Journal of

Materials
Processing
Technology
ELSEVIER

Journal of Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-1 gO

Application of 2D F E M to chip formation in orthogonal cutting

E. Ceretti a, p. Fallb6hmer b,*, W. T. Wu c, T. Altan b
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
b ERC for Net Shape Manufacturing, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
c Scientific Forming Technologies Corporation, Columbus, Ohio, USA

Industrial Summary
This paper summarizes the results of an investigation where the FE code DEFORM 2D was applied to
simulate a plane strain cutting process. To perform the simulation with reasonable accuracy and to study
continuous and segmented chip formation it was necessary to modify the existing version of the code. Damage
criteria have been used for predicting when the material starts to separate at the initiation of cutting for
simulating segmented chip formation. For this purpose, special subroutines have been implemented and tested.
The influence of several parameters such as cutting speed, rake angle, and depth of cut has been studied.
Results of extensive FEM simulations and the comparison with experimental data are reported.

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

In cutting processes, the final part surface finish is

influenced by changes in tool geometry, chip flow,
temperature generation, heat flow and tool wear.
The understanding of these interactions during t h e
cutting process is a fundamental task. In fact, this
knowledge enables the tool makers to evaluate t h e
performance of the cutting tool design prior to
manufacturing and expensive field testing. It also
enables the users of cutting tools to evaluate t h e
effects of the working conditions on tool life and on
the quality of the final part.
The use of finite element codes has been proved to
be an effective technique for analyzing m a t e r i a l
flow in general and the cutting process in particular.
These methods are suited for analyzing large
elastic-plastic deformation problems including
temperature dependent material properties and
high strain rates. Attempts to apply Finite Element
techniques to machining have been made by many

*Corresponding author.
0924-0136/96/$15.00 1996 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved
PI10924-0136 (96) 02296-0

researchers. Most of these studies deal with a static

situation (steady state solution) and not with t h e
problem of chip formation and breakage. Some do
not consider effects of friction in the contact zone
between tool and material, neither effects of
temperature increase, nor effects of cutting speed [1].
Other models are able to consider the above defined
parameters but require the use of non-commercial, ad
hoc FE codes [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
The model proposed in this study uses t h e
commercial code DEFORM 2D to simulate t h e
cutting process. This is an Implicit Lagrangian Finite
Element code described in several
earlier
publications [11]. In the finite element model,
continuous chip formation is simulated by changing
the default remeshing procedure. The segmented
chip formation is simulated by deleting t h e
elements close to the tool tip that have been
subjected to high deformation and stress (this
requires a very dense mesh close to the tool tip). The
elements "separate" when a criterion, based on t h e
accumulated damage, is satisfied.
The use of a commercial FE code facilitates t h e
practical application of simulation to evaluate
various cutting conditions. Thus, in this study t h e

170

E.Cerettt et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology .59 (1996) 169-180

effect of parameters such as cutting speed, rake

angle, and depth of cut on the cutting process h a s
been studied. The computed cutting forces,
temperature, deformations and chip geometry h a v e
been compared with experimental data found in
literature [2, 12]. The obtained results are in good
agreement with experiments.

START

L~

Simulation

Yos

~- No
IExtraction of the keyword filt
2. THE FEM MODEL

To study the cutting process with DEFORM 2D i t

was necessary to modify the FE code. The remeshing
module has been changed for studying continuous
chip flow. A new module for simulating segmented
chip flow has been added also. In particular, t h e
fracture of the material can be predicted using a
damage criterion. When the critical damage value
is reached, the material is ready to crack and t h e
elements are removed from the workpiece mesh. A
major problem associated with this technique is t h e
loss of volume during the simulation. However,
when using small size elements in the fracture zone,
the loss of material can be neglected.
2.1 Customization of DEFORM 2D

