Colpitts
oscillator.
Feedback is developed by a voltage divider made up
of capacitors.
The frequency is set by a parallel tuned circuit.
The output is taken across an RFC and it is buffered
by a direct-coupled emitter follower.
Frequency Synthesizer
Most new receiver designs incorporate frequency
synthesizers for the local oscillator, which provides
some important benefits over simple VFO designs.
The synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked loop
(PLL) design and the output is locked to a crystal
oscillator reference which provides high stability.
Tuning is accomplished by changing the frequency
division factor in the PLL, resulting in incremental
rather than continuous frequency changes.
Frequency Synthesizer
By Definition
Direct-Conversion Receiver
By Definition
External Noise
External noise comes from sources over which we have
little or no control. Examples include:
Industrial noise
Atmospheric (static) noise
Extraterrestrial noise
Internal Noise
Electronic components is a receiver such as resistors,
diodes, and transistors are major sources of internal
noise. Types of internal noise include:
Thermal noise
Semiconductor noise
Intermodulation (distortion) noise
RF amplifiers
IF amplifiers
AGC
AFC
Special circuits
RF Input Amplifier
The RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier
(LNA), processes the very weak input signals,
increasing their amplitude prior to mixing.
Low-noise components are used to ensure a
sufficiently high S/N ratio.
Selectivity should be such that it effectively
eliminates images.
The RF amplifier is typically a class A circuit that can
be configured with bipolar or field-effect transistors.
RF Amplifier Circuit
IF Amplifier
Most of the gain and selectivity in a superheterodyne
receiver are obtained in the IF amplifier.
If amplifiers are tuned class A circuits capable of
providing gain in the 10- to 30-dB range.
Usually two or more IF amplifiers are used to provide
adequate receiver gain.
Ferrite-core transformers are used for coupling
between stages.
Selectivity is provided by tuned circuits.
Two-Stage IF Amplifier
By Definition
AGC Operation
A common emitter IF amplifier with bias derived from
voltage divider resistors can be configured.
A DC voltage is fed by way of a resistor to the base of
the common emitter amplifier.
As the level of the signal amplitude increases, the
negative DC voltage increases, decreasing the base
current.
The reduced base current, in turn, decreases the
collector current and lowers the circuit gain.
Squelch Circuit
A squelch circuit, or muting circuit, is found in most
communications receivers.
The squelch is used to keep the receiver audio turned
off until an RF signal appears at the receiver input.
In AM systems such as CB radios, the noise level is
high and can be very annoying.
Squelch circuits provide a means of keeping the audio
amplifier turned off during the time that noise is
received in the background and enabling it when an
RF signal appears at the input.
VHF Receiver
A typical VHF receiver is designed to receive two-way
aircraft communication between planes and airport
controllers.
They have a typical frequency range of 118 to 135
MHz.
Amplitude modulation is typical with these receivers.
VHF receivers are designed to use a combination of
discrete components and ICs.
Transceiver
Most two-way radio communication equipment is
packaged so that both transmitter and receiver are in a
unit known as a transceiver.