To implement the module of deleting the elements

in DEFORM 2D it is necessary to change t h e
remeshing module. Remeshing is a feature used
when the mesh of the part is highly distorted and
the program is not able to find a convergent solution
[13]. A new less distorted mesh is created and all t h e
parameters like stresses, strains, damages are
updated into the new mesh. The customized
remeshing module is characterized by five main
parts (simulation, extraction of the keyword file,
erasing certain elements, smoothing the border,
remeshing), as the flow chart of Fig. 1 illustrates.
At each simulation step, the damage value is
calculated and the elements are deleted when t h e
critical damage value is reached. Also t h e
parameters describing the element connectivity
definition, the strain value, the damage value, and
the stress value are deleted.
Deleting of mesh elements often creates a very
rough border at the boundary of separation. The
remeshing module can fail in trying to remesh t h e
part by using this border, so it is necessary to create a
new smoothed border.
The smoothing of the border is triggered by using a
geometrical criterion. If the angle of the rough
border is considered too "small" or too "big", the

IYes
I Erase the elements I
Extraction and [
smoothing of the
border

I Modification of the
smoothing
coefficient

Remeshing

I
NI
IYes
Interpolation

I Modifications of the [
boundary conditions [
I

I Input preparation ]

I
Fig. 1: Flow chart of the modified DEFORM 2D
remeshing module.

smoothing has to be triggered. The program cuts out

the considered rough angle and adds some new
points. The drawback of this smoothing process is
the loss of material. Indeed, a sharp angle w i l l
become rounded.
The last step before restarting a new simulation
run is the modification of the boundary conditions.
The program first erases every inter-object boundary
condition between the workpiece and the cutting

E. Cere tti et al. / Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

tool, then a new updated

condition is generated.

inter-object boundary

2.2 Process Definition

171

cutting process. Approximations made here a l l o w e d

us to obtain reasonable results. However, the issue of
obtaining reliable material flow stress data needs
further investigation.
V

The cutting process is modeled as orthogonal w i t h

plane strain deformation, Fig. 2, and non-isothermal
while the simulation type is incremental (the step
increment is defined so to cut 1 ~-fcctwith 100 steps).
Two objects: the workpiece (Fig. 3) and the tool (Fig.
4) are defined. Their parameters are reported in
Table 1. The flow stress of the workpiece m a t e r i a l
(o) is assumed to be strain, strain rate and
temperature dependent. Since o values were not
available for large strains, in this range o is
assumed to remain independent of strain.

Workpiece

Model for the object:

L,

to

tl

l - -

Fig. 2: Schematic of orthogonal metal cutting: a

rake face angle, q clearance angle, f shear plane
angle, Vc chip velocity, V tool velocity [14]

Table 1: Features of the defined obects

Parameter

Tool
Plasnc

Rigid
1.200

Geometry

l-leighr=5rrtm

Rake angle a=30 ,

Width~20mm

Cl~ce

angle D=I0,

Tool Tip Radius r--O.lmm

Material

AISI 1045

High Speed Steel Tool ( H l l )

Number of elements

1500

500
.400

Thermal Prol>erties:
Thermal Condu~wty:

38 N/s/C

34 NIs/C

3.6 N/mm2/C

4 6 Nlmm2/C

0.75

0.45

l0 N/s/mm/C

I0 Nls/mm/C

Constant Friction:

m=0.5

m=05

Initial Temperature:

20C

20C

Heat Capacily:

Emissivily:
Interface Heat Transfer Coef.:

,000

The workpiece and the tool are characterized by

non-uniform mesh distributions, as illustrated in Fig.
3 and 4. Very small elements are required in t h e
contact area between tool and workpiece because of
the very large temperature gradients that w i l l
develop in this region and to minimize the loss of
volume during the simulation. Larger elements are
tolerable in the area of the workpiece and of t h e
tool not affected by the cutting process.
Fig. 5 shows the plastic properties (flow stress
versus strain for two strain rates in function of
temperature) of the workpiece material (AISI 1045).
Where the data are not available, i.e. for strain
larger than 0.7, constant values of the flow stress
have been used. Estimation of flow stress data under
real cutting conditions, at large strains and strain
rates and in function of temperature, is a major
problem for conducting reliable simulations of t h e

.000

,400

.800

12 0 0

1.11)00

2,000

xlO

X/R

Fig. 3: Initial workpiece mesh (X---20mrn, Y=5mm).

7,114

. 4.207
2-000

2.0gQ

11
2, M

I
2,297

I
2.387

I
XIO 1
a~llle

X/R

Fig. 4: Tool geometry and mesh (X and Y dimensions

are in ram).

172

E. Cerettz et aL / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

Table 2:
conditions.

11.400 xlo

-//

Experimental

and

simulation

TWorkpiece Material

AISI 1045

Tool

High Speed Steel Tool (H11)

Rake angle

ct = 30

Clearance Angle

0 = 10

Tool Radius

r = 0.1-0.5 mm

Undeformed Chip Thickness (tl)

t] = l m m

Cutting Velocity

v = l-2.5mnVs

Friction Factor

m = 0.5

Initial Temperature

20 C

fill L I ~
Ltl

J:l~*8'd
.0~

.ilO0

1,1100
11.400
STRAIN

31300

2
8.400 xlO

dk~

(Workpiece and Tool)

To 20.00

1
?.mo

0.9

0.8

0.7

._o
,',"

U.I &leo

0.4

o"

0.3
0.2

T. lONJe
lm

0.5

T- NS.m
T - 9N.Se

o.6

X Simulation
O Exp.Points

0.1

T . 1198.88

0.2

0,3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

Undeformed Chip Thickness tl (mm)

.ooo
.000

I
.800

I
1 .QOO

I
8.#00

I
~

I
4.0C0

STRAIN
200O

Fig. 5: The
flow stress curves at
various
temperatures (C) for AISI 1045 steel at 0.1/s and
100/s strain rate (for values of strain larger than test
data the flow stress is assumed to remain constant).

O
O

1800
Q.

cO

1600

= 1400
o
3
~

1200
1000
81111.

3. COMPARISON OF PREDICTIONS WITH EXPERIMENTS

To evaluate the cutting model, the experimental
data found in literature [2] are compared to t h e
results of the simulations using the same cutting
conditions (friction, workpiece material and tool
geometry). In these comparisons, the effect of
temperature is also considered.
The process parameters used in simulations and
experiments [2] are summarized in Table 2.
Fig.
6 gives the comparison between the computed and

" $1muhlSon L
-o--exp. ~ n t , /

21111
0
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

Undeformed Chip Thickness tl (mm)

Fig. 6: Comparison of simulation results w i t h

experimental data [2], cutting forces versus
undeformed chip thickness (a=30 , 0=10 , r=0.1rnm,
vc=lmm/s, tl=lrnm, m=0.5).

173

E.Ceretti et al. / Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

experimental results for cutOng forces and cutting

ratio, that is the ratio between the undeformed chip
thickness tl and the chip thickness t 2 [2]. The
agreement between experiments and simulations is
very good. The difference between the calculated
forces and the forces obtained in experiments is about
10%. This result is quite good if we consider all t h e
simplifying assumptions that have to be done in t h e
simulation model (friction condition, property of t h e
workpiece material, limited workhardening, strain
rate, and temperature effects) The distribution of
the effective strain obtained from the simulations is
also in good agreement with results given in
literature. In both cases the highest value of strain
is 1.6 and it is reached near the tool tip and t h e
tool's rake face.
The results obtained so far with the 2D FEM code
DEFORM seem to indicate that the implemented
model can simulate the orthogonal cutting process
and predict the reality with satisfactory accuracy

rate, maximum tool and chip temperature, and chip

geometry as illustrated in Fig. 7 thru 12. The values
presented in these figures refer to the maximum
values of strain rate and temperature. Thus, for a
certain position of the cutting tool (7mm), t h e
maximum value of the studied variable
is
considered. This maximum value is a u t o m a t i c a l l y
calculated by DEFORM.
A review of the results, presented in Fig. 7 thru 12,
indicate that with varying cutting speed:
The total cutting force remains almost constant.
It is possible to see a slight increase in t h e
cutting force as the cutting speed decreases, this
is due to the thermal softening of the workpiece
material (Fig. 7).
2000
1800

_=

1600 I
14O0
1200
L

1000

4. SIMULATION OF CONTINUOUS CHIP FLOW

Based on the limited assurance, obtained by

comparing simulation results with experimental
data given b y [2], the influence of cutting speed, tool
geometry, and depth of cut on the orthogonal cutting
process is investigated.
Extensive research in the area of chip curl
development, chip deformation and chip breaking
has been conducted at the University of Kentucky
[15]. In our case, the process simulated is orthogonal
cutting with continuous chip flow. That means t h a t
the workpiece material is deformed plastically by
the tool. As the tool advances, the chip is formed
and flows on the tool rake face without breaking.
The continuous flow of the chip on the tool is
determined by the workpiece material and by t h e
tool geometry. In particular, the AISI 1045 steel is a
ductile material and the experimental evidence, for
this material, shows a continuous chip flow. The
tool rake angle is an important parameter. In fact, i f
a segmented chip is preferred, a negative rake angle
of the tool is required.

==

800

600
400
200
0

---

Ftot v2.5 1
Ftot v250 ]
Ftot v2500 t

Tool Path (mm)

Fig. 7: Cutting Forces at different cutting speeds

(X0=20mm, a = 30 , 0 = 10 , r=0.1mm, t1=1 mm and
m=0.5).
18000

,/7

16OOO
v

14000

jJ

ec 12000

"

4OOO

,I

4.1 Influence of Cutting Speed

aooo

J
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Cutting speed (ram/s)

The influence of three cutting speeds was

evaluated, namely vc = 2.5, 250, 2500mm/s. The
results are discussed in terms of cutting forces,
maximum effective strain, maximum effective strain

Fig. 8: Maximum Effective Strain Rate after a tool

path of 7 .iun at different cutting speed, (X0= 20mm,
a = 30, 0 = 10, r=0.1mm, t1=1 mm and m=0.5).

174

E,Cerettt el al, / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

The maximum effective strain remains almost

constant,
The maximum effective strain rate increases
with increasing cutting speed, as expected (Fig.
8).
The maximum temperatures of chip and tool are
increasing with increasing cutting speed. In fact
the energy required for cutting increases (Fig. 9).

chip curling as the cutting speed increases,

which results in a decrease in the contact length
between tool and chip. This is due to the
increase of temperature which affects the
deformation and encourages the curling of the
chip (Fig. 10, 11 and 12).

Fig.
i workpiece
13 nshows and
the
t intemperature
the
h tool. e distribution

~0o-~

The shape of the mesh presents an increase in

800

7.00

800
7O0

I #

t000

SO0

1500

2000

2500

~o.oo

~,oo

~zJoo

Cutting speed (minis)

Fig. 9: Maximum Chip and Tool Temperature after

a tool path of 7ram at different cutting speed, (X0=
20ram, a = 30, 0 = 10, r=O.tmm, t~=l mm and m=0.5),

g,00

&OO

E.O0

7.C0

7.00

(n

~oo

$~

e.oo

5,00

QL I I I I ~ WT]J~LII
I . _
10.00

~1,(~

12.00

;;_.=__

~,oo

~sm

~uo

Fig. 11: Chip geometry after a tool path of 7 . ~ - n

(X0= 20mm, a = 30, 0 = 10, r=O.lmm, v~=250mm/s,
t1=1 mm and m=0.5)

9,00

j ~ ~ j ,'~,',i~ ~ ; . . . .

~,oo
X-A)dlt

4,o0

i-'i-2;V'''J

13,00

14,0llt

111,aO

1tO0

XoAx~I

Fig. 10: Chip geometry after a tool path of 7 .~n

(X0= 20mm, a = 30, 0 = 10, r=O.lmm, v~=2.Smm/s,
t1=1 mm and m=0.5),

10.K)

11,(~

12.00

13.a0

14,0D

lf~O0

1~.0~

X-ax~

Fig. 12: Chip geometry after a tool path of 7 ~ n ~

(X0= 20ram, a = 30, 0 = 10, r=O.lmm, v,=2500mm/s,
t1=1 mm and m=0.5).

E. Ceretti et al, / Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

4.2 Influence of Tool Geometry

To investigate the influence of tool geometry,
three simulations were performed with rake angles
of a=-5 , 10 a n d 30 .
A review of the results, presented in Fig. 14 thru
17, illustrates that:

The total cutting force decreases with increasing

tool rake angle, (Fig. 14).
The m a x i m u m temperature of the chip decreases
with increasing tool rake angle while the tool
temperature rises with increasing tool rake
angle (Fig. 15).

The chip curls more as the tool rake angle

increases. This results in a decrease in chip
thickness (Fig. 11, 16 and 17).
All the above cited trends agree q u a l i t a t i v e l y
with experimental observations [16].

4.3 Influence of the Depth of Cut

The effect of depth of cut was evaluated by
simulating the process with cuts of t~ = 0.5ram and
t~=lmm.
800

W
m#l

1Q8.01

175

700

144.01

lbo

6OO

500

O.
700

I~ 3411.13
, = 28Jr/'2

4- ioJ~8

E 400
E 300
E
X

200

100
0
-10

-6

10

15

20

25

30

36

TOOl Rake Angle ( )

3.00

10.00

i
11.00

[
12.00

r
1'tO0

I
14.(~

T
1S.00

I
llLQO

X-A.~

Fig. 15: Maximum Chip and Tool Temperatures after

a tool path of 7mm at different rake angles (X0=
20mm, 0=10 , r=0.1mm, Vc=250mm/s, t1=1 m_m,m=0.5)

Fig. 13: Temperature distribution after a tool p a t h

of 7mm (X0=20mm, a=30 , 0=10 , r=0.1mm,
vc=250mm/s, t1=1 mm, m=0.5).

g nn

8.00

2000

.......................................................................................................................................................

T.O0

1800
1800
m

~'1400

e.l~

~1200

~1000
S.~

800
o

600

i--

400
200

...........

..8 I

4.00

Ftot a 10
Ftot a30

lO.0O

11.oo

I:Z~O

1~.00

14.a0

limbo

1LO0

X.Jum

Fig. 14: Cutting Forces at different rake angles

(X0=20mm, 0=10 , r=0.1mm, vc=250mm/s , t1=1 mm,

m=0.5).

Fig. 16: Chip geometry after a tool path of 7 r r ~

(X0= 20mm, a=-5 , 0=10 , v:=250mm/s, r= 0.1mm, t1=1
mm, m=0.5)

176

E. Ceretti et al. /Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

The results indicated that:

The total cutting force almost doubled when t h e
depth of cut is doubled from 0.5 to I mm (Fig. 18).
The maximum temperatures of chip and tool
increase with increasing depth of cut. (Fig. 19).
The shape of the mesh presents a large
variation in chip curling as the depth of cut
decreases. Of course, there is an increase in t h e
contact length between tool and chip as well
when the depth of cut increases (Fig. 11 and 20).

5. SIMULATION O F SEGMENTED C H I P FLOW

One of the important aspects of process simulation

is the capability to predict material flow in
orthogonal cutting with discontinuous chip flow. In
this case the chip is segmented and, as the tool
advances, it breaks. In order to simulate this process
the modified version of DEFORM 2D is used. The
elements of the mesh are deleted when the value of
damage has reached a critical value.

g.nn

800
700
g.O0

6O0

--e--o~t)
~ l b o

7.00

~ 4110,
E~O,
E
"~ 200

m.O0

IO0
5.00

G4

0.9
Depth of cut (mm)

4.m

3.00
10.00

11.00

12J~0

13.0D

1,tL~O

1TM

llL~

X-AXll

Fig. 19: Maximum Chip and Tool Temperatures after

a tool path of 7turn at different depths of cut (X0=
20mm, a=30 , 0=10 , vc=250mra/s, r=0.5mm, m=0.5)

Fig. 17: Chip geometry after a tool path of 7 r~n

(X0= 20ram, a=10 , 0=10 , vc=250mrn/s, r=0.1mm, t1=1
ram, m=0.5)
8.00

2000
Ftot tO.5
1800

............ Ftot tl

1600

7.00

~ ' 1400

=--12oo

>-

lOOO
800
S.00
600
400
4.00

200

3
4
Tool Path (mrn)

3.00
10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

1LO0

11LO0

X-AXlS

Fig. 18: Cutting Forces at different depths of cut

(X0=20mm, a=30 , 0=10 , vc=250mm/s, r=0.5mm,
m=0.5).

Fig. 20: Chip geometry after a tool path of 7 m m (

Xo= 20ram, a=30 , 0=10 , v~=250mm/s, r=O.Smm,
t]=0.5mm, m=0.5)

177

E.Cere~ et al. / Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

The sequences presented in Fig. 21 and 22 illustrate

two different stages in the simulation of segmented
chip flow, after a tool path of 1.2ram, and ~nm
respectively. The initial tool position is X0=20mm.
As seen in these figures, the fracture is starting in

900

the area of the tool tip and propagates into the chip
(Fig. 21). Then, as the tool advances, the chip is
released from the workpiece and a new crack is
formed (Fig. 22).
The variation of the cutting force is presented in
Fig. 23. It is possible to notice that when the chip is
separated from the workpiece the value of the force
suddenly drops. This is due to a loss of contact
between chip and tool rake face.

800

2000
1800

700

1600
"~'1400

~'

~v1200

8+(0

o 1000
00
5.(0

800

600
400

4.1111

200
3.(:0

16.00

17.03

18.00

10.00

~nn

21.00

22.e'n

X-Axis

Fig. 21: Mesh and deformation after a tool path of

1.2mm (X0= 20mm, a = 30 , c = 10 , r=0.1mm,
v=250mm/s, t1=1 mm and m=0.5)

Ftot
0

3
4
Tool Path (mm)

"7

Fig. 23: The cutting force after a tool path of 2mm,

(X0= 20mm, a=30 , 0=10 , vc=250mm/s, r=0.1mm,
tt=0.5mm, m=0.5).
The results obtained with the simulation of
segmented chip flow agree qualitatively with the
results found in literature [12]. However, more work
and extensive evaluation are necessary to fully
ascertain the validity of this model.

900

8.00

7.00

>-

6. ABRASIVE TOOL WEAR MODEL

8.00

5.00

4.00

3.00
IL nn

17.00

18.00

19.00

20.00

21.00

22.00

X-Axis

Fig. 22: Mesh and deformation after a tool path of

2ram (X0= 20ram, a=30 , 0=10 , vc=250mm/s,
r=0.1mm, tl=0.5mrn, m=0.5)

The results obtained from the simulations

described above have been used to develop a
preliminary wear model. This model, used earlier in
forging applications [17], is able to estimate t h e
abrasive and adhesive wear profile for a tool. The
software required to produce the wear profiles
retrieves data from the deform data base and
experimental wear coefficients from experiments.
For the study of cutting only abrasive wear is
considered. The following wear model has been
suggested in literature for tool wear prediction [18].
This model was found to give reasonable results in
estimating die wear in extrusion forging of engine

E.Ceretti et al. / Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

178

valves [17]. Abrasive wear is given by:

ZAB = K 1 P al vbl o a t

Hcd

where: ZA, = abrasive wear depth,

K = coefficient determined by experiments,
p = local pressure,
V = local sliding velocity,
At = incremental time interval,
He = tool hardness,
a~, b~, cl = experimental constants.
For prediction of wear, the exponent values a~ and
b~ are commonly taken to be equal to unity, while c~ =
2 (for steel) [17]. The coefficient KI simply scales t h e
magnitudes of the predicted wear profiles. It is
found experimentally by comparing the predicted
wear profiles to the actual measured wear profiles.
The wear profiles presented in Fig. 24 and 25 are
obtained by using the parameters K~= 100 , a1=1,
b1=1, c1=2, describing the effects of pressure (al),
velocity (b~), and hardness (q), on tool wear. The
final profile (magnitude) of the tool wear is of
course affected by the magnitude of these values.
Under normal circumstances, if experimental wear
data were available, the procedure would be to
modify these parameters in order to match

predicted wear with experimental data. Because

data on tool crater wear are not available at this
stage of our study, it was impossible to find t h e
correct values of these constants. Thus, the results
presented in Fig. 24 and 25 represent the wear
profile only qualitatively. Since the tool p a t h
during the simulation is 7mm, the actual value of
the crater wear can not be predicted. In fact, it is not
possible to compare the results with experimental
evidence since the tool path is far less than w h a t
would be necessary to obtain actual wear. However,
the shape of "wear" seen in Fig. 24 and 25 gives a
qualitative indication of the crater wear under
different cutting conditions.
A review of the graphs presented in Fig. 24 and 25
illustrates that:

The abrasive tool wear profile increases w i t h

increasing cutting speed (Fig. 24),
The maximum value of the tool wear and t h e
length of the worn area increase with increasing
tool rake angle (Fig. 25).

7. CONCLUSIONS

Two finite element models have been presented for

simulation of orthogonal cutting with (a) continuous
and (b) segmented chip flow. The models have been
developed in an effort to understand the mechanics
of the cutting process and to identify how critical

v 2.5 mm/s

a 10

T o o l R a k e F a c e (mm)

4,00

T o o l R a k e F a c e (rnm)

4,20

4.40

4.60

4.80

5.00
~

5.20

4,00

4.20

0,00 [

440

4,60

480

5.00

5.20

5.60

5.80

600

5.60

5,80

6.00
i

~ 0.10

0.3O

5.40
/

a 0.30

< 040
0.50.1

11.50
a -5

v 250 mm/s

T o o l R a k e F a c e (ram)

T o o l R a k e F a o e (mm)

4.OO
(100

420

440

4,60

4.80

5.00
~

52.0

4,00

4,20

440
i

4.60
i

4,80
|

5.00
|

52.0
i

5,40
~

J
0.10.

~ 0.10,

~" 0.20.

0.30.

"~ 6.30

< ~4o 1
0.50.

Fig. 24: Qualitative

representation of abrasive
crater wear for different cutting speeds (X0= 20rmn,
a=30 , 0=10 , vc=2.5-250mm/s, r=0.1mm, tl=0.5mm,

m=0.5).

ns0 J

Fig. 25: Qualitative

representation of abrasive
crater wear for two rake angles (X0= 20mm,
a=10/-5 , 0=10 , vc=250mm/s, r=0.1mm, tl=0.5mm,
m=0.5)

E. Ceretti et al. /Journal o f MateMals Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

cutting parameters effect the chip flow, cutting

forces, temperatures and possible tool wear.
The continuous chip flow model refers to a chip
that is deformed plastically. It is suitable for t h e
simulation of cutting ductile materials and for a l l
cutting conditions under which the chip does not
break. Parameters such as cutting speed, tool rake
angle, and depth of cut have been investigated.
Their influence on cutting forces, tool and chip
temperature, and tool wear is discussed.
The results for the continuous chip flow model
presented in this paper indicate that:

The simulation of cutting by FE code is possible.

In fact, the prediction of cutting forces is w i t h i n
acceptable range of accuracy, namely 10%.
Additional comparisons with experiments are
planned to evaluate the validity of the FEM
model under various cutting conditions.
The results are in good agreement w i t h
experiments in terms of estimating chip
geometry, tool workpiece contact length and
chip and tool temperatures.
It is possible to study the influence of cutting
parameters upon cutting forces and h e a t
generation. This capability could be useful in
designing cutting tools (tool maker) or in
defining process variables (user).
The output of the FE code (pressure at the toolworkpiece interface, temperature, cutting speed)
may be used to predict abrasive wear on cutting
tools. Initial estimates are very preliminary
and qualitative and more work is necessary to
ascertain this possibility. However, the results
appear to indicate that in the near future it m a y
be possible to estimate tool wear by modelling,
in addition to conducting tool wear tests.

The segmented chip flow model is based on

deleting certain elements to simulate the chip
breakage. Several damage criteria have been tested
[1]. The criteria that gave the better results are a
combination of traditional
damage criteria
(Cockroft or McClintock) with a stress based or a
geometric criterion.
The results for the segmented chip flow model
presented in this paper indicate that:

The predictions made by the model, w i t h

deleted elements, can be can be considered to be
reasonably accurate since the obtained results
match the results found in literature [12],
With this model different cutting conditions,
affecting the generation of different chip
geometries, can be simulated. Thus, a d d i t i o n a l
comparisons with experiments are necessary.

179

In order to increase the accuracy of the models

discussed here, the following improvements are
recommended:
1. Collect more experimental data on t h e
workpiece flow stress, on its dependence on strain
rate and temperature, on the thermal properties of
the tool and the workpiece materials, and on tool
wear in order to "tune" the FE abrasive wear model.
In fact, the final value of the cutting force is also
strongly influenced by these data.
2. The definition of the critical damage value, as a
trigger for deleting the elements, is very important
because the material can be released too s o ~ or too
late. Several tests have to be done for "refining" t h e
formulation of the critical damage value.

8. REFERENCES
[1] Ceretti, E., FaUb6hmer, P., Wu, W.T., Altan, T.
(1995). Simulation of High Speed Milling:
Application of 2D FEM to Chip Formation in
Orthogonal Cutting, Report No. ERC/NSMD-95-42, ERC for Net ShaDe Manufacturinm
The Ohio State University
[2] Iwata, K., Osakada, K., & Terasaka Y., (1984).
Process Modeling of Orthogonal Cutting by
the Rigid-Plastic Finite Element Method,
Trans. of the ASME, I. of En~ineerin~ for
Industry. vol. 106, pp. 132-138.
[3] Strenkowski, J. S., Carroll, J. T., (1985) A finite
element model of orthogonal metal cutting,
Trans.of the ASME. I. of Engineering for
Industry, vol. 107, pp. 349-354.
[4] Hashemi, J., Chou, P. C., & Meir, G., (1988).
Finite element simulation of segmented
chipping
in high
speed machining.
Advanced Machining Technology MR88-120,
pp. 1-13.
[5] Heinstein, M., Yang, H. Y. T., Shih, J. M., (1989).
Adaptive 2D finite element simulation of
metal forming processes, Int. [ou. for
Numerical Methods in En~neerin~, vol 28.
[6] Shih, A. J. M., Chandrasekar, S., & Yang, H. T.
Y. (1990). Finite Element simulation of
metal cutting process with strain rate and
temperature effects, Trans. of the ASME.
Fundamental issues in Machininm vol. 43,
pp. 11-24.
[7] Sekhon, G. S., Chenot, J. L., (1992) Some
simulation experiments in orthogonal
cutting, Numerical Methods in Ind. Formin E
Processes, pp. 901-906.
.

1gO

E. Ceretti et al. / Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 59 (1996) 169-180

[8] Marusich, T. D., Ortiz, M. (1994). Modeling and

simulation of high speed machining, Int. lou.

Automated Mesh Generation for Forming

Simulation. Report No. ERC/NSM-B-90-49.
ERC for Net Shave Manufacturin. The
Ohio State University
[14] Shaw, M. C.., (1989). Metal Cutting Principles.
New York, Oxford Science Publications.
[15] Jawahir, I.S., Zhang, J.P. (1995). An Analysis of
Chip Curl Development, Chip Deformation
and Chip
Breaking in Orthogonal
Machining. Transactions of NAMRI/SME,
Vol. 23, pp. 109-114
[16] Shaw, M. C.., Vyas, A. (1993). Chip formation
in the machining of hardened steel, Annals
of the CIRP vol. 42, pp. 29-33.
[17] Painter, B., Shivpuri, R., Altan, T., (1995)
Computer-aided
techniques
for
the
prediction and measurement od die wear
during hot-forging of automotive exhaust
valves, ERC Report NO.ERC/NSM-B-95-06.
[18] Felder, E., Montagut, J. L., (1980).Friction and
wear during hot forging of steels. Tribology
International. pp. 61-68.
v

[9] Marusich, T. D., Ortiz, M. (1995). Finite element

simulation of high speed machining,
NUMIFORM "95, (Simulation of Materials
Processing:
Theory,
Methods
&
Applications) Shen&Dawson, eds., pp. 101108.
[10] Lin, Z.C., & Liu, C.C. (1996). Analysis of
Orthogonal Finish
Machining
Using
Tungsten Carbide and Diamond Tools of
Different Heat Transfer Coefficients. Int. I.
Mach. Tools Manufact., Vol. 36, No. 1, pp.
73-88
[11] DEFORM, Scientific Forming Technologies
Corporation. (1993), Metal Forming FEM
code. Columbus, OH.
[12] Marusich, T. D., Ortiz, M. (1995). A Parametric
Finite element study of orthogonal h i g h
speed machining, I. Eng. for Ind.
[13] Wu, W.T., Oh, S.I., Miller, R.A. (1990). AMG